Abstract
Pathogenic diseases impose selection pressures on the social behaviour of host populations. In humans (Homo sapiens), many psychological phenomena appear to serve an antipathogen defence function. One broad implication is the existence of cross-cultural differences in human cognition and behaviour contingent upon the relative presence of pathogens in the local ecology. We focus specifically on one fundamental cultural variable: differences in individualistic versus collectivist values. We suggest that specific behavioural manifestations of collectivism (e.g. ethnocentrism, conformity) can inhibit the transmission of pathogens; and so we hypothesize that collectivism (compared with individualism) will more often characterize cultures in regions that have historically had higher prevalence of pathogens. Drawing on epidemiological data and the findings of worldwide cross-national surveys of individualism/collectivism, our results support this hypothesis: the regional prevalence of pathogens has a strong positive correlation with cultural indicators of collectivism and a strong negative correlation with individualism. The correlations remain significant even when controlling for potential confounding variables. These results help to explain the origin of a paradigmatic cross-cultural difference, and reveal previously undocumented consequences of pathogenic diseases on the variable nature of human societies.
References
-
Anderson R.M& May R.M Infectious diseases of humans: dynamics and control. 1991 Oxford, UK:Oxford University Press. Google Scholar -
Bond R& Smith P.B . 1996 Culture and conformity: a meta-analysis of studies using Asch's (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Psychol. Bull. 119, 111–137.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.111. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Bouchard T.J& McGue M . 2003 Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences. J. Neurobiol. 54, 4–45.doi:10.1002/neu.10160. . Crossref, PubMed, Google Scholar -
Cohen D . 2001 Cultural variation: considerations and implications. Psychol. Bull. 127, 451–471.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.4.451. . Crossref, PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Cukur C.S, De Gusman M.R.T& Carlo G . 2004 Religiosity, values, and horizontal and vertical individual-collectivism: a study of Turkey, the United States, and The Phillipines. J. Soc. Psychol. 144, 613–634.doi:10.3200/SOCP.144.6.613-634. . Crossref, PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Dobson A.P& Carper E.R . 1996 Infectious diseases and human population history. BioScience. 46, 115–126.doi:10.2307/1312814. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Ewald P.W Evolution of infectious disease. 1994 New York, NY:Oxford University Press. Google Scholar -
Faulkner J, Schaller M, Park J.H& Duncan L.A . 2004 Evolved disease-avoidance mechanisms and contemporary xenophobic attitudes. Group Proc. Intergroup Relat. 7, 333–353.doi:10.1177/1368430204046142. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Freeland W.J . 1976 Pathogens and the evolution of primate sociality. Biotropica. 8, 12–24.doi:10.2307/2387816. . Crossref, Google Scholar -
Gangestad S.W& Buss D.M . 1993 Pathogen prevalence and human mate preferences. Ethol. Sociobiol. 14, 89–96.doi:10.1016/0162-3095(93)90009-7. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Gangestad S.W, Haselton M.G& Buss D.M . 2006 Evolutionary foundations of cultural variation: evoked culture and mate preferences. Psychol. Inq. 17, 75–95.doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1702_1. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Gelfand M.J, Bhawuk D.P.S, Nishii L.H& Bechtold D.J Individualism and collectivism. Culture, leadership, and organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 societies, House R.J, Hanges P.J, Javidan M, Dorfman P.W& Gupta V . 2004pp. 437–512. Eds. Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage Publications. Google Scholar -
Georgas J, 2001 Functional relationships in the nuclear and extended family: a 16-culture study. Int. J. Psychol. 36, 289–300.doi:10.1080/00207590143000045. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Guernier V, Hochberg M.E& Guégan J . 2004 Ecology drives the worldwide distribution of human diseases. PLoS Biol. 2, 0740–0746.doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020141. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Gupta V& Hanges P.J Regional and climate clustering of societal cultures. Culture, leadership, and organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 societies, House R.J, Hanges P.J, Javidan M, Dorfman P.W& Gupta V . 2004pp. 178–218. Eds. Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage Publications. Google Scholar -
Hanssen S.A, Hasselquist D, Folstad I& Erikstad K.E . 2004 Costs of immunity: immune responsiveness reduces survival in a vertebrate. Proc. R. Soc. B. 271, 925–930.doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2678. . Link, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Hofstede G Culture's consequences. Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations 2nd edn. 2001 Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage Publications. Google Scholar -
Hofstede G& McCrae R.R . 2004 Personality and culture revisited: linking traits and dimensions of culture. Cross Cult. Res. 38, 52–88.doi:10.1177/1069397103259443. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Kashima E.S& Kashima Y . 1998 Culture and language: the case of cultural dimensions and personal pronoun use. J. Cross Cult. Psychol. 29, 461–486.doi:10.1177/0022022198293005. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Kashima Y& Kashima E.S . 2003 Individualism, GNP, climate, and pronoun drop. Is individualism determined by affluence and climate, or does language use play a role?. J. Cross Cult. Psychol. 34, 125–134.doi:10.1177/0022022102239159. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Loehle C . 1995 Social barriers to pathogen transmission in wild animal populations. Ecology. 76, 326–335.doi:10.2307/1941192. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Low B.S . 1990 Marriage systems and pathogen stress in human societies. Am. Zool. 30, 325–339. Crossref, Google Scholar -
Møller A.P, Dufva R& Allander K . 1993 Parasites and the evolution of host social behaviour. Adv. Study Behav. 22, 65–102. Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
National Geographic Society Atlas of the world. 8th edn. 2005 Washington, DC:National Geographic Society. Google Scholar
-
Navarrete C.D& Fessler D.M.T . 2006 Disease avoidance and ethnocentrism: the effects of disease vulnerability and disgust sensitivity on intergroup attitudes. Evol. Hum. Behav. 27, 270–282.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.12.001. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Navarrete C.D, Fessler D.M.T& Eng S.J . 2007 Elevated ethnocentrism in the first trimester of pregnancy. Evol. Hum. Behav. 28, 60–65.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.06.002. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Oishi S, Schimmack U, Diener E& Suh E.M . 1998 The measurement of values and individualism–collectivism. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 24, 1177–1189.doi:10.1177/01461672982411005. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Park J.H, Schaller M& Crandall C.S . 2007 Pathogen-avoidance mechanisms and the stigmatization of obese people. Evol. Hum. Behav. 28, 410–414.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.05.008. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Quinlan R.J . 2007 Human parental effort and environmental risk. Proc. R. Soc. B. 274, 121–125.doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3690. . Link, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Richerson P.J& Boyd R Not by genes alone: how culture transformed human evolution. 2005 Chicago, IL:University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar -
Rodenwaldt E& Jusatz H.J World-atlas of epidemic diseases. 1952–1961 Hamburg, Germany:Falk-Verlag. Google Scholar -
Sachs J& Malaney P . 2002 The economic and social burden of malaria. Nature. 415, 680–685.doi:10.1038/415680a. . Crossref, PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Sagiv L& Schwartz S.H . 1995 Value priorities and readiness for out-group contact. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 69, 437–448.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.3.437. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Schaller M& Duncan L.A The behavioral immune system: its evolution and social psychological implications. Evolution and the social mind, Forgas J.P, Haselton M.G& von Hippel W . 2007pp. 293–307. Eds. New York, NY:Psychology Press. Google Scholar -
Schaller M& Murray D.R Pathogens, personality, and culture: disease prevalence predicts worldwide variability in sociosexuality, extraversion, and openness to experience. J. Pers. Soc. Psych (In press.). Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Schwartz S.H Mapping and interpreting cultural differences around the world. Comparing cultures: dimensions of culture in a comparative perspective, Vinkin H, Soeters J& Ester P . 2004pp. 43–73. Eds. Leiden, The Netherlands:Brill. Google Scholar -
Sherman P.W& Billing J . 1999 Darwinian gastronomy: why we use spices. BioScience. 49, 453–463.doi:10.2307/1313553. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Simmons J.S, Whayne T.F, Anderson G.W& Horack H.M Global epidemiology. 1944 Philadelphia, PA:J. B. Lippincott. Google Scholar -
Suh E, Diener E, Oishi S& Triandis H.C . 1998 The shifting basis of life satisfaction judgments across cultures: emotions versus norms. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 74, 482–493.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.482. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Thornhill R& Fincher C.L . 2007 What is the role of life history and attachment for political values?. Evol. Hum. Behav. 28, 215–222.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.01.005. . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Wolfe N.D, Dunavan C.P& Diamond J . 2007 Origins of major human infectious diseases. Nature. 447, 279–283.doi:10.1038/nature05775. . Crossref, PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar -
Zuk M& Stoehr A.M . 2002 Immune defense and host life history. Am. Nat. 160, S9–S22.doi:10.1086/342131. . Crossref, PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar