A Neptune-mass exoplanet in close orbit around a very low-mass star challenges formation models
Editor’s summary
Planets form in protoplanetary disks of gas and dust around young stars that are undergoing their own formation process. The amount of material in the disk determines how big the planets can grow. Stefánsson et al. observed a nearby low-mass star using near-infrared spectroscopy. They detected Doppler shifts due to an orbiting exoplanet of at least 13 Earth masses, which is almost the mass of Neptune. Theoretical models do not predict the formation of such a massive planet around a low-mass star (see the Perspective by Masset). The authors used simulations to show that its presence could be explained if the protoplanetary disk were 10 times more massive than expected for the host star. —Keith T. Smith
Abstract
Theories of planet formation predict that low-mass stars should rarely host exoplanets with masses exceeding that of Neptune. We used radial velocity observations to detect a Neptune-mass exoplanet orbiting LHS 3154, a star that is nine times less massive than the Sun. The exoplanet’s orbital period is 3.7 days, and its minimum mass is 13.2 Earth masses. We used simulations to show that the high planet-to-star mass ratio (>3.5 × 10−4) is not an expected outcome of either the core accretion or gravitational instability theories of planet formation. In the core-accretion simulations, we show that close-in Neptune-mass planets are only formed if the dust mass of the protoplanetary disk is an order of magnitude greater than typically observed around very low-mass stars.
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Science
Volume 382 | Issue 6674
1 December 2023
1 December 2023
Copyright
Copyright © 2023 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.
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Received: 17 October 2022
Accepted: 9 October 2023
Published in print: 1 December 2023
Acknowledgments
We thank the three anonymous referees for their helpful comments and suggestions, which improved the quality of this paper. Computations were performed at the Pennsylvania State University’s Institute for Computational and Data Sciences (ICDS). The Hobby-Eberly Telescope (HET) is a joint project of the University of Texas at Austin, the Pennsylvania State University, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, and Georg-August-Universität Göttingen. The HET is named in honor of its principal benefactors, William P. Hobby and Robert E. Eberly. The Low Resolution Spectrograph 2 (LRS2) was developed and funded by the University of Texas at Austin McDonald Observatory and Department of Astronomy and by Pennsylvania State University. We thank the Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP) and the Institut für Astrophysik Göttingen (IAG) for their contributions to the construction of the integral field units.
Funding: This work was partially supported by funding from the Center for Exoplanets and Habitable Worlds, which is supported by the Pennsylvania State University, the Eberly College of Science, and the Pennsylvania Space Grant Consortium. G.S. acknowledges support provided by NASA through the NASA Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51519.001-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, for NASA under contract NAS5-26555. Y.M. acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement 101088557, N-GINE). C.I.C. acknowledges support through an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Goddard Space Flight Center administered by Oak Ridge Associated Universities through a contract with NASA. We acknowledge support from NSF grants AST-1006676 (S.M., C.F.B., and L.R), AST-1126413 (S.M., C.F.B., L.R., R.C.T., A.R., G.S., and P.R.), AST-1310885 (S.M. and C.F.B), AST-1310875 (S.D, A.J.M, and C.F.), AST-2108493 (P.R.), AST-2108512 (S.M. and M.D.), AST-2108569 (R.C.T.), AST-2108801 (W.D.C. and M.E.), the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI; NNA09DA76A) (S.M.), and PSARC (S.M.). We acknowledge support from the Heising-Simons Foundation through grant 2017-0494 (M.E.) and 2019-1177 (E.B.F.). S.H. acknowledges support for work performed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, which was under a contract with NASA (80NM0018D0004). S.M., P.R., and G.S. performed work as part of NASA’s CHAMPs team, supported by NASA under grant 80NSSC23K1399 issued through the Interdisciplinary Consortia for Astrobiology Research (ICAR) program.
Author contributions: G.S. analyzed the RVs and host star properties, interpreted the results, and led the manuscript writing. S.M. is principal investigator of the HPF instrument, provided oversight, and assisted with analysis and interpretation. Y.M. led the planet-formation simulations, with G.S. providing assistance. P.R. provided leadership in obtaining the HPF observations and worked with G.S. and S.M. on the interpretation of the result. M.D. contributed to the RV analysis and revision of the manuscript. C.I.C. and B.P.B. provided the Gaia upper mass limit constraints and investigated the false-positive scenarios. J.N.W. provided interpretation and revision of the manuscript. G.Z., S.K., G.J.H., and G.S. reduced and interpreted the LRS2 spectra. B.Z. and E.B.F. contributed to the interpretation of the planet formation simulations. R.H. aided with the TESS photometric analysis. J.P.N., C.F.B., A.R., and R.C.T. extracted the HPF spectra and performed wavelength calibration, working with S.D., A.J.M., and C.F. to determine the wavelength solution for the HPF spectra. W.D.C. and M.E. led HPF observing programs used to discover the planet. G.S., S.M., P.R., J.P.N., C.F.B., R.C.T., A.R., S.H., S.K., F.H., A.S.J.L., A.M., L.R., C.S., and J.T.W. contributed to the design, monitoring, and execution of the HPF Survey, during which these observations were carried out. All authors contributed to the interpretation of the result.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Data and materials availability: The HPF radial velocities and activity indicators are provided as machine-readable files in data S1 and data S2, respectively. The 137 HPF spectra are available on Zenodo (47). The HPF-SERVAL code used to extract the RVs is available at https://github.com/gummiks/hpfserval_lhs3154 and is archived in the same Zenodo repository (47). The planet formation simulation code is available at https://github.com/AstroYamila-Team/PlanetFormation_SmallStars and is also archived on Zenodo (48).
License information: Copyright © 2023 the authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original US government works. https://www.science.org/about/science-licenses-journal-article-reuse
Authors
Funding Information
National Science Foundation: AST-1006676
National Science Foundation: AST-1126413
National Science Foundation: AST-1310885
National Science Foundation: AST-1310875
National Science Foundation: AST-2108493
National Science Foundation: AST-2108512
National Science Foundation: AST-2108569
National Science Foundation: AST-2108801
NASA Astrobiology Institute: NNA09DA76A
Heising-Simons Foundation: 2017-0494
Heising-Simons Foundation: 2019-1177
Space Telescope Science Institute: HST-HF2-51519.001-A
National Aeronautics and Space Administration: 80NM0018D0004
National Aeronautics and Space Administration: 80NSSC18K1114
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Explanation of planet and star formation that goes beyond the dust and gas in protoplanetary disks
An explanation of planet and star formation that goes beyond the dust and gas in protoplanetary disks can be found in "The 5th Dimension and its Implications for the String Theory, Conservation of Energy and Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle" which was published in the journal "IPI Letters" on Oct. 27, 2023.
The explanation is in sections 3 and 4 ("Vector-Tensor-Scalar Geometry" and "Bosons of the Nuclear Forces and Planetary/Black-Hole Formation"). It was inspired by a paper of Albert Einstein's which asked if gravitation plays a role in formation of elementary particles, and the article in IPI Letters outlines a fresh perspective on the Higgs boson and Higgs field (Einstein's paper offers a new way of thinking about the nuclear forces discovered 15 or 20 years after he wrote). The piece in IPI includes a diagram - so it's necessary to give a link to it (below).
https://doi.org/10.59973/ipil.29