The Social Construction of Sex Trafficking: Ideology and Institutionalization of a Moral Crusade
Abstract
The issue of sex trafficking has become increasingly politicized in recent years due to the efforts of an influential moral crusade. This article examines the social construction of sex trafficking (and prostitution more generally) in the discourse of leading activists and organizations within the crusade, and concludes that the central claims are problematic, unsubstantiated, or demonstrably false. The analysis documents the increasing endorsement and institutionalization of crusade ideology in U.S. government policy and practice.
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References
The article examines developments in the United States, including American foreign policy, and does not examine the parallel debate on the international stage. See Jo Doezema, “Now You See Her, Now You Don't: Sex Workers at the UN Trafficking Protocol Negotiations,” Social and Legal Studies 14 (2005): 61-89, and Barbara Sullivan, “ Trafficking in Women: Feminism and New International Law,” International Feminist Journal of Politics 5 (2003): 67-91.
Malcolm Spector and John Kitsuse, “ Social Problems: A Re-Formulation,” Social Problems 21 (1973): 146.
Howard Becker, Outsiders (New York: Free Press, 1963); Stanley Cohen, Folk Devils and Moral Panics (New York: St. Martin's, 1972); and Joseph Gusfield, Symbolic Crusade ( Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1963).
Joel Best, Threatened Children (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
Cohen, Folk Devils; Erich Goode and Nachman Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics: The Social Construction of Deviance (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994).
Joel Best, Random Violence: How We Talk about New Crimes and New Victims (Berkeley : University of California Press, 1999), 103-18.
For example, Darren Sherkat and Christopher Ellison, “The Cognitive Structure of a Moral Crusade: Conservative Protestantism and Opposition to Pornography,” Social Forces 75 (1997): 957-80; Louis Zurcher and R. George Kirkpatrick, Citizens for Decency: Antipornography Campaigns as Status Defense ( Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976).
Meese Commission, Final Report of the Attorney General's Commission on Pornography ( Nashville: Rutledge Hill Press, 1986).
Carole Vance, “The Meese Commission on the Road,” The Nation (August 2, 1986): 76-80; Gordon Hawkins and Franklin Zimring, Pornography in a Free Society (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Donald Downs, The New Politics of Pornography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
U.S. Department of Justice, Beyond the Pornography Commission: The Federal Response ( Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1988).
Ted Gest, “ The Drive to Make America Porn-Free,” U.S. News and World Report (February 6, 1989): 26-27; Jim McGee, “U.S. Crusade against Pornography Tests the Limits of Fairness,” Washington Post (January 11, 1993). Under Clinton, the Justice Department greatly reduced prosecutions of adult obscenity cases and focused instead on child pornography.
Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics ( New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
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Phyllis Chesler and Donna Hughes, “ Feminism in the 21st Century,” Washington Post (February 22, 2004).
Laura Lederer, quoted in Mindy Belz, “No Sale,” World Magazine (March 25, 2000).
Donna Hughes, quoted in Kathryn Lopez, “The New Abolitionist Movement: Donna Hughes on Progress Fighting Sex Trafficking,” National Review (January 26, 2006).
Mainstream feminists have been involved in the debate at certain junctures. For instance, during international negotiations over a UN treaty on sex trafficking in January 2000, Gloria Steinem and the presidents of the National Organization for Women and Planned Parenthood sent a letter to President Clinton protesting the administration's refusal to define all types of prostitution as “sexual exploitation” and insistence that only forced prostitution be so designated. See Barbara Stolz, “ Educating Policymakers and Setting the Criminal Justice Policymaking Agenda: Interest Groups and the `Victims of Trafficking and Violence Act of 2000,'” Criminal Justice 5 (2005): 418.
Resolution 141, passed at annual NOW conference, 1973. The resolution called for the decriminalization of prostitution on the grounds that law enforcement was genderbiased, and that criminalization punished poor women who face limited job opportunities.
See, for example, Gayle Rubin, “Thinking Sex: Notes for an Abolitionist Theory of the Politics of Sexuality,” in C. Vance, ed., Pleasure and Danger ( Boston: Routledge, 1984); Rubin, “Misguided, Dangerous, and Wrong: An Analysis of Antipornography Politics,” in A. Assiter and A. Carol, eds., Bad Girls and Dirty Pictures ( London: Pluto, 1993); Nadine Strossen, Defending Pornography (New York: Anchor, 1995).
Melissa Ditmore, “Trafficking in Lives: How Ideology Shapes Policy,” in K. Kempadoo, ed., Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work, and Human Rights (Boulder: Paradigm, 2005).
Gretchen Soderlund, “ Running from the Rescuers: New U.S. Crusades Against Sex Trafficking and the Rhetoric of Abolition,” NWSA Journal 17 (2005): 64-87.
Elisabeth Bumiller, “Evangelicals Sway White House on Human Rights Issues Abroad,” New York Times (October 26, 2003); Nina Shapiro, “The New Abolitionists,” Seattle Weekly (August 25, 2004); Laura Blumenfeld, “ In a Shift, Anti-Prostitution Effort Targets Pimps and Johns,” Washington Post (December 15, 2005).
Ronald Weitzer, “ Prostitutes' Rights in the United States: The Failure of a Movement,” Sociological Quarterly 32 (1991 ): 23-41.
Andrea Dworkin, Pornography: Men Possessing Women ( New York: Putnam, 1981) and Life and Death (New York: Free Press, 1997); Catherine MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987).
Lederer, quoted in Bob Jones, “ Trafficking Cops,” World Magazine (June 15, 2002).
CATW founder Kathleen Barry's book (Female Sexual Slavery, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1979, 227, 230) advocates a view of sex quite similar to that of the religious right:
We are really going back to the values women have always attached to sexuality, values that have been robbed from us, distorted and destroyed as we have been colonized through both sexual violence and so-called sexual liberation. They are the values and needs that connect sex with warmth, affection, love, caring. . . . Sexual values and the positive, constructive experience of sex must be based in intimacy. . . . Sexual intimacy precludes the proposition that sex is the right of anyone and asserts instead that it must be earned through trust and sharing. It follows then that sex cannot be purchased, legally acquired, or seized by force.
Although such traditional sexual values are rarely articulated by abolitionist feminists today, it is noteworthy that Kathleen Barry founded CATW, and that her book is the seminal text in the abolitionist literature.
Sherkat and Ellison, “The Cognitive Structure of a Moral Crusade.”
Ron Sider, quoted in Shapiro, “ New Abolitionists.”
Timothy Morgan, “ Sex Isn't Work,” Christianity Today (December 29, 2006).
Glona Cowan, Cheryl Chase, and Geraldine Stahly, “Feminist and Fundamentalist Attitudes toward Pornography Control,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 13 (1989): 97-112.
Examples can be found in evangelical magazines such as The World and Christianity Today, the Web sites of organizations on the right such as the Salvation Army and Concerned Women for America, and in many other places. Conservative icons William Bennett and Charles Colson, for example, argue that “ prostitution and pornography inevitably exploits women, whether they consent to it or not.” William Bennett and Charles Colson, “The Clintons Shrug at Sex Trafficking,” Wall Street Journal (January 10, 2000).
Vance, “Meese Commission.”
Janice Raymond, “Prostitution on Demand: Legalizing the Buyers as Sexual Consumers,” Violence Against Women 10 (2004): 1175.
Ronald Weitzer, “Flawed Theory and Method in Studies of Prostitution,” Violence Against Women 11 (2005): 934-49.
Janice Raymond and Donna Hughes, Sex Trafficking of Women in the United States. Coalition against Trafficking in Women (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 2001).
Weitzer, “Flawed Theory.”
Cohen, Folk Devils; Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics.
Horowitz, quoted in Blumenfeld, “In a Shift,” A16.
Ronald Weitzer, “ New Directions in Research on Prostitution,” Crime, Law, and Social Change 43 (2005 ): 211-35.
Martin Monto, “Why Men Seek out Prostitutes,” in R. Weitzer, ed., Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry (New York : Routledge, 2000), and “ Female Prostitution, Customers, and Violence,” Violence Against Women 10 (2004): 160-68.
Raymond and Hughes, Sex Trafficking, 25.
Weitzer, “ Flawed Theory”; Weitzer, “New Directions”; Ine Vanwesenbeeck, “Another Decade of Social Scientific Work on Prostitution,” Annual Review of Sex Research 12 ( 2001): 242-89.
For example, almost all of the 294 prostitutes interviewed in a Miami study preferred to be called working women or sex workers. Steven Kurtz, Hilary Surratt, James Inciardi, and Marion Kiley, “Sex Work and Date Violence,” Violence Against Women 10 (2004): 357-85.
Weitzer, “ Flawed Theory”; Wendy Chapkis, “Power and Control in the Commercial Sex Trade,” in R. Weitzer, ed., Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry (New York: Routledge, 2000).
Joanna Busza, Sarah Castle, and Aisse Diarra, “Trafficking and Health,” British Medical Journal 328 (June 5, 2004): 1369-71; see also the identical findings in Thomas Steinfatt, Measuring the Number of Trafficked Women and Children in Cambodia: A Direct Observation Field Study (Washington, DC: USAID, 2003), 23-24.
Laura Agustin, “ Migrants in the Mistress's House: Other Voices in the Trafficking Debate,” Social Politics 12 (2005): 98, 101.
Judith Vocks and Jan Nijboer, “The Promised Land: A Study of Trafficking in Women from Central and Eastern Europe to the Netherlands,” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 8 (2000): 383, 384.
Linda Meaker, “A Social Response to Transnational Prostitution in Queensland, Australia,” in S. Thorbek and B. Pattanaik, eds., Transnational Prostitution ( London: Zed, 2002), 61, 63.
Jo Doezema, “Loose Women or Lost Women? The Re-emergence of the Myth of `White Slavery' in Contemporary Discourses of `Trafficking in Women',” Gender Issues 18 (2000): 24.
Busza, Castle, and Diarra, “Trafficking and Health.”
Steinfatt, Measuring the Number, 24.
Rubin, “Thinking Sex,” 301.
Melissa Farley, “Bad for the Body, Bad for the Heart: Prostitution Harms Women Even if Legalized or Decriminalized,” Violence Against Women 10 (2004 ): 1087-125; Dorchen Leidholdt, “ Prostitution and Trafficking in Women: An Intimate Relationship,” Journal of Trauma Practice 2 (2004 ): 167-83; Raymond, “Prostitution on Demand.”
Donna Hughes, “ Wolves in Sheep's Clothing: No Way to End Sex Trafficking,” National Review Online (October 9, 2002), 2.
Donna Hughes, quoted in University of Rhode Island Press Release, “ Expert on Sex Trafficking Contributes to Passage of Historic New Law” (January 11, 2006).
Donna Hughes, “ Accommodation or Abolition?” National Review Online (May 1, 2003), 1.
Kamala Kempadoo, ed., Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work, and Human Rights (Boulder: Paradigm, 2005).
Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics, 36-44.
Hotaling, quoted in Meredith May, “Sex Trafficking: San Francisco is a Major Center for International Crime Networks that Smuggle and Enslave,” San Francisco Chronicle (October 6, 2006).
Editorial, “ Putting the Sex Trade on Notice,” New York Times (January 9, 2004).
Oprah, “ Child Sex Slaves in America,” American Broadcasting Company (November 2, 2005).
See http://www.unescobkk.org/culture/trafficking. UNESCO's Trafficking Statistics Project is an ongoing project attempting to assess the scale of the problem.
Liz Kelly, “ You Can Find Anything You Want: A Critical Reflection on Research on Trafficking in Persons within and into Europe,” International Migration 43 (2005): 237.
Guri Tyldum and Anette Brunovskis, “ Describing the Unobserved: Methodological Challenges in Empirical Studies on Human Trafficking,” International Migration 43 (2005): 17-34.
Elzbieta Gozdziak and Elizabeth Collett, “ Research on Human Trafficking in North America: A Review of the Literature,” International Migration 43 (2005): 99-128.
General Accountability Office, Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Anti-trafficking Efforts Abroad (Washington, DC: GAO, 2006), 2, 10.
Gao, Human Trafficking, 3, 14.
Gary Haugen, International Justice Mission, Testimony before Congressional Human Rights Caucus, U.S. House of Representatives (June 6, 2002); CATW: http://www.catwinternational.org.
Gozdziak and Collett, “Research on Human Trafficking,” 110.
Louise Shelley, “ The Trade in People in and from the Former Soviet Union,” Crime, Law, and Social Change 40 ( 2003): 231-49.
Janice Raymond, “Ten Reasons for Not Legalizing Prostitution and a Legal Response to the Demand for Prostitution,” Journal of Trauma Practice 2 (2003 ): 322.
Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, Coalition Report ( Amherst: CATW, 2004).
http://www.catwinternational.org.
Raymond, “Ten Reasons,” 317, 329.
Linda Smith, Testimony before Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, Hearing on the State Department's 2002 Trafficking in Persons Report (June 19, 2002), 66.
http://www.cwfa.org.
U. S. Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report, 2005 (Washington, DC: Department of State, 2005). In Congressional testimony in October 2003, CATW's co-director called on the State Department to remove the Netherlands and Germany from the top, best-practice tier because they have legal prostitution (Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, Coalition Report (Amherst: CATW, 2003).
Transcrime, Study on National Legislation on Prostitution and the Trafficking in Women and Children. Report to the European Parliament, 2005, 121. There has also been an overall decrease in prostitution establishments (brothels, window units) since legalization in 2000, arguably because of stricter regulation. See Rode Draad [Red Thread], Rechten van Prostituees [Rights of Prostitutes], report funded by the Dutch Ministry of Social Affairs (Amsterdam: Rode Draad, 2006).
Kamala Kempadoo, “ Introduction: Globalizing Sex Workers' Rights,” in K. Kempadoo and J. Doezema, eds., Global Sex Workers: Rights, Resistance, and Redefinition (New York: Routledge, 1998), 17.
Alison Murray, “ Debt Bondage and Trafficking,” in K. Kempadoo and J. Doezema, eds., Global Sex Workers: Rights, Resistance, and Redefinition ( New York: Routledge 1998), 60.
Barbara Brents and Kathryn Hausbeck, “ Violence and Legalized Brothel Prostitution in Nevada,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 20 ( 2005): 289.
A.L. Dalder, Lifting the Ban on Brothels (The Hague: Ministry of Justice, 2004), 30.
Crime and Misconduct Commission, Regulating Prostitution: An Evaluation of the Prostitution Act 1999, Queensland (Brisbane, Australia: Crime and Misconduct Commission, 2004), 75, 89.
Similarly, the Meese Commission's 1986 report on pornography displayed what two experts called a “schizophrenic dissociation between the research findings and their interpretation by the commission.” Hawkins and Zimring, Pornography in a Free Society, 99.
Ann Ferguson, “Sex War: The Debate between Radical and Libertarian Feminists,” Signs 10 (1989): 106-12; Annette Jolin, “On the Backs of Working Prostitutes: Feminist Theory and Prostitution Policy,” Crime and Delinquency 40 (1994): 69-83; Julia O'Connell Davidson, “ Will the Real Sex Slave Please Stand Up?” Feminist Review 83 (2006): 4-22; Vanwesenbeeck, “Another Decade,” Weitzer, “Flawed Theory,” Weitzer, “ New Directions.”
William Gamson, The Strategy of Social Protest ( Homewood, IL: Dorsey, 1975); Best, Random Violence; Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics, 224-29.
John Miller, “ A Modern Slave Trade,” New York Post (May 22, 2005).
Miller, quoted in Bumiller, “Evangelicals Sway White House.”
Ditmore, “ Trafficking in Lives”; Shapiro, “New Abolitionists”; Penelope Saunders, “Traffic Violations,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 20 (2005): 343-60.
The following are some of the formal “coalition members” in the Rescue and Restore Coalition: CATW, Protection Project, Evangelicals for Social Action, Family Research Council, SAGE, Sex Industry Survivors, Break the Chain Campaign, Religious Freedom Coalition, Focus on the Family, American Conservative Union, Culture of Life Foundation, Christian Medical Association, Concerned Women for America, Restoration Ministries International, and many other Christian organizations. See Attorney General, Report to Congress on U.S. Government Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons in Fiscal Year 2004 (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 2005), Appendix 2.
Mayer Zald, “ Ideologically Structured Action: An Enlarged Agenda for Social Movement Research,” Mobilization 5 (2000): 1-16.
J. Robert Flores, “Blind to the Law,” Family Voice (November 2000), magazine of Concerned Women for America.
Patrick Trueman, Testimony before the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Property Rights, United States Senate. Hearing on Obscenity Prosecution (March 16, 2005).
Shapiro, “New Abolitionists.”
Ditmore, “Trafficking in Lives.”
Thomas Edsall, “Grants Flow to Bush Allies on Social Issues,” Washington Post (March 22, 2006); Esther Kaplan, With God on Their Side: George W. Bush and the Christian Right (New York: New Press, 2005), 214-18.
To cite just a few examples, in FY 2003 and FY 2004, CATW received $482,000, SAGE $200,000, the Protection Project $492,000, Donna Hughes $158,000, the Catholic Bishops Conference $600,000, Shared Hope International $500,000, World Vision $500,000, and the International Rescue Committee $2,666,000. See Attorney General, Report to Congress on U.S. Government Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons in Fiscal Year 2003 (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 2004); Attorney General, Report, 2004.
Raymond and Hughes, Sex Trafficking of Women; Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, Coalition Report (Amherst: CATW, 2001), 7.
Gao, Human Trafficking, 25.
The TVPA created a new federal crime of “severe trafficking” in persons, which could result in a prison term of twenty years.
Dorothy Stetson, “ The Invisible Issue: Prostitution and Trafficking of Women and Girls in the United States,” in J. Outshoorn, ed., The Politics of Prostitution (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
Stetson, “Invisible Issue.” Similarly, at the international level in the mid-1990s, CATW and its allies were not particularly successful in gaining acceptance of their claims. At the 1995 Beijing Women's conference, for instance, CATW's proposals were successfully opposed by other feminist and sex worker's rights groups. CATW was somewhat more successful in influencing the 2000 United Nations' Protocol on Trafficking, which reflected a compromise between abolitionist feminists and sex work feminists (Sullivan, “Trafficking in Women”).
The 2003 TVPA reauthorization contained new provisions for combating sex tourism by American citizens abroad, and new eligibility restrictions on organizations receiving government funding.
John Miller identified Donna Hughes, Laura Lederer, Michael Horowitz (of the Hudson Institute), Linda Smith (former Republican congresswoman), and Gary Haugen (president of the International Justice Mission) as involved in drafting the TVPA. See John Miller, Testimony at Congressional Hearing on Trafficking in Women and Children in East Asia and Beyond. Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate (April 9, 2003). In the Congressional Record, Rep. Chris Smith noted the contributions to the drafting of the TYPA of Horowitz, Lederer, Haugen, Charles Colson, Gloria Steinem, the Protection Project, Family Research Council, Equality Now, and the National Association of Evangelicals, while Senator Sam Brownback acknowledged the help of Haugen, Lederer, Steinem, Horowitz, William Bennett, the Southern Baptist Convention, Equality Now, and the National Association of Evangelicals (Stolz, “Educating Policymakers”).
George W. Bush, “Combating Trafficking in Persons,” National Security Presidential Directive, no. 22 (December 16, 2002).
George W. Bush, “President Bush Addresses United Nations General Assembly,” White House Press Release (September 23, 2003).
Richard Land, quoted in Bumiller, “ Evangelicals Sway White House.”
Miller, “Testimony .”
Miller, quoted in P. Parameswaran, “ Sex Worker Tag Giving Wrong Impression,” Agence France Presse (December 16, 2006).
Amy O'Neill Richard, International Trafficking of Women to the United States (Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2000), 3.
U.S. Department of State, “ The Link between Prostitution and Sex Trafficking,” ( Washington, DC: Department of State, 2004).
After the Cambodian Ministry of Planning's Human Development Report, 2000, reported that there were 80,000-100,000 sex workers in Cambodia, this figure was converted into the number of trafficked “sex slaves” by the Child Rights Foundation of Cambodia, and then by other NGOs and the media. Even the Cambodian government's estimate of the number of sex workers seems a gross exaggeration. In a report for USAID based on fieldwork in Cambodia, it was estimated that there were 18,256 sex workers in 2003, most of whom were neither underage nor trafficked. Steinfatt, Measuring the Number, 11.
The figures on the American situation contrast sharply with estimates of sex trafficking into Britain, where the range was reported to be between 142 and 1,420 annually. The authors of this report caution that “it is not currently possible with any level of accuracy” to estimate the number of women trafficked within Europe. See Liz Kelly and Linda Regan, Stopping Traffic: Exploring the Extent of, and Responses to, Trafficking in Women for Sexual Exploitation in the UK. Police Research Series paper 125 (London: Home Office, 2000), 22, 8. In 2003, police and immigration officers in London found 295 immigration offenders during their routine visits to massage parlors and saunas, only five of whom were identified as victims of trafficking (O'Connell Davidson, “Will the Real Sex Slave”).
U.S. Department of Justice, Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons in Fiscal Year 2004 (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 2005), 4. Between FY 2001 and FY 2004, the Justice Department prosecuted 131 persons for sex trafficking offenses, and obtained ninety-nine convictions. Though relatively low for a four-year period, the figures were almost five times higher than during the previous four years, a period prior to the TVPA. See Attorney General, Report, 2004, 20.
Blumenfeld, “ In a Shift.”
Best, Threatened Children.
Becker, Outsiders.
Soderlund, “ Running from the Rescuers,” 79.
National Institute of Justice, Solicitation: Trafficking in Human Beings Research and Comprehensive Literature Review (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 2007), 4.
William Fisher, “ USAID Sued Over Anti-Prostitution Policy,” Inter-Press Service News Agency (August 23, 2005).
Hughes, “Wolves in Sheep's Clothing,” 2.
TVPA 2000, Section 103[3]; TVPA 2005, Section 207[3].
The first john school was created in San Francisco in 1995 and was designed by Norma Hotaling of SAGE in association with city officials.
Hughes received $108,478 from the State Department to write this report (Attorney General, Report, 2004).
Donna Hughes, “The Demand for Victims of Sex Trafficking.” Unpublished report ( University of Rhode Island, 2005), 22, 26.
Anthony Verdugo, quoted in Julie Kay, “U.S. Attorney's Porn Fight Gets Bad Reviews,” Daily Business Review (August 30, 2005).
Hughes, “The Demand for Victims,” 26.
Trueman, “Testimony .”
U.S. Department of Justice, “Obscenity Prosecution Task Force Established to Investigate, Prosecute Purveyors of Obscene Materials.” Press Release (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, May 5, 2005); Richard Schmitt, “U.S. Cracking Down on Porn,” Deseret News (February 15, 2004).
Robert Gehrke, “ Nation's Porn Prosecutor Fronts War against Obscenity,” Salt Lake Tribune (February 26, 2007).
Schmitt, “ U.S. Cracking Down on Porn.”
Jan LaRue, “Porn Industry Moans for Good Reason,” Concerned Women for America, http://www.cwfa.org (February 24, 2004).
Weitzer, “ New Directions”; Vanwesenbeeck, “Another Decade.”
Doezema, “ Loose Women or Lost Women.”
William McDonald, “Traffic Counts, Symbols, and Agendas: A Critique of the Campaign Against Trafficking of Human Beings,” International Review of Victimology 11 (2004): 158.
Doezema, “ Loose Women or Lost Women,” 24.
This tendency was also pronounced 150 years ago in the American moral reform campaign: “Most important, images of fallen women in popular literature and moral reform journals channeled the debate on prostitution away from adverse social and economic structures toward cruel seducers and evil agents. . . . [Reformers] could not comprehend the idea that prostitution could be a rational choice for women faced with a field of limited opportunities and options in the labor and marriage markets.” Barbara Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 75, 76.
Sullivan, “ Trafficking in Women.”
Weitzer, “ New Directions.”
Ronald Weitzer, “ Prostitution Control in America: Rethinking Public Policy,” Crime, Law, and Social Change 32 ( 1999): 83-102.
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Disrupting the Boundaries of the Academe: Co-creating Knowledge and Se...
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Purity or danger? The establishment of sex trafficking as a social pro...
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Client Desires and the Price of Seduction: Exploring the Relationship ...
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Combating trafficking of Hungarian women to Western Europe: a multi-le...
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What’s the Mission? Discursive Power and Human Rights–Based Language i...
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Sex Workers as Workers: A Critique of Abolitionist Approaches to Sex W...
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Commodification of Intimacy and Sexuality
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Racialized, Gendered, and Sensationalized: An examination of Canadian ...
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Labor Exploitation of Migrant Farmworkers: Risks for Human Trafficking
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Low Hanging Fruit: How Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking Erased Foreign-b...
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Surveillance by Another Name: The Modern Slavery Act, Global Factory W...
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“Officers Are Doing the Best They Can”: Concerns Around Law Enforcemen...
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Prostitution and Sex Work Policies
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Laws on Sex Trafficking
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Criminal Justice System Responses to Human Trafficking
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The Rise of Sex Trafficking Online
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Migration und (Neue) Medien
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Diskurse
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Girls on Film: Framing Human Trafficking Through Film and the Cinema
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Elastic Victimhood: The State, NGOs, and Negotiating the Parameters of...
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Crime frames and gender differences in the activation of crime concern...
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Do you know how to Cheong? Neutralization techniques adopted by new cl...
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Diskurse
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Changes in Arrest Patterns of Buyers and Sellers of Commercial Sex: An...
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Defining and Predicting Pimps’ Coerciveness Toward Sex Workers: Social...
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Migrant workers, ‘modern slavery’ and the politics of representation i...
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“The Prostitution Problem”: Claims, Evidence, and Policy Outcomes
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The Making of “The Trafficking Problem”
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“The Prostitution Problem”: Insights from Senegal
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Human trafficking for sex, labour and domestic servitude: how do key t...
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Identifying trafficked migrants and refugees along the Balkan route. E...
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Innovations in empirical research into human trafficking: introduction...
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Reacting to Invasive Species: The Construction of a Moral Panic over B...
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A Safe Harbor Is Temporary Shelter, Not A Pathway Forward: How Court-M...
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Quitting the Sex Trade: Keeping Narratives inside the Debates on Prost...
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Sex worker affirmative therapy: conceptualization and case study
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Culturally competent health care for sex workers: an examination of my...
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From Human Trafficking to Modern Slavery: The Development of Anti-Traf...
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The Concept of Modern Slavery: Definition, Critique, and the Human Rig...
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Becoming cosmopolitan women while negotiating structurally limited cho...
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No model in practice: a ‘Nordic model’ to respond to prostitution?
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Sex Trafficking at the Border: An Exploration of Anti-Trafficking Effo...
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‘Humanitarianized’ Development? Anti‐trafficking Reconfigured
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The Protective State
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An Absence of Appearance Identifiers
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‘It’s just more, you know, natural’: The perceptions of men who buy se...
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How Sex Trading Identities Shape Experiences of Service Provision: Ins...
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Book Review Symposium: Siddharth Kara Modern Slavery: A Global Perspec...
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Deconstructing the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender victim of sex t...
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Introduction
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Theorizing Prostitution
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Foreign Women Engaged in Prostitution: Rethinking the Singular Image o...
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Kosovar Women Engaged in Prostitution: (The Consequences of) Being Def...
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Criminal Justice System Responses to Human Trafficking
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The Rise of Sex Trafficking Online
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Prostitution
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Drugs, moral panics and the dispositive
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Trafficking in Human Beings: Made and Cut to Measure? Anti-trafficking...
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Research trends on human trafficking: a bibliometric analysis using Sc...
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Migration and Sex Work through a Gender Perspective
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Challenging the Dominant Frame: The Moderating Impact of Exposure and ...
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Chapter 8 Images of Trafficked Women: A Case Study ofMedia and Social ...
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Survivor or Laborer: How Human Service Managers Perceive Sex Workers?
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Agency and social constraint among victims of domestic minor sex traff...
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The pimping of prostitution: Abolishing the sex work myth By JulieBind...
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Owning Risk: Sex Worker Subjectivities and the Reimagining of Vulnerab...
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The Politics of Scrutiny in Human Rights Monitoring: Evidence from Str...
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Resistance to sex work stigma
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Modern Trafficking, Slavery, and Other Forms of Servitude
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Human-trafficking prevention is not “sexy”: Impact of the rescue indus...
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Criminology and the UN Sustainable Development Goals: The Need for Sup...
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Review of Combating Human Trafficking: Gaps in Policy an...
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Advocacy of trafficking campaigns: A controversy story
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Governing Domestic Worker Migration in Southeast Asia: Public–Private ...
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What’s on Sale? A Discourse Analysis of Four Distinctive Online Escort...
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The Sexual Trafficking of Juveniles: A Theoretical Model
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Where are we now? Twenty-five years of research, policy and practice o...
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(De)Constructing Stereotypes: Media Representations, Social Perception...
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The hunt for an elusive crime – an analysis of Swedish measures to com...
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Representations of Transnational Human Trafficking: A Critical Review
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Heterogeneous Perspectives in Coalitions and Community-Based Responses...
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Prostitution and Migrant Smuggling Networks Operating between Central ...
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The global development of contemporary anti-human trafficking advocacy
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“At-Risk” or “Socially Deviant”? Conflicting Narratives and Grassroots...
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“Ninguna mujer...” El abolicionismo de la prostitución en la Argentina
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A Gender Integrative Approach to the Anti-CSEC Movement in Georgia
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“Mi cuerpo es mío”. Debates y disputas de los feminismos argentinos en...
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Why Prostitution Policy (Usually) Fails and What to Do about It?
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Counting the Uncountable: Constructing Trafficking through Measurement
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Addressing HIV/AIDS at the Intersection of Anti-Trafficking and Health...
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Brokered Subjects and Sexual Investability1
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Resiliency and women exiting sex trade industry work
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Counter-trafficking governance in South Africa: an analysis of the rol...
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Sex Trafficking and the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children
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In search of solace and finding servitude: human trafficking and the h...
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“Curiosity and a Pimp”: Exploring Sex Trafficking Victimization in Exp...
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A Pimp's Game: A Rational Choice Approach to Understanding the Decisio...
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What Counts as Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation? How Legal Methods ...
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Gender: Hegemonic Lens for Making Sense of Violence Against Women and ...
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Femminicidio Narrative: A Gender Discourse of Partner Violence Across ...
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Introduction: In Search of Pimps and Other Varieties
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Vietnamese Children Trafficked for Forced Labor to Ho Chi Minh City, V...
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Criminalizing the Payment for Sex in Northern Ireland: Sketching the C...
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Ethnographier la violence dans la prostitution
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Neoliberalism’s Market Morality and Heteroflexibility: Protectionist a...
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Transnational Social Mobility Strategies and Quality of Work among Lat...
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On Our Own Terms: The Working Conditions of Internet-Based Sex Workers...
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The Proposed Re-introduction of Policing and Crime into the Regulation...
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Quality of Work in Prostitution and Sex Work. Introduction to the Spec...
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“In My Head, I Didn’t Feel Like I Had Done Anything Wrong”: Women’s Ex...
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Social Work Practice and Sexuality: Applying a Positive Sexuality Mode...
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Always Victimizers, Never Victims: Engaging Men and Boys in Human Traf...
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‘It’s better than daytime television’: questioning the socio-spatial i...
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Revanchist Masculinity: Gender Attitudes in Sex Work Management
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Anti-Trafficking (ILL-)Efforts...
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Human Trafficking
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Feminismo y prostitución: la persistencia de una amarga disputa
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Slavery scandals: Unpacking labour challenges and policy responses wit...
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The boundaries of belonging: gender, human trafficking and embodied ci...
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Agenda setting and active audiences in online coverage of human traffi...
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Framing Human Trafficking: A Content Analysis of Recent U.S. Newspaper...
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From Vice to Virtue...
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Redemptive Capitalism and Sexual Investability
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Perverse Humanitarianism and the Business of Rescue: What’s Wrong with...
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Digitalising sex commerce and sex work: a comparative analysis of Fren...
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Sociological Perspectives on Sex Work and Human Trafficking
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Framing Sex Worker Rights...
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Constructing the ideal victim in the United States of America’s annual...
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From Victimhood to Survivor-Hood: Reflections on Women’s Agency in Pop...
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De-canting ‘Trafficking in Human Beings’, Re-centring the State
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From sexation to sexualization: dispersed submission in the racialized...
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Anatomy of Offending: Human Trafficking in the United States, 2006–201...
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Methodological Afterword: Identity Work and the Interviewer
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Vietnamese Children Trafficked for Forced Labour to Ho Chi Minh City, ...
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Walking the Tightrope: Ethical Dilemmas of Doing Fieldwork with Youth ...
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Respectability, Morality and Disgust in the Night-Time Economy: Explor...
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“I’m Just a Woman. But I’ve Never Been a Victim”: Re-conceptualizing P...
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Moving Full-Speed Ahead in the Wrong Direction? A Critical Examination...
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Trafficked Enough? Missing Bodies, Migrant Labour Exploitation, and th...
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Human Trafficking and Contemporary Slavery
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Nuisance or discerning? The social construction of street hawkers in G...
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Real and unreal masculinities: the celebrity image in anti-trafficking...
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Police and domestic sex trafficking of youth: what teens tell us that ...
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Human trafficking: the need for human rights and government effectiven...
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An Examination of Some Central Debates on Sex Trafficking in Research ...
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Sex in the Shadow of the Law: Regulating Sex Work and Human Traffickin...
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Sociology and Sexual Deviance
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Perceptions of the Sex Trade in Bosnia and Herzegovina...
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Universal Child Victims and Normal Guys...
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Sex trafficking, captivity, and narrative: constructing victimhood wit...
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Female Sex Trafficking: Conceptual Issues, Current Debates, and Future...
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“Whatever I Have, I Have Made by Coming into this Profession”: The Int...
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Trafficking, sex
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Organized crime and sexuality
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Prostitution Ideology and Trafficking Policy: The Impact of Political ...
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?America Will Not Tolerate Slave Traders?: Counter-Trafficking Policie...
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Relationships Between Suspects and Victims of Sex Trafficking. Exploit...
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Girls on film: Affective politics and the creation of an intimate anti...
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The Social Construction of Trafficked Persons: An Analysis of the UN P...
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An empirical framework of control methods of victims of human traffick...
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Female prostitution and victimization: A realist analysis
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Media, Crime and Crime Waves
-
Globalization and Human Trafficking
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Prostitution and Sex Work
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Men Who Pay for Sex and the Sex Work Movement? Client Responses to Sti...
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Introduction: The Cultural Study of Commercial Sex: Taking a policy pe...
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Challenging Humanitarian Images the Case of Anti-Trafficking
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Actions associatives auprès des travailleuses du sexe (Portugal)
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Vietnamese Children Trafficked for Forced Labour to Ho Chi Minh City, ...
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Hijacked Agendas
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Victims, Villains, and Valiant Rescuers: Unpacking Sociolegal Construc...
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American evangelicals and domestic versus international climate policy
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Human Trafficking and the New Slavery
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A decade of decriminalization: Sex work ‘down under’ but not undergrou...
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Off-street sex workers and victim-orientated policymaking at the local...
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Functional Forms of Symbolic Crises in the News: Implications for Quan...
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Implementing Policy for Invisible Populations: Social Work and Social ...
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Exploitation Creep and the Unmaking of Human Trafficking Law
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Mediating Migration: New Roles for (Mass) Media
-
The Trafficking-Technology Nexus
-
Introduction: Sexual Economies and New Regimes of Governance
-
Contextualizing dirty work: The neglected role of cultural, historical...
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Vietnam Rising Dragon: Contesting Dominant Western Masculinities in Ho...
-
Victims, sex workers and perpetrators: gray areas in the trafficking o...
-
Feminine Purity and Masculine Revenge-Seeking In Taken ...
-
Framing the Problem of Sex Trafficking
-
Labor Migration and Trafficking among Vietnamese Migrants in Asia
-
Estimating Labor Trafficking among Unauthorized Migrant Workers in San...
-
Trafficking, Scandal, and Abuse of Migrant Workers in Argentina and th...
-
Human Trafficking and Moral Panic in Cambodia
-
New Directions in Research on Human Trafficking
-
Conflict and Agency among Sex Workers and Pimps...
-
Coercion, Control, and Cooperation in a Prostitution Ring
-
Sex, drugs and the honour roll: the perennial challenges of addressing...
-
To seek and save the lost: human trafficking and salvation schemas amo...
-
Environmental and Institutional Influences on Police Agency Responses ...
-
New laws but few cases: understanding the challenges to the investigat...
-
Decriminalization of Sex Work: Feminist Discourses in Light of Researc...
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As organizações da sociedade civil na prevenção das infeções sexualmen...
-
La résistance au changement de la politique en matière de prostitution...
-
Prostitution, Sex Work, and Violence: Lessons From the Cambodian Conte...
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El movimiento para criminalizar el trabajo sexual en Estados Unidos
-
¿Las políticas carcelarias representan la justicia de género? La trata...
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Child Trafficking
-
Teaching Equality? “John Schools,” Gender, and Institutional Reform
-
Introduction
-
Dangerous Labor
-
Chains of Fear
-
Imagining the Possible
-
Living the Possible
-
Laboring after Forced Labor
-
Notes
-
References
-
Human Trafficking in South Africa: Political Conundrums and Consequenc...
-
Effects of the criminalizing policy of sex work in Spain
-
Rethinking Emancipation
-
Trafficking in People, 20 Years On: Sex, Migration and Crime in the Gl...
-
Victims of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking
-
Outsourcing Moral Authority: The Internal Secularization of Evangelica...
-
Anti‐Sex Trafficking Institutions
-
The Burmese traffic-jam explored: Changing dynamics and ambiguous refo...
-
Networked trafficking: reflections on technology and the anti-traffick...
-
Beneath the master narrative: human trafficking, myths of sexual slave...
-
Domestic minor sex trafficking and the detention-to-protection pipelin...
-
Rethinking human trafficking
-
Sex trafficking and the Vancouver Winter Olympic Games: Perceptions an...
-
Sex trafficking and migration
-
‘Endemic to the species’: ordering the ‘other’ via organised crime
-
Temperance Movements
-
Adolescence and Commercial Sexual Exploitation
-
De l’objectivation à l’émotion. La mobilisation des chiffres dans le m...
-
Measuring labor trafficking: a research note
-
Deviant Disabilities...
-
The ‘Groundhog Day’ of the Human Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation D...
-
Between Emotional Politics and Biased Practices—Prostitution Policies,...
-
Prostitution as Morality Politics or Why It Is Exceedingly Difficult T...
-
International Marriage Brokers, Cross-Border Marriages and the US Anti...
-
Human Trafficking Is More Than Sex Trafficking and Prostitution...
-
Carceral politics as gender justice? The “traffic in women” and neolib...
-
The Crime and Punishment of Somali Women's Extra-Legal Arrival in Malt...
-
Social control of immigrant sex workers: transforming a group recogniz...
-
Client-Only Criminalization in the City of Stockholm: A Local Research...
-
Soziologie sozialer Probleme – Fragestellungen, Konzepte und theoretis...
-
Human Trafficking and Moral Panic in Cambodia: The Unintended Conseque...
-
Christianity and Human Trafficking
-
Improving the Effectiveness of the International Law of Human Traffick...
-
News Frames and Story Triggers in the Media’s Coverage of Human Traffi...
-
Moving children? Child trafficking, child migration, and child rights
-
The Policing of Pleasure: ‘What Kind of Police Service Do We Want?’
-
Neighbors’ anxieties against prostitutes’ fears: Ambivalence and repre...
-
The problem of contemporary slavery: An international human rights cha...
-
Human trafficking revisited: legal, enforcement and ethnographic narra...
-
Worldwide Trends in the Criminal Regulation of Sex, 1945 to 2005
-
Trafficking in part(s): The commercial kidney market in a Manila slum,...
-
The re-emergence of ‘trafficking’: sex work between slavery and freedo...
-
Militarized Humanitarianism Meets Carceral Feminism: The Politics of S...
-
Stigmatisation du travail du sexe et identité des travailleurs et trav...
-
Untold Stories: Biases and Selection Effects in Research with Victims ...
-
Exploring terra incognita: Family values and prostitution acceptance i...
-
Where are all the victims?
-
New slavery, old binaries: human trafficking and the borders of ‘freed...
-
The Mythology of Prostitution: Advocacy Research and Public Policy
-
Gendered political economy and the politics of migrant worker rights: ...
-
Anti-Social Powers and the Regulation of Street Sex Work
-
News Frames and Story Triggers in the Media’s Coverage of Human Traffi...
-
Media Representation of Human Trafficking in the United States, Great ...
-
The problem of human trafficking in the U.S.: Public frames and policy...
-
References
-
Sociology of Sex Work
-
The trouble with trafficking: Conceptualizing women's sexual labor and...
-
What's in a name?
-
Renewing the War on prostitution: The spectres of ‘trafficking’ and ‘s...
-
State and local law enforcement responses to human trafficking: explai...
-
Book review: Laura Maria Agustin, Sex at the Margins: Migration, Labou...
-
Kerbcrawler rehabilitation programmes: Curing the `deviant' male and r...
-
Legalizing Prostitution: Morality Politics in Western Australia
-
Human Trafficking: Globalization, Exploitation, and Transnational Soci...
-
The sex industry, human trafficking and the global prohibition regime:...
-
Sexual commerce and the global flow of bodies, desires, and social pol...
-
Entre as "máfias" e a "ajuda": a construção de conhecimento sobre tráf...
-
Developing an Effective Criminal Justice Response to Human Trafficking...
-
Prostitution: Facts and Fictions
-
Prostitution as a Form of Work
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