ACTA IRANICA 54 LE SORT DES GÂTHÂS ET AUTRES ÉTUDES IRANIENNES IN MEMORIAM JACQUES DUCHESNE-GUILLEMIN Contributions rassemblées par Éric PIRART PEETERS LEUVEN - PARIS - WALPOLE, MA 2013 TABLE DES MATIÈRES TABLE DES MATIÈRES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V Éric PIRART Préface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII Jean LOICQ Souvenirs familiers de Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin . . . . . 1 Philippe SWENNEN Publications de Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin depuis 1984 . . 9 Miguel Ángel ANDRÉS-TOLEDO The dog(s) of the Zoroastrian afterlife . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Alberto CANTERA The Old Avestan texts in the Videvdad and the Visparad ceremonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Michiel DE VAAN On the nasalization of h to ∞h in Avestan . . . . . . . . . 49 Almut HINTZE Perceptions of the Yasna Hapta∞haiti . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Helmut HUMBACH Traces of lost Old Avestan and dialect literature in the younger Avesta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Helmut HUMBACK and Klaus FAISS Zarathushtra and the Daevas: the destiny of Yasna 32,1 . . . 81 Jean KELLENS Fabriquer un dieu avec du gâthique: le cas de Sraosa . . . . 93 Pierre LECOQ The place of Kurdish among the Iranian Languages . . . . 101 Norbert OETTINGER Jungavestisches Imperfekt und frz. passé simple: ein typologischer Vergleich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 VI TABLE DES MATIÈRES Antonio PANAINO Echi di protesta. Intorno ad av. rec. asrauuaiia†.gaqa-. . . . . 123 Éric PIRART Noms avestiques, vieux-perses et pehlevis tirés des Cantates . . 135 Éric PIRART Autour de l’Abar-varag i Hapt-hat Yasn . . . . . . . . . . 159 Prods Oktor SKJÆRVØ Gathic Quotations in the Young Avesta . . . . . . . . . . 177 Philippe SWENNEN Pourquoi nomma-t-on les hymnes vieil-avestiques gaqas? . . . 201 Elizabeth TUCKER How well did the late Younger Avestan composers understand the language of the Gathas? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA Prods Oktor SKJÆRVØ Anybody who reads the Avesta is bound to notice that smaller or greater parts of the Gaqas and the Yasna Hapta∞haiti are cited throughout the Young Avestan texts, in various contexts and with various functions. Table 1 contains a list of quotations from the Gaqas and the Yasna Hapta∞haiti in the Yasna outside the Old Avesta. They number about a hundred (not counting all those in repeated texts), fairly equally divided between the Gaqas and the Yasna Hapta∞haiti. This means, of course, that the Yasna Hapta∞haiti, being a relatively short text, is much better represented than the Gaqas. This is perhaps not that surprising, since the Yasna Hapta∞haiti, too, is a Yasna. Here, I shall show how such citations function in various Avestan texts by examples drawn mainly from the Yasna but also from the Videvdad and the Nerangestan. These examples will also illustrate to what extent the Young Avestan priests still knew what the Gaqas and the Yasna Hapta∞haiti were about and what their ritual functions were, but also that they regarded these texts as “meaning” much more than what the words meant literally.1 Old Avestan quotations in the Yasna The yasna ritual, with the accompanying Yasna, was, presumably, originally a morning ritual, performing the ritual rebuilding and regeneration of the cosmos according to the blueprint of Ahura Mazda’s cosmogonic ritual.2 Ahura Mazda’s ritual was, in turn, re-performed in this 1 This is not intended to be a philological discussion of, especially, the Old Avestan texts I cite. Specialists will see where my interpretations differ from those of others. References to secondary works will therefore be limited. Texts are cited based on Geldner’s and later editions. The Pahlavi Yasna is based on Dhabhar’s edition and available manuscripts, other Pahlavi texts on standard editions and available manuscripts. 2 See Skjærvø, 2006. 178 P.O. SKJÆRVØ world by Zarathustra and has, since then, been re-re-performed by all of his successors, the individual Zoroastrian priests.3 Thus, the purpose of the yasna ritual was to place Ahura Mazda and his fellow divine beings back in command of the universe (cf. Yasna 8.6, 3.48.5),4 so that they can heal the world (the ahu: 1.31.19, 2.44.2) sickened (1.30.6) by the forces of darkness and death; to make the sun rise to warm the earth; to make rains fall to make the earth fertile; to provide good things for living beings; and to provide the priest with a handsome salary. According to the Gaqas, this was a birth/rebirth (regeneration in the literal sense) and ordering/re-ordering process, and the new-born cosmos was the new Life (world), the ahu, as we see from the Ustauuaiti Haiti (2.43.5): hiia† qba a∞h≠us z∏qoi dar¢s¢m pauruuim “when I first saw you at the birth of the ahu”; 3.48.6 a∞h≠us z∏qoi pauruiiehiia “at the rebirth of the ahu.” To achieve this, the priest would send his sacrificial gifts, including his good thoughts, words, and actions, up to Ahura Mazda, together with a supreme gift: his life breath to vivify the new ahu and his bones and body to give it substance (make it astuua∞t “endowed with bones”). In the following, I shall show where the Old Avestan texts are cited and make some comments on just a few quotations as I go along. Yasna 0 The actual beginning of the Yasna is the Frastuiie “I (send) forth by my praise”:5 Y.0.4 ~ YH.35.2 Triad: GOOD THOUGHTS… Dichotomy: “PRAISE” ~ “BLAME” Y.0.5 < YH.35.7 presentation of yasna and hymn ≤ 1.33.14 offering of LIFE BREATH AND BODY ≤ 3.50.11 purpose: MAKING the NEW AHU FRASA Y.0.14 Yasna 8.7 haxsaiia az¢m.ci† yo zaraqustro… “May I too, (another) Zarathustra, induce…” 4 The bold numerals give the numbers of the Gaqas 1-5. 5 “=” = exact quotation of entire strophe; “≤” = exact quotation of part of strophe; “<” quotation with small differences; “~” = same contents, but not same phrasing. 3 GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA 179 Here several crucial themes are mentioned, among them: the triad: good thoughts, good words, good actions the dichotomy: praise or welcoming of good things versus scorn or blame of evil things6 • the sacrificer’s gift of his own life breath and body7 • for the purpose of making the new Life frasa • • The introduction in the Frastuiie is matched by that of the Yasna Hapta∞haiti. Both start with the triad thought, speech, and work, followed by the dichotomy praise - blame: Y.0.4 = Y.11.17 frastuiie humatoibiiasca huxtoibiiasca huuarstoibiiasca (~ YH.35.2 in gen., YH.36.5 in instr.) m∏qboibiiasca vax¢dboibiiasca varstuuoibiiasca aibigairiia daiqe vispa humataca huxtaca huuarstaca (~ YH.35.2) paitiriciia daiqe vispa dusmataca duzuxtaca duzuuarstaca I send (my yasna, hymn, daena?) forth with my praise with (thoughts) well thought, (words) well spoken, (acts) well done, and (thoughts) to be well thought, (words) to be well spoken, and (acts) to be well done. I regard as worthy of songs of welcome all (thoughts) well thought, (words) well spoken, (acts) well done. I regard as worthy of being left behind8 all (thoughts) badly thought, (words) badly spoken, (acts) badly done. YH.35.2 humatan∏m huxtan∏m huuar¢stan∏m iiadaca aniiadaca v¢r¢ziiamnan∏mca vauu¢r¢zan∏mca mahi aibi.jar¢taro naenaestaro yaq¢na vohun∏m mahi Of (thoughts, words, acts) well thought, well spoken, and well performed here and elsewhere that are being (thought, spoken, and) performed and that have ever been (thought, spoken, and) performed we are singers of songs of welcome; we are not at all “blamers” of good things.9 6 See Skjærvø, 2002, pp. 44-62. See Skjærvø, 2002, pp. 40-41. 8 The terminology may be from the chariot race scenario: those to be applauded and those to be left behind. 9 The term staotar- “praiser” is in YH.41.5. 7 180 P.O. SKJÆRVØ The corresponding terms of “acceptance” and “refusal” (< “praise” versus “blame”) are: • aibigairiia ~ aibi.jar¢taro • paitiriciia ~ naestaro After this, the am¢Sa sp¢∞tas, the “Life-giving Immortals,” are specified as the recipients of the sacrifice and the hymn (citing and explaining YH.35.7) presented as a gift of the sacrificer’s mental creations and own body and life breath (a phrase that will be quoted repeatedly throughout the Yasna) offered with his thought, speech, and work, and also with his desire to produce the new Life: Y.0.5 = Y.11.18 f¢ra v≠ rahi am¢Sa sp¢∞ta yasn¢mca vahm¢mca (≤ YH.35.7) f¢ra mana∞ha f¢ra vaca∞ha f¢ra /iiaoqana f¢ra a∞huiia10 f¢ra tanuuasci† xvaxiiÇ ustan¢m (≤ 1.33.14) I shall now have given11 to you, O Life-giving Immortals, (my) sacrifice and hymn with (my) thought, with (my) word, and with (my) act, with (my) search for the new Life, and with “the life breath of my own body.” The sacrifice and hymn presented as mental creations: YH.35.7 ahurahiia zi a† v≠ mazdÇ yasn¢mca vahm¢mca vahist¢m am≠hmaidi We have thought (forth) as the best thing for you (all), the sacrifice and hymn to Ahura Mazda.” The first to present Ahura Mazda with the creations of his thought and his life breath and body was Zarathustra himself, as stated in 1.33.14, the first Gathic quotation in the Yasna: 1.33.14 a† rat∏m zaraqustro tanuuascit xvaxiiÇ ustan¢m dadaiti pauruuatat¢m mana∞hasca va∞h≠us mazdai… Thus, Zarathustra is giving (as gift) the life breath of his very own body as the foremost share (~ first fruit) of his good thought to Mazda… The reading of Mf1, Mf2 (also Y.11.18), cf. a∞huiiu- (Y.16.2). I have the impression that this “ritual” use of the aorist expresses the accomplishment of an action during a time interval including the present, but not necessarily preceding it. 10 11 GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA 181 Zarathustra was also, according to the Yasna, the first to “seek the new Life”: Y.16.2 zaraqustrahe var¢n¢mca †kaes¢mca yazamaide a∞huiiaos aSacina∞ho We offer up in sacrifice Zarathustra’s choice and guidance, that of him who sought the new Life, who loved Order. The implication is that, in order to give life and body to the macrocosmos, the sacrificers offer to Ahura Mazda as their contribution their own life and body as the micro-cosmic counterpart. This introductory part of the Yasna (Y.0.14) concludes with the hope that, by satisfying Ahura Mazda and scorning the Evil Spirit — where we note again the dichotomy “praise” — “blame,” “the most perfect new Life (ahu) may be produced as a worthy exchange gift,” with a quotation from the end of the Sp¢∞tamainiiu Gaqa (3.50.11): Y.0.14 xsnaoqra ahurahe mazdÇ taroiditi a∞rahe mainii≠us haiqiia var¢st∏m hiia† vasna fraso.t¢m¢m (≤ 3.50.11) By (my) satisfying Ahura Mazda, by (my) disdaining the Evil Spirit, on account of (my) true (action/utterance) may what is most “Juicy” in exchange value be produced!12 3.50.11 a† v≠ staota aojai mazda a∞haca… data a∞h≠us ar¢da† vohu mana∞ha haiqiia var¢st∏m hiia† vasna fraso.t¢m¢m Thus, I shall declare myself your praiser, O Mazda (and you others), and I shall be… the one who establishes the new Life *successfully by (my) good thought! On account of (my) true (action/utterance) may what is most “Juicy” in exchange value be produced! The Ahuna vairiia prayer is then recited for the first time in full in the Yasna for the victory of Ahura Mazda and the protection of his ordered cosmos. 12 I render the Old Avestan term frasa as “Juicy,” implying fullness of the juices of fertility and fecundity caused by the sun’s and rain’s effect on the earth. A comprehensive discussion of this and other technical terms in the Yasna Hapta∞haiti can be found in Narten, 1986. On frasa and vasna, see Skjærvø, 2008a, pp. 513-14 with fn. 50. 182 P.O. SKJÆRVØ Yasna 1-14 The first part of the Yasna proper begins with Yasna 1-7, in which the elements needed for the re-ordering of the cosmos are enumerated according to Ahura Mazda’s blueprint, which contains all the models, or ratus. It also contains the praise of the Creator and requests for rewards, most of them quotations from the Yasna Hapta∞haiti, several of which will be repeated throughout the Yasna. In Yasna 4.4, we then have the first of many extended quotations from the Yasna Hapta∞haiti. The quotation is from a description of the Life-giving Immortals, and, in this example, the Old Avestan quotation (YH.39.3) was adapted grammatically — and correctly — to the preceding Young Avestan text. In the Yasna Hapta∞haiti, the epithets are in the accusative plural as direct object, but in the Yasna in the dative plural as indirect object: Y.4.4 YH.39.3 aa† dis auuaedaiiamahi *aa† iqa yazamaide am¢Saeibiio sp¢∞taeibiio va∞husca i† va∞vhisca i† huxsaqraeibiio hudÇbiio sp¢∞t≠∞g am¢S≠∞g yauuaejibiio yauuaesubiio yauuaejiio yauuaesuuo yoi va∞h≠us a mana∞ho siiei∞ti yÇsca uiti Then we make them known And in this way we sacrifice to them, to the Life-giving Immortals both good (males) and good (females), bestowing good command, who are Life-giving and Immortal, giving good gifts ever-living, ever-life-giving, the (male) ones who dwell on the side of good thought and the (female) ones who (do) so. After the preliminary introductions in Yasna 1-4 of all the elements involved in regenerating Ahura Mazda’s world (the new day), but before the priest starts consecrating them them up to Ahura Mazda in Yasna 6, YH.37.1-5 is inserted with its sacrifice to Ahura Mazda the Creator: Y.5.1-5 = YH.37.1 iqa aa† yazamaide ahur¢m mazd∏m y≠ g∏mca aS¢mca da† … In this manner we are offering up in sacrifice to Ahura Mazda, who set in place the cow and Order, etc. This is then immediately followed by Yasna 6, in which all the elements of the sacrifice are offered up to Ahura Mazda, the Creator: GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA 183 Y.6.1 daduuÇ∞h¢m ahur¢m mazd∏m yazamaide… We offer up in sacrifice to Ahura Mazda who has ever set everything in its place… etc. In Yasna 7, we then have quotations expressing requests for rewards, introduced by a quotation from the Ustauuaiti Gaqa: Y.7.24 aSaiia no paiti.jamiia† yehiia sauua isÇ∞ti rada∞ho (≤ 2.45.7) May he in return come to us in search of Order (or: in Orderly fashion),13 (he) to whose life-giving strengths of generosity they shall wish to come. or: he to whose (offerings of) life-giving strengths generous ones shall wish to come. Note that the quotation from the Ustauuaiti Gaqa provides the subject of the verb of the Young Avestan text. At the end of Y.7, we then have two quotations from the Yasna Hapta∞haiti: YH.41.5, in which the sacrificer and those with him present themselves as those who know the praises to Ahura Mazda and his sacred words (staotarasca m∏qranasca) and, then, one with a request for an appropriate fee for the successful role of the daenas in the sacrifice (YH.40.1), gifts that will benefit both this world and the other world (YH.40.2). The last quotation has also been “updated”: upa.jamiiama tauuaca sar¢m aSaxiiaca “(that) we may come to companionship with you and Order,” for the original tauuaca hax¢ma aSaxiiaca “(that) we may come to (be in) the following of you and Order.” The quotationes contain the typical hint at god’s generosity toward living beings and mankind in general, but the sacrificer in particular. In this manner, this first section of the Yasna comes to an end. There are hardly any significant quotations in Yasna 8 and Yasna 9-11.6, the hymn in praise of Haoma. In Yasna 11.17-19 (repeat of Yasna 0.4-6) and Yasna 12-14, however, we have a string of quotations from the Yasna Hapta∞haiti, as well as from the Gaqas, among them: • the Heavenly Lights and their counterpart the Earth in the form of Armaiti are invoked (Yasna 12.1-2, citing 1.31.7, 32.2); 13 Cf. Old Indic ®tayú- “seeking Order” and ®tay0 “in Orderly fashion.” 184 • • P.O. SKJÆRVØ three times more, life breath and bones are offered as countergifts for Ahura Mazda’s gifts (Yasna 11.17, 13.4, 14.2, citing 1.33.14) the sacrificer again stresses that he is the praiser and welcomer of all good things (Y.14.1: staotar and aibijar¢tar). Yasna 15-27 The beginning of Yasna 15, which is part of the Staota Yesniia (the Sacrificial Texts of Praise, or similar) section of the Yasna, contains variations on the conclusion of the 4th Gaqa, the Vohuxsaqra, which is devoted to Ahura Mazda’s Good Command and the reward for placing Ahura Mazda back in command: The entire last strophe of this Gaqa is then cited as Y.15.2, but with the addition of the first line of its first strophe, in which the good result of placing Ahura Mazda back in command is emphasized: vohu xsaqr¢m vairim bag¢m aibi.bairist¢m “the good command is the best bringer of (or: what brings most often) the well-deserved share (as reward).” The quotations in Y.18 target the Creator’s gifts and contain several strophes of the third Gaqa, the Sp¢∞tamainiiu, devoted to the Divine Inspiration, Ahura Mazda’s creative Spirit, after which there are hardly any quotations until we reach Y.27, which introduces the Old Avesta and contains the Ahuna vairiia, which is the first strophe of the Ahunauuaiti Gaqa and so also of the entire Old Avesta. Y.27, which accompanies the haoma sacrifice, contains several Gathic strophes, beginning with the final strophe of the first Gaqa, with its request to make the new life frasa; the Airiiaman strophe—which concludes the fifth and last Gaqa, the Vahistoisti Gaqa, and so also the entire Old Avesta—for the success of the yasna and the healing of the cosmos; and Zarathustra’s gift of his life breath and body. Note also the request for Sraosha in Y.27.6 to be present to fight the powers of darkness, which will be repeated later, using a phrase from the Yasna Hapta∞haiti to be discussed below. The Old Avesta is then recited, repeatedly, as the most powerful means of defeating the powers of darkness. Yasna 55-72 Once the Old Avesta comes to an end, the sacred texts are offered up in sacrifice, that is, sent on their way to aid in the removal of darkness (Y.54.2). Then the sacrificers again offer up themselves (Y.55.1), as well GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA 185 as the Staota Yesniia as belonging to the first new Life and set in place by Ahura Mazda at the beginning of the creation in a remarkable passage: Y.55.6 staota yesniia yazamaide ya data a∞h≠us paouruiiehiia (≤ 1.33.1) mar¢mna v¢r¢zimna sixs¢mna sacaiiamna dadrana paitisana paitis.mar¢mna framar¢mna fraiiaz¢mna fras¢m vasna ahum daqana (< 1.34.15) We offer up in sacrifice the Sacrificial Texts of Praise, which you (all) set in place (as the models) of the First Life as they are memorized, performed, mastered, taught, held, *sent back, recited back, recited forth, (and) sent forth in sacrifice, obtaining (in return?) a Life “Juicy” in exchange value. Here, again, the Gathic quotation is from a different context: 1.33.1 yaqa ais iqa var¢saite ya data a∞h≠us pauruiiehiia ratus /iiaoqana razista dr¢guuataeca hiia†ca aSaone In the way that (they have been produced) through these (words and actions [in the past?]; or: by these present), in this manner shall be (re)produced the actions which you (all) established as the models of the first Life (to be) the straightest (thoughts, etc.?) both for the one possessed by the Lie and when it is for the sustainer of Order… It is possible that the subject of var¢saite is “words, poems,” but in the Young Avestan context the reference to words is made explicit by providing a subject, the Staota Yesniia, accompanied by a series of verbs which may well summarize the process of oral learning and application of the sacred texts. As for the second quotation, we note that the formula for making the world frasa as an exchange gift of value— fras¢m vasna ahum daqana (the only time this formula is found in Young Avestan) —does not correspond perfectly to any of the three Gathic versions of the formula, but partly overlaps with the one that concludes the Ahunauuaiti Gaqa: 1.34.15 xsmaka xsaqra ahura f¢ras≠m vasna haiqii≠m dÇ ahum You (now) establish by the command of you (all), O Ahura, (this) Life as Juicy in exchange value, the true one. 186 P.O. SKJÆRVØ The first part of the formula is identical, but the second part is in Young Avestan (with present, rather than aorist) and has been adapted to the 1st plural context of Y.55.6 (rather than 2nd singular). Another interesting adaptation is seen in Yasna 57, where we find ourselfs in the middle of the battle between Sraosa and Wrath, the embodiment of the dark sky. In Y.57.33, Sraosa is said to receive sacrifices both “here and elsewhere,” taken from the beginning of the Yasna Hapta∞haiti, where it qualifies the priests’ promise to offer praise: Y.57.33 sraos¢m aSim huraod¢m… yazamaide ida†ca ainida†ca We sacrifice to well-grown Sraosa of the rewards,14 both here YH.35.2 humatan∏m huxtan∏m huuar¢stan∏m iiadaca aniiadaca Of (thoughts, words, acts) well thought, well spoken, and well performed and elsewhere. The application of the phrase to Sraosa may seem gratuitous, but the choice of the phrase may have been dictated by a concern to link it with the common Young Avestan phrase s¢raoso ida astu “let Sraosa be here!” which also contains “here” (ida), with some Old Avestan features (s¢raoso with epenthesis; long final vowels). There may be an even closer connection with the Yasna Hapta∞haiti, however. A little bit further along in YH.35, we have the following passage: YH.35.4 gauuoi adais tais /iiaoqanais yais vahistais fraesiiamahi ramaca vastr¢mca dazdiiai surunuuatasca asurunuuatasca For the sake of the cow, by these (our thoughts, words?), by those (our) actions, (our) best ones, by which we are (here and now) sending forth (our sacrifice?). in order for peace and pasture to be established (for her), both toward those who listen and those who do not listen… Here, the sacrificer’s promise to send his gifts to both those who listen and those who do not listen is probably an expression of concern to safeguard the sacrifice from missing anybody important in the other world just because they happened not to be listening at that particular point. The 14 Stop-gap translation. GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA 187 Young Avestan composer, however, may have thought the word “who listen” referred to Sraosa, the divine “readiness to listen” itself. In Y.58.5, we also have a request to the Life-giving Immortals for protection, which harkens back to Yasna 29 and the soul of the cow’s request for a protector and hints at good rewards, and which combines elements of the first Gaqa and the Yasna Hapta∞haiti (where the context and syntax differ): Y.58.5 YH.39.3 (cf. Y.4.4 cited above) yaqa n≠ data am¢Sa sp¢∞ta aqa nÇ qrazdum (= 1.34.7) qrazdum n≠ va∞hauuo va∞husca i† qrazdum n≠ va∞vhis va∞vhisca i† qrazdum n≠ am¢Sa sp¢∞ta sp¢∞t≠∞g am¢S≠∞g huxsaqra hudÇ∞ho naecim t≠m anii≠m yusma† vaeda (↓ ≤ 1.34.7) a+a aqa nÇ qrazdum As you set us in place (~ “created us}), O Life-giving Immortals, thus do now protect us! Protect us, O good (male) ones, protect us, O good (female) ones! Protect us O Life-giving Immortals, (you) who bestow (or: have) good command, good gifts! I know him (i.e., my ar¢dra “arbiter” to be) none other than (one of) you, so protect us now with (your) Order! It is now getting close to sunrise, and the requests for the heavenly lights and the heavenly fire are getting more insistent, as well as requests for Ahura Mazda’s gifts. References to the heavenly lights and the sun continue in Y.58.8 with a quotation from the Yasna Hapta∞haiti (YH.36.6), in which we also notice the substitution of the Young Avestan Ahura Mazda for the older Mazda Ahura: Y.58.8 YH.36.6 hauruu∏m ha∞daitim staotan∏m yesniian∏m yazamaide apano.t¢maiia paiti vacastasta sraest∏m a† toi k¢hrp≠m k¢hrp∏m auuaedaiiamahi ahura mazda mazda ahura ima raocÇ bar¢zist¢m bar¢ziman∏m auua† ya† huuar≠ auuaci We offer up in sacrifice the whole *structure of the Sacrificial Texts of Praise in return for(?) the most attainable formula: Thus, as your form, the most beautiful of forms, we are making known, O Ahura Mazda/Mazda Ahura, 188 P.O. SKJÆRVØ these lights (as the same as) yonder highest of heights, as high as (yonder) sun has been said (to be). The text now also increasingly focuses on getting rid of the powers of darkness, and a question from the second Gaqa (2.44.13) is quoted to that effect together with the appropriate answers: Y.61.5 kaqa druj¢m nis ahma† a nis.nasama (≤ 2.44.13) nis.nasama saosiia∞to druj¢m kaqa nis.nasama yaqa him janama xsaiiamno axsaiiamn∏m (~ YH.35.4) vispais haca karsuu∏n yais hapta hamist≠e nizb¢r¢t≠e vispaiiÇ druuato stois stauuas aSa y≠ hudÇ yoi h¢∞ti (≤ 2.45.6) How we shall *dispel here from us the Lie? We shall *dispel (it, we,) the Revitalizers. How shall we dispel the Lie so that we can smash it, as he who commands (dispels her) who does not command from all the seven continents, for the discomfiture and removal of the entire (temporal?) existence of the one possessed by the Lie? Praising with Order him who is generous to all those who are. Here the Gathic “we” has been made explicit and understood as the successful sacrificers, the saosiia∞ts, those “who shall make (the new Life) swell (with life-giving juices).” Note also the contrast between those in command and those out of command (YAv. xsaiiamno axsaiiamn∏m), recalling the opening of the Yasna Hapta∞haiti (YH.35.4): “we send (our gifts) forth to those who command and those who do not (OAv. xsaiia∞tasca axsaiia∞tasca).” Finally, we note the importance of praise and the reference to the generous ones, again cited from the Ustauuaiti Gaqa (2.45.6). We finally come to the praise of the heavenly Fire (Y.62), which has been regenerated in part by the efforts of the sacrificer, who now more persistently refers to the regeneration of the world and rewards and fame for himself (see tables). The end and beginning of the Vohuxsaqra gaqa are again cited (Y.63.1), and Y.64 quotes a verse line from 2.46.3 referring to “the upholding of the new Life of Order” and the conclusion of the Sp¢∞tamainiiu gaqa (3.50.6-11), with the third and last request to Ahura Mazda to produce an ahu that is the most frasa. This is followed by the libation of the waters as fertilizing rain, which can now also be seen as the breaking birth waters accompanying the new-born sun. GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA 189 Again, the principal themes are repeated: praise, growth, lights, rewards (see table). YH.35 and 3.48.6 are then cited in Y.71.25, which show that the sun and the fertilizing rain that now comes down upon the earth, make grass grow as abundant pasture for the cow, with a shift in the reference: Y.71.25 gauue adais YH.35.4 gauuoi adais tais /iiaoqanais yais vahistais fraesiiamahi a† axiiai aSa mazdÇ uruuarÇ vaxsa† ahuro a∞h≠us z∏qoi pauruiiehiia (≤ 3.48.6) For the sake of the cow, by these (our presentations?), by those (our) actions, (our) best ones, by which we are (here and now) sending forth (our sacrifice?). Thus, for her (the cow) Mazda through Order shall (now) make plants grow. Thus, for her (= Armaiti, the Earth) Mazda through Order shall (now) make plants grow, (he,) the Ahura, at the rebirth of the first Life. In Y.71.25, the passages are combined so as to imply that, with the birth of the new Life, grass will grow as pasture for the cow, whereas, in the Gathic passage, the implication is that Armaiti, the earth, will be covered with growing things at the birth of the new Life. Interestingly, the Pahlavi tradition for 3.48.6 develops the interpretation of Y.71.25 even further. First, it understood *soiq¢ma15 in the first verse line as xwarih (= xvaqra-) “comfort,” adding the gloss “from cattle” (az gospandan). The third and fourth verse lines are then rendered as follows: Pahlavi 3.48.6cd edon pad an i oy tarsagayih ka gaw i ekdad tan be dad Ohrmazd urwar waxsenid ku-s be abzayenid Ohrmazd andar axwan zahag i fradom ray dahisn i Wahman ray Thus, by her respect,16 (i.e.) when the lone-established bull rendered its life, Ohrmazd made the plants grow, i.e., he increased them, Ohrmazd, in the (two) worlds, for the first offspring, (i.e.,) for the creation of Wahman. 15 usoiq¢ma PPY, IPY, SY (J3 uSoiqima), PVS, IVS; husoiq¢ma YS. – usoiq¢ma must be the reading of the archetype, but a mistake for soiqma, with n≠ u- anticipating n≠ utaiiuitim. 16 Reading aSi into the text’s aSa. The two are combined in an exegesis found in Denkard 4.9 didigar wahuman i ast fradom dahisn sidigar tarsagay aswahist i bawihist padis wahuman tarsagahih az ohrmazd bawenidarih “second [after Ohrmazd], was Wahuman, who is (his) first creation; third (was) Aswahist the respectful, through whom 190 P.O. SKJÆRVØ The last quotations in Y.71.30 (= Y.60.12) contain final requests that we may be in the camp of (the supporters of) light and goodness, echoing 1.28.5 and YH.40.2, which ends the quotations in the Yasna. Old Avestan quotations in the Videvdad We shall leave the Yasna here and go on to a few examples from the Videvdad, where, as we shall see, the use of Gathic quotations is very different from in the Yasna. Videvdad 3.29 The following is an example from chapter 3, in which the things that please and displease the Earth are described. In this section we see the fourth thing that pleases and displeases her, namely agriculture and lack of agriculture. The one who does work the earth will have food in plenty, while the one who does not is reduced to begging at peoples’ doors, where “succulent dishes are carried” past his mouth, expressed by a modified quotation from 1.32.15: V.3.29 bada ida histahe aniiehe duuar¢ sraiiano xvar¢∞tis p¢r¢s¢mnaesuca bada qb∏m tarasca Ç∞hano srasci∞tis xvar¢qÇ bairiie∞te te abiia bairiie∞te (< 1.32.15) yaes∏m dim fraiio vohun∏m At times you stand here leaning against the door of another among those begging for food. At times succulent dishes are carried past your mouth: they are brought to those who (already) have more good things (than they need)! The last line makes perfect sense in the context, but there is a grammatical irregularity, as the dative dual form abiia “to those two” (fem.) cannot be correlated with the genitive plural (masc.) yaes∏m “whose, who have.” The correct dative plural form would have been aebiio. In 1.32.15, however, abiia is not dative, but instrumental, and the context is completely different: 1.32.15 anais a vi.n≠nasa, ya karapo.tÇsca k¢uuitÇsca auuais aibi y≠∞g dai∞ti, noi† jiiat≠us xsaiiamn≠∞g vaso Wahuman’s respect came into existence, (both?) from Ohrmazd’s causing (them) to come into existence.” GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA 191 toi abiia bairiiÇ∞te, va∞h≠us a d¢mane mana∞ho (It is) by those actions of yours (that) what is the title of “karapan” and that of “kauui” is ruined here. (But) in spite of those, (the ones) whom (the bad ones) want to trap (because) not in control at will of (their) livelihood, they will on account of these two (titles) be brought into the abode of Good Thought.17 Here, the poet is talking about the bad poets and priests who give their titles a bad reputation, but states that those who really deserve the two titles will be carried to the abode of Good Thought, that is, Paradise. The knowledge that abiia referred to “two” rather than “many” had remained till quite late, as we see from the so-called Frahang i oim, where the similar form uuaebiia is cited and explained: Frahang i oim 2b (Klingenschmitt no. 35, ms. K 20 fol. 74v) uuaebiia: harw 2 nar ud madag, harw 2 xwarisn ud wastarg abar harw 2 getiy ud menoy (Av.) uuaebiia: both, (e.g.) male and female; both, (e.g.) food and clothes; both, (e.g.) this world and that world This is how the Pahlavi tradition understood the Gathic line, as well, namely, as referring simply to two things. In the Sasanian period, when the knowledge that the form was a dative had been lost, the two things the priests saw in the line were Hordad ud Amurdad, the Life-giving Immortals representing water and plants, but also in charge of food: Pahlavi 1.32.15 o oy i to awesan harw 2 barend o oy i to asro hordad ud amurdad To that of yours [for Av. toi] they carry those two, (namely,) to your Fire, (namely,) Hordad ud Amurdad. A bit surprisingly, perhaps, in the commentary on 1.32 in the Sudgar Nask, 1.32 is understood to be about the various arch-offenses, such as offering sacrifices to the evil gods, walking with only shoe, and, specifically, about speaking while eating: Denkard 9.9.3 (exegesis of 1.32) ud andarz i abar ne guftan i andar xwarisn ud xwarisn saxwan ud pad spas ud snayisn i yazdan pes az xwarisn ud xwarisn ud pad-iz pardaxt ud pakih i dahan And about the advice not to say a word while eating and drinking. And about saying “grace” to the gods before eating and drinking. 17 See Skjærvø, 2001, p. 353. 192 P.O. SKJÆRVØ And also about leftovers and keeping one’s mouth clean. The connection, however, again appears to be with Hordad ud Amurdad, since speaking while eating is an offense against them: Menoy Xrad 1.33-34 drayan-joyisnih ma kun ku-t andar hordad ud amurdad amahrspand astar i garan ne jahed Do not speak while eating, lest a grave sin befall you against the amahrspands Hordad and Amurdad! Note alsothe reference to “leftovers”18 in Denkard 9.9.3, which is not in the Pahlavi translation itself, but must have been part of the tradition based on the Gathic passage, since this is also what links it to the traditional interpretation of the Videvdad passage, where “plenty of good things” is interpreted as “leftovers” (pardaxt): Pahlavi V.3.29 az awesan an i fray abadih az pardaxt from the prosperity they have more, (that is) from the “leftovers.” What is remarkable about these texts is that they may, in fact, suggest that the use of the Gathic strophe in the Avestan Videvdad passage presupposes that the exegesis we see only much later in the Pahlavi texts was already known at the time of the composition of the Videvdad. Videvdad 17.5 Let us now return to the quotation from 3.48.6 about making plants grow that we discussed above and which is also used in the Videvdad. Chapter 17 begins with a description of how to dispose of nail pairings and cut hair to avoid that they might become weapons for the evil ones. The correct procedure is to dig holes in the ground and then utter the Gathic passage: V.17.5 aa† aqra mag¢m auua.kanois distim xruzdisme vitastim var¢dusme paiti dim abarois aqa im∏ vaco framruiiÇ var¢qragnis zaraqustra a† axiiai a+a mazdÇ uruuarÇ vaxsa† (≤ 3.48.6) Then there you should dig a hole, ten finger-widths in hard earth, a span (12 fingers) in soft earth. 18 Note that the word is probably to be read as pardaxt, not as “parrext” as in MacKenzie’s Dictionary, as proved by Parthian pardaz- <prts-> in Sapur’s inscription on the Ka‘be-ye Zardost, see Skjærvø, 2009, p. 295 n. 19. GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA 193 Thither you should carry it. Then you should say forth these victorious words, Zarathustra: Thus, for her, Mazda through Order shall make plants grow. This time, however, rather than referring to vegetal growth on the revived earth, the implication must be that Ahura Mazda should cause plants to grow on the earth covering the nail parings and the hair, thus effectively establishing a barrier between them and the forces of evil that might want to use them. The procedure is elaborated on in the following (V.17.7), where we have yet another Gathic quotation: V.17.7 sruuaeibiia mag¢m auua.kanois nistara.naema† nmanahe auua† aipi yaqa kasistahe ¢r¢zuuo frat¢m¢m †bisis paiti dim abarois aqa im∏ vaco framruiiÇ var¢qragnis zaraqustra a+a vohu mana∞ha ya sruiie par≠ magaono (≤ 1.33.7) With two nails you should dig a hole outside the house as much even as the first joint of the smallest finger. Thither you should carry it. Then you should say forth these obstruction-smashing words, Zarathustra: by the Order (of my sacrifice and) by (my) good thought, for which I am (now) being heard before the master of the gift exchange. The contexts and syntax again differ: 1.33.7 a ma aidum vahista, a xvaiqiiaca mazda dar¢sa†ca a+a vohu mana∞ha, ya sruiie par≠ magaono auuis nÇ a∞tar¢ h≠∞tu, n¢maxvaitis ciqrÇ rataiio Ask me for (my) best (utterances), O Mazda (and you others, ask me for utterances) both *having their own (command?) and (uttered) strongly by the Order (of my sacrifice and) by (my) good thought, for which I am (now) being heard before the master of the gift exchange. Let there appear among us brilliant gifts with homage! We see here that the Gathic word sruiie “I am being heard” was taken in the sense of Young Avestan “nails” and that the word magaono was thought to contain the word maga “(ritual) hole.” The correspondences between the Old and Young Avestan passages are enhanced further when we reconstruct the way they may have sounded when the Videvdad was composed:19 19 sruuabiia L4; srauuabiia K1, L2; sruuaeibiia Mf2, Jp1. The forms of this word can not be reduced to a single paradigm, but the feminine a-stem forms are most likely to be secondary. 194 P.O. SKJÆRVØ sruwai-bya sruwai parah maga-m maga-unah The Gathic magaono, however, has nothing to do with this word maga, but rather with a Gathic word maga that probably refers to the exchange of gifts between the divinity and the sacrificer, and the magaono is probably the divine entity who evaluates the sacrificial gift offerings and gives a countergift of the same value, or more.20 The commentary in the Sudgar Nask has yet another twist to this. Here, the Gathic word is said to refer to the horned dragon sruwar, a plague equal to the Foul Spirit himself (killed by K¢r¢saspa: Y.9.11), and is listed together with Azhdahag and his mother Wadag,21 and Tur i Bradrokhsh, Zarathustra’s killer, among the seven worst sinners ever: Denkard 9.10.3 (exegesis on 1.33 in the Sudgar Nask) az haft i pad wad i abar wattarih hawand i gannag menoy osmured ciyon az i dahag pad jadugih ud az i sruwar pad stahmagih ud wadag pad wad-*hunuskih tur i *bradaroxs pad ahlaw-genih ud ahrimen pad garan-winahih About the seven that it lists as the worst ever, equal to the Foul Spirit: namely Azhdahag in sorcery, the Horned Dragon in violence, Wadag in producing evil brood, Tur Bradrokhsh in destroying the righteous, Ahrimen in the severity of his sinfulness. The “trigger” for this exegesis may be found in an earlier strophe, 1.33.2, where we find the phrase “he who is evil (even) to the one possessed by the Lie,” which would imply that he was the most evil of them all: a† y≠ ak¢m dr¢guuaite “but he who is evil (even) to the one possessed by the Lie,” Pahlavi edon zanisn hend druwand “thus, the wicked ones are to be stricken.” Old Avestan quotations in the Nerangestan 47 My last examples are from the Nerangestan. Chapter 47 contains a long discussion about how to kill a sacrificial animal, how to dismember 20 21 On the gift exchange, see Skjærvø, 2008a. See also Skjærvø, 2008b, p. 538. GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA 195 it, and how to offer the pieces to the fire, and, throughout this ritual, parts of the Yasna Hapta∞haiti are recited:22 N.47.10 vispaes∏m *atr¢m paiti *baroi† He should carry (some) of all of them to the fire! Pahlavi harwisp *o ataxs abar e bared *gaonwad pad an i paymanag i-m guft *cahar taro yasn¢m hapta∞haitim yezi∞t¢m ‘Let him carry it all to the fire!’, (i.e.) the (meat) with gaona in what is the (correct) proportion that I said: *Four, ‘while the Yasna Hapta∞haiti is being performed’ A bit earlier in this text, we have a statement regarding the amount of meat that should be cut off and from where it should be cut off (N.47.5), which, according to the Pahlavi is “On the highest high,” which is glossed as pad sar i kof, which could mean either “on the hump of the head” or “on the top of a mountain.” N.47.5 ya duuaeibiia ¢r¢zubiia ha∞g¢r¢fa† What he can grasp with two fingers Pahlavi cand pad 2 angust o ham ∏m pad balist abar *buland pad sar kof. As much as with two fingers together??? ‘On the highest up on high’, on the hump of the head (or: on the top of a mountain?)’ There are several problems with this text: the verb ha∞g¢r¢fa† “seizes” has no Pahlavi equivalent, only the preverb ham- (ha∞-) is rendered as o ham “together” 2. the syllable ∏m written in Avestan script is inexplicable 3. Pahlavi “on the highest up on high” looks like the Pahlavi rendering of an Avestan phrase and, as such, is glossed by “on the hump of the head” So, it would seem that something is missing here. 1. 22 See Skjærvø, forthcoming, for a full discussion of this text. 196 P.O. SKJÆRVØ Following up this line of thought, what immediately comes to mind is the Pahlavi translation of a passage in the Yasna Hapta∞haiti discussed above, namely YH.36.6, whose Pahlavi is quite similar to the phrase here in the Nerangestan: YH.36.6 imÇ raocÇ bar¢zist¢m bar¢ziman∏m these lights [i.e., the fire], the highest of heights [i.e., where the sun is] Pahlavi en ruwan o an i rosnih i balist balenan ku-m ruwan be o xwarxsed payag rasad this soul to that light the highest I make high, i.e., so that my soul may arrive on the sun level. Since the Yasna Hapta∞haiti is recited during this ritual and in view of the agreement between the two Pahlavi renderings, I think it is quite clear that the Nerangestan text can be restored as follows: 1. the Pahlavi verb corresponding to the Avestan “takes together” must be restored: N.47.5 *ya† duuaeibiia ¢r¢zubiia *ha∞g¢r¢ba† to the extents one can grasp (it) with two fingers. cand pad 2 angust o ham [girad] As much as one may take together using two fingers. 2. and the Avestan quotation from the Yasna Hapta∞haiti, providing the final syllable ∏m, must be restored: [bar¢zist¢m bar¢ziman]∏m [The highest] of [height]s. pad balist abar *buland pad sar kof. On the highest high, on the hump of the head. Thus, we need only assume that at most one line was skipped some time during the transmission. The text then goes on to discuss the exact spot the meat is to be taken, giving various alternatives, but the last alternative is “on the highest part of the skull”: GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA 197 N.47.7 *bar¢snuuo23 va paiti vagdanahe or on the highest part of the skull az balist abar wagdan… from the highest (point) on the skull… All in all, I suspect that what we have here is a macrocosmic-microcosmic-ritual correspondence: the highest part of the victim is identified with the highest element in the cosmos, the sun, and the act of cutting a piece from it is accompanied by the appropriate sacred text, here the Yasna Hapta∞haiti. The correspondence seen here is similar to that seen in the Bundahisn in the chapter on the human body as an analogy of the world, where the highest of the head and brain are said to be like the Endless Lights and the head like Paradise: Bundahisn 28.4 ud balist i sar ud mazg ciyon asar rosnih ud sar ciyon garodman And the highest of the head and brain is like the Endless Lights and the head like Garodman (Paradise). Note also the lexical correspondence between N.47.7 and Yast 13.42, where the fravashis are said to go forth on the top of yonder sky: Yast 13.42 yÇ… mainiiu./utÇ fra/us¢∞te bar¢snuuo auua∞´he asno who… go forth in the other world on the top of yonder sky There is, apparently, a similar macro-microcosmic identification in N.64.2, in which the fourth of the seven assistant priests, the ab¢r¢t, whose role it is to bring the water, is called the *danuzuuaza,24 that is, the one who brings up the Danu, one of the world(?) rivers: N.64.2 tuirim *danuzuuaz¢m “The fourth, the one who brings up the river Danu.” TD bar¢snso, HJ bar¢Snso; also possible: *bar¢snusuuo for *bar¢snusuua “on the heights.” 24 HJ danazuuaz¢m, TD danazuuan¢m. Bartholomae (Air. Wb., col. 734) read danazuuaza, followed by Kotwal and Kreyenbroek, p. 274. For my reading *danuzuuaza < danu-uz-uuaza-, see Air. Wb., col. 1388 (us + vaz-). 23 198 P.O. SKJÆRVØ which is correctly rendered in the Pahlavi as the one who makes the rivers flow: tasom pad rod-wazenidarih pad aberdih the fourth to serve as the one who makes the river(s) flow’, (i.e.), as aberd. The length of the Danu, however, like the height of the sun, is unsurpassable and the greatest in this world, as we read several places in the Young Avesta: Y.60.4, Yt.13.32 z¢m.fraqa∞ha danu.draja∞ha huuar¢.bar¢za∞ha the width of the earth, the length of the Danu, the height of the sun Thus, we see that the Pahlavi tradition still remembered the meaning of the Avestan texts, identifying the microcosmic-ritual meat offering from the top of the skull and the water libations with the macrocosmic sky and rivers, resepectively. Conclusions We see how the Old Avestan quotations are appropriate for the context into which they are inserted, many, obviously at a time when their meaning and syntax were still well understood. In the Yasna, most of the quotations agree with the ritual context and must have been understood in their general and special meaning, even if not in their completely literal senses. Looking at how much of the Yasna Hapta∞haiti is quoted verbatim in the Yasna and how much has counterparts in the Yasna, though not as direct quotations, it is is even possible to get the impression that the extant Yasna is an expanded and elaborated version of the Yasna Hapta∞haiti. All the examples outside of the Yasna and some in the Yasna exhibit clear characteristics of “omnisignificance.” This is a term originally applied to the Old Testament, especially the Torah, meaning that each and every word of the sacred text carries all meanings. The concept is perfectly evident in the Pahlavi exegesis of the Old Avesta as found in the three nasks of the ninth book of the Denkard.25 Most importantly, however, the examples presented here may indicate that the same exegetical principle was already in use at the time of the 25 Vevaina (forthcoming). GATHIC QUOTATIONS IN THE YOUNG AVESTA 199 Young Avesta. The Young Avestan principles of exegesis may therefore have been quite similar to those of the Old Indic post-Vedic texts. This opens up a thrilling new field of Avestan studies, which I hope some of our younger students will take up. I am convinced it will throw an entirely new light on the ancient Zoroastrian scholars’ perceptions of the Gaqas. Bibliography Firoze M. Kotwal and Philip G. Kreyenbroek, eds., The Herbedestan and Nerangestan (vol. 3; Studia Iranica. Cahier 30; Paris: Association pour l’avancement des études iraniennes, 2003). J. Narten, Der Yasna Hapta∞haiti, Wiesbaden: L. Reichert, 1986. P. O. Skjærvø, “Rivals and Bad Poets: The Poet’s Complaint in the Old Avesta,” in M. G. Schmidt and W. Bisang, eds., Philologica et Linguistica. Historia, Pluralitas, Universitas. Festschrift für Helmut Humbach zum 80. Geburtstag am 4. Dezember 2001, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier, 2001, pp. 351-376. —, “Praise and Blame in the Avesta. The Poet-Sacrificer and His Duties,” in Studies in Honour of Shaul Shaked I, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 26, Jerusalem, 2002, pp. 29-67. —, “The Avestan Yasna: Ritual and Myth,” in Claus V. Pedersen and Fereydun Vahman, eds., Religious Texts in Iranian Languages. Symposium Held in Copenhagen May 2002, Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen, 2006 [pub. 2007], pp. 53-80. —, “Tahadi. Gifts and Counter-Gifts in the Ancient Zoroastrian Ritual,” in Classical Arabic Humanities in their Own Terms. Festschrift for Wolfhart Heinrichs on his 65th Birthday Presented by His Students and Collegues, ed. Beatrice Gruendler and Michael Cooperson, Brill, 2008a, pp. 493-520. —, “The Story of Azi Dahaka in the 9th Book of the Denkard and Pahlavi ayeb ‘Blaze, Conflagration’,” in Chomolangma, Demawend und Kasbek, Festschrift f ür Roland Bielmeier zu seinem 65. Geburtstag, 2 vols., Beiträge zur Zentralasienforschung 12, 2008b, pp. 533-49. —, “On Videvdad 11 and Its Pahlavi Commentaries,” in Éric Pirart et Xavier Tremblay, eds., Zarathustra entre l’Inde et l’Iran. Études indo-iraniennes et indo-européennes offertes à Jean Kellens à l’occasion de son 65e anniversaire, Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2009, pp. 289-304. —, “Hairy Meat? On Nerangestan, chapter 47.1-20,” in Steven Fine and Shai Secunda, eds., Shoshanat Yaakov: Ancient Jewish and Iranian Studies in Honor of Yaakov Elman, Leiden: Brill (forthcoming). Y. S.-D. Vevaina, “Scripture versus Contemporary (Interpretive) Needs: Towards a Mapping of the Hermeneutic Contours of Zoroastrianism,” in Steven Fine and Shai Secunda, eds., Shoshanat Yaakov: Ancient Jewish and Iranian Studies in Honor of Yaakov Elman, Leiden: Brill (forthcoming).