Ancient Iran

In recent years scholars who study ancient economies have sharpened their focus on the role of women within these networks and on use of seals in their administration. Yet, until recently, little attention has been paid to the relationship between sex and seal ownership and/or use. This paper uses the remarkable evidence from the site of Shahr-i Sokhta in Iran to address this question. While seals from the habitation areas of the site demonstrate significant changes in shape, material and iconography over time, those found in the necropolis establish who owned seals and how they were worn. On the practical side, excavated sealings document the administration of the site. This paper compares the physical and iconographic aspects of seals found in the cemetery with those of seals used for administrative sealing to identify different groups of people responsible for controlling goods and resources. I use the observed similarity between seals used for sealing and those found buried in women's graves to suggest that women were responsible for most of the administrative sealing at Shahr-i Sokhta in the mid-third millennium BCE, and to call into question the often-unchallenged assumption that men were by default responsible for administration in ancient societies.

Link to download: https://hdl.handle.net/11299/220694

This article makes three arguments regarding the Battle of Thermopylae. First, that the discovery of the Anopaea path was not dependent upon Ephialtes, but that the Persians were aware of it at their arrival and planned their attacks at Thermopylae, Artemisium, and against the Phocians accordingly. Second, that Herodotus’ claims that the failure of the Phocians was due to surprise, confusion, and incompetence are not convincing. And third, that the best explanation for the Phocian behavior is that they were from Delphi and betrayed their allies as part of a bid to restore local control over the sanctuary.

Al-adab al-saghīr has been translated from Pahlavi, and can be regarded as the crossroads of the Iranian and Islamic cultures. Ibn-e Moqafa’a, like other translators of Pahlavi texts, translated texts which were in line with Islamic thoughts from Pahlavi to Arabic. This was warmly welcomed in the Arab world, but they were gradually intertwined with Arabic thoughts and the Iranian roots were forgotten.
In the present paper, the sources for some Iranian thoughts in Ketab- al-adab al-ṣaghīr will be presented. This paper will also signify the deeply rooted Iranian culture in Arabic literary works.

A one-page article outlining the concept and contents of the new gallery which opened in June 2007. The displays make very effective use of monumental 19th century plaster casts from Persepolis to create and enhance a sense of the architecture and culture of ancient Iran. This is the first occasion that these have been employed in such a manner in a permanent gallery display at the British Museum. I have added more information about this gallery in my section on "Gallery Information".

This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises approximately twenty-five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

Persian Translation of Shenkar, M. (2011), "Temple Architecture in the Iranian World in the Hellenistic Period”, in Kouremenos, A., Rossi, R., Chandrasekaran, S. (eds.), From Pella to Gandhara: Hybridisation and Identity in the Art and Architecture of the Hellenistic East, Oxford.

Persians, Medes and Parthians in Horace’s Carmina

The kingdom of Parthia which came into being in the 3rd century BC in the eastern frontiers of the Seleucid monarchy became the great power in the course of time. In the 1st century BC the Parthians met on their way the Romans expanding East. In the next three hundred years those empires were fighting each other in the great competition on Imperium Orientis. The Roman men of letters made a lot of references to this conflict, especially in the Augustan Age. In my paper, I would like to analyze references to the Iranian world which appear in Horace’s Carmina. Horace (65-8 BC), the greatest Latin lyric poet, supported the reforms carried out by emperor Augustus and his politics. It refers
also to the relations with Parthia. In spite of the fact that Horace did not focus on the Iranian matters, he treated them in an original way drawing both from the Greek tradition and from the current political relations between Rome and Arsacid monarchy.

Batı’da ve İran, Hindistan gibi Doğu ülkelerinde ayrıntılı Avesta gramerleri
ve sözlükleri yayınlanmasının üzerinden 100 yıldan fazla bir
süre geçmesine rağmen Türkiye’de bu alandaki çalışmaların hâlen
başlangıç aşamasında olduğu rahatlıkla söylenebilir. Halbûki antik
Aryan dilleri ve kültürünün Anadolu-Mezopotamya coğrafyasında
ve çevresinde ciddi bir etkiye sahip olduğu ortadadır. Buna karşın
Mitannilere kadar geriye giden ve yaşadığımız coğrafyanın tarihinde
oldukça köklü izler bırakan Aryan dilleri tarihinin yeterince incelenip
hak ettiği yere geldiği söylenemez. Elinizdeki çalışma bu
alandaki boşluğun bir nebze doldurulması ve Antik Aryan dilleri
arasında en zengin örneklerden birini temsil eden Avesta dilinin
temel gramer özelliklerini ve belli başlı sözcük varlığını tanıtmak
istemektedir.

The day begins with a tour of 19th century plaster casts made of Achaemenid sculptures at Persepolis, then stored at Blythe House, followed by a Persian lunch, a gallery talk in the Ancient Iran gallery on the subject of 'Reconstructing Achaemenid art and Material Culture' and concludes with a drinks reception in the department where guests met other curators.

The attached paper is a long version of the illustrated talk. Versions of this have since been published."""

Thirty years after Xerxes invaded Greece, the Achaemenid Persian Empire ended its long war with Athens. For the next four decades, the Persians tolerated Athenian control of their former tributaries, the Ionian Greek cities of western Anatolia. But during the Peloponnesian War, Persia reclaimed Ionia and funded a Spartan fleet to overthrow Athenian power. It took eight long years for Persia to triumph, and Sparta then turned on its benefactors, prompting Persia to transfer aid to Athens in the Corinthian War. The peace of 386 reiterated imperial control of Ionia and compelled both Sparta and Athens to endorse a Persian promise of autonomy for Greeks outside Asia.

In Persian Interventions, John O. Hyland challenges earlier studies that assume Persia played Athens against Sparta in a defensive balancing act. He argues instead for a new interpretation of Persian imperialism, one involving long-term efforts to extend diplomatic and economic patronage over Greek clients beyond the northwestern frontier. Achaemenid kings, he asserts, were less interested in Ionia for its own sake than in the accumulation of influence over Athens, Sparta, or both, which allowed them to advertise Persia’s claim to universal power while limiting the necessity of direct military commitment. The slow pace of intervention resulted from logistical constraints and occasional diplomatic blunders, rather than long-term plans to balance and undermine dangerous allies.

Persian Interventions examines this critical period in unprecedented depth, providing valuable new insights for the study of Achaemenid Persia and classical Greece. Its conclusions will interest not only specialists in both fields but also students of ancient and modern comparative historical imperialism.

This article discusses the language of the Xūz mentioned in Arabic sources, endorsing the view that it is the latest attestation of the Elamite language. Drawing on models from historical sociolinguistics, it also studies the problem of mutual acculturation between speakers of Elamite and Persian in antiquity.

مجموعۀ تاریخ جامع ایران در 20 مجلد، شامل مقالاتی است از صاحب‌نظران دربارۀ جنبه‌های گوناگون تاریخ سیاسی، اجتماعی، ادیان، زبان‌ها، هنر، معماری و ادبیات ایران از دوران پیش از اسلام تا انقراض سلسلۀ قاجار. 5 مجلد نخست از این مجموعه به دوران باستان اختصاص داده شده و تاریخ این کشور را از تشکیل تمدن‌های پیش از آریایی و ورود آن‌ها به فلات ایران تا پایان دورۀ ساسانی بیان می‌کند و مباحث وسیعی چون تشکیلات اداری، هنر و معماری، ادبیات، حوادث تاریخی و کشورگشایی‌های خاندان‌های حکومت‌گر را دربرمی‌گیرد. در این نوشتار تنها پنج جلد نخست که مختص دورۀ باستان است، بررسی می‌شود. کوشیده‌ایم که همۀ فصول این پنج جلد را بررسی کنیم، البته بدیهی است که هدف این نوشتار، معرفی این مجموعه بوده است و نقد موشکافانۀ آن با توجه به گستردگی موضوع‌های مطرح شده، از عهدۀ یک تن خارج است. با وجود این، در مواردی که ضروری به نظر می‌رسیده، دربارۀ برخی از فصل‌ها از حدود معرفی فراتر رفته و به نقد نیز پرداخته‌ایم.

ABSTRACT: The following 112 questions follow the documentary (no.8), Kultur: Persepolis ... (60 minutes). The question sheet aids in furnishing a summary of the documentary's coverage and sequence of specific topics.  A good documentary detailing various aspects of the Persians, especially at Persepolis, but also at Susa, Behistun, Naqsh-i Rustam, Babylon, Choga Zanbil etc. A commercially available dvd, plus a 1-2 minute online overview by Kultur (WEB LINK: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gav5S_osQ9A), but no other obvious Youtube link to this documentary in April 2018 (Of note: One "duplicate" title did appear via Youtube, but it is actually the incorrect video, namely another video on this site, but it did feature Persepolis). Regarding the documentary this response sheet follows, it provided lots of CGI reconstructions of Persepolis by a professional project using the original archaeological publications, an architectural model, on-site data collection, and other resources. Various other okay to good documentaries are also available on the Persian Empire, but this one fit the course best.

Nowruz is a set of simple celebrations with logical rules and specific rituals. Never-theless, over the centuries, attempts have been underway to dilute the rules and misinterpret the intent of the celebrations. The article discusses the actual rules and rituals involved, as well as probes the history and the motive for the dilution of the rules and misinterpretation of the rituals.

This collection of twenty-eight essays presents an up-to-date survey of pre-Islamic Iran, from the earliest dynasty of Elam to the end of Sasanian empire, encompassing a rich diversity of peoples and cultures. Historically, Iran served as a bridge between the earlier Near Eastern cultures and the later classical world of the Mediterranean, and had a profound influence on political, military, economic, and cultural aspects of the ancient world. Written by international scholars and drawing mainly on the field of practical archaeology, which traditionally has shared little in the way of theories and methods, the book provides crucial pieces to the puzzle of the national identity of Iranian cultures from a historical perspective.

Revealing the wealth and splendor of ancient Iranian society – its rich archaeological data and sophisticated artistic craftsmanship – most of which has never before been presented outside of Iran, this beautifully illustrated book presents a range of studies addressing specific aspects of Iranian archaeology to show why the artistic masterpieces of ancient Iranians rank among the finest ever produced. Together, the authors analyze how archaeology can inform us about our cultural past, and what remains to still be discovered in this important region.

https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-41776-5

Abstract: during the conquest of Central Asia by Achaemenids in the second half of the VI century BC, already the first Persian kings - Cyrus II and Darius I had to deal with, powerful powerful political union of local nomads, known as Saka-tigraxauda or ‘‘top-pointed” Sakas. This group of nomads, in pinion of some researchers, located in Tien-Shan region. Political, conflict between Saka-tigraxauda and Achaemenids occurs when Cyrus II, who built a chain of fortresses along the border with them. However, in the acute phase of the conflict flowed under king Darius I, who arranged at least two campaigns against "top-pointed” Sakas, in which he conquered them. This group of Sakas receives a certain political autonomy within the framework of the Achaemenid Empire, as its supreme governor appointed among the local nobility. Together with the neighboring Saka-haumavarga and Caspians of Northern India "top-pointed” Sakas were part of the XVth satrapy. On the rights of the conquered people, they had to put a military contingent to the Persian army, and also paid tribute, part of which, apparently, was given valuable items and goods from local resources. At the period of the weakening of the centred authority Persian kingdom and a number of uprisings in the satrapies at the turn of the V and IV centuries BC, Saka-tigraxauda were out of the subordination of the Achaemenids. Apparently, this event was not accompanied by large-scale military conflicts. Now the Achaemenids were forced to build an entirely new political line in relation to "top-pointed” Sakas. Apparently, the Persian rulers used diplomatic m eth ods due Saki-tigraxauda become allies of the Achaemenid Empire. This is confirmed by the fact that “top-pointed” Sakas send the military contingent to perishing Achaemenid Empire in 330 BC. So the politiccd relations of Saks-tigraxauda went through three phases: military and political conflict, the period of subjugation to Achaemenids and period of political alliance with them.

The University of Tübingen and ICAR (Tehran, Iran) jointly initiated a new archaeological project in the Jiroft Region of South-Eastern Iran in 2015. A systematic archaeological, geographical and geological survey is carried out in a vast region to the south of Jiroft, comprising the Halil Rud Basin and several plains to the south of it. Settlement patterns from the Neolithic to the Islamic periods and natural deposits of stone materials, such as chlorite and diorite, are a particular focus of the project. The results will contribute to a better understanding of interregional exchange and communication routes between the Halil Rud Basin and neighbouring regions, especially during the Bronze Age.

Kaleme aldığımız çalışma, Antik Çağ’ın belli başlı uygarlıklarını okura tanıtmayı amaçlıyor. Gönül isterdi ki Çin, Hint, Japon, Filistin, Etrüsk ve Kolomb-öncesi Amerikan uygarlıklarını da bu çalışma içine dâhil edebilelim, İskitler ve Keltler hakkında da bilgiler verebilelim. Ancak kaleme aldığımız metin, öncelikle üniversite öğrencilerinin Eski Çağ Tarihi konusunda yararlanabilecekleri bi rehber kitap olmak üzere hazırlandı. Bu yüzden, kitabın kapsamını Akdeniz Havzası’ndaki uygarlıklarla sınırlamayı uygun bulduk. Tarih-öncesi ile başlayan çalışma, 6 coğrafya üzerinde yoğunlaştı: Mezopotamya, Anadolu, Mısır, İran, Yunanistan ve Roma.

It is known to very few, that five hundred years ago,
before the arrival of the Mughals, the demographics of
the northern regions comprising Pakistan were much
different. There existed a substantial and well
established Tajik (Persian) farming population here from
ancient times in the lush valleys of Peshawar and Swat
(the Gandhara region). These areas formed part of a
kingdom, ruled since Ghori times by a family of Muslim
Tajiks known as Gibaris (also Swati and Jehangiri) who
were converts from Zoroastrianism. They were the
sultans of the Kingdom of Swat or “Pakhli Sarkar” as it
was known – which later became a dependency of the
Sultanate of Kashmir. Kashmir in turn was a “provincial
sultanate” of the renowned Delhi Sultanate.
The displacement from Kabul of the Yusufzai Pashtuns
by the Timurids resulted in their migration to the Swat
Kingdom, and both this and the subsequent Timurid
(Mughal) conquests of India brought about the fall of
both the Delhi and Swat Sultanates. Although the Delhi
Sultanate is world famous, that of Swat is shrouded in
mystery. It is the objective of this paper to apprise the
reader of that history, as well as explain why it has been
obscured.

(This paper is an abridged version of my original draft -- as displayed separately above -- which had to be shortened in keeping with the 8000 word maximum limit requirement of the publishing journal).

This article examines a pair of closely connected episodes in Herodotus’ account about King Cambyses. The deranged Persian monarch kills the Apis, the sacred bull of Memphis, by striking the animal on its thigh with his sword; subsequently, he perishes after wounding himself on his own thigh with the same weapon. In fact, no Apis seems to have been slain during Cambyses’ reign in Egypt. The Herodotean story is a historical legend, i.e. a fictional narrative attached to a historical figure of the recent past. This fictitious creation presumably originated from elite circles of Egypt and Persia, who were hostile to Cambyses and wished to slander him. Iranian religious and mythical motifs are especially prominent in the narrative. The ritual slaying of bulls, regularly connected with figures of Iranian legend and cult, such as Yima and Mithra, has been distorted into an act of madness, so as to denigrate the hateful king. The story of Cambyses also presents a series of parallels with the religious crimes and death of another impious monarch, Amar-Sin of Ur, as described in a Babylonian historical work, the Weidner Chronicle. Possibly a religious legend akin to that of Amar-Sin was used by the Persian enemies of Cambyses as raw material for their defamatory storytelling. This case offers a good example of a piece of fiction which has infiltrated Greek historiography and has been absorbed into the largely legendary Herodotean portrait of an archetypical oriental autocrat.

The climactic Battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE was the first major engagement between the Romans and Parthians. In the battle, the mobile Parthian army outmaneuvered and overwhelmed Crassus’ much larger force. There is a longstanding, recently restated scholarly tradition that this battle and the Parthians’ approach to it was anomalous; however, this article rejects the notion that the Parthians’ fought atypically at Carrhae. Instead, it investigates the Parthians’ unique tactical and strategic approach to warfare and its long tradition of success since the reign of Arsaces I in the mid-third century BCE. It also illustrates the Parthians’ implementation of their unique mode of warfare through a close consideration of the decisive events at Carrhae.

Preparing, serving, and consuming food can be political, as it was arranged in the royal banquet of the great kings. It could also be considered as a ritual, both in the frame of the greater ritual practices in the banquets for the gods, as well as according to a set of family costumes and gestures, which endures from one generation to the next. All these aspects have been one of the maiol human's activates during the history of the civilizations and have fascinated the scholars to investigate and decode the culinary customs of the peoples during the history. The contributions of this volume present a small collection of writings, which put focus on various aspects of culinary and dining practices in the Greater Iranian World from the ancient period to the contemporary religious feast of Sufi Orders in the Balkans. They aim to overview the recent developments in the field and discuss selected aspects of the rich variety of culinary practices.