Abstract
It is commonly believed that there are gender differences in the mental health of children left behind in rural China. However, few studies have attempted to explain the gender differences in left-behind rural adolescents from the perspective of their social relationships. This paper analysed the relationship between parental migration arrangements and the gender difference in left-behind adolescents’ mental health and examined how such associations vary according to social relationship. To do this, we used a two-level mixed-effects linear regression model and the propensity score matching method based on data from the 2014–2015 China Education Panel Survey. The results showed that first, the migration of both parents had a greater negative impact on the mental health of adolescent left-behind girls than that of boys. Second, the quality of the parent–child relationship played mediating roles in the association between both-parent migration and the gender differences of left-behind adolescents’ mental health. Third, positive peer–peer, teacher–student, and grandparent–grandchild relationships had mitigating effects similar to those of parent–child relationships. However, when these three forms of social relationships were considered, we found that girls still relied more than boys on emotional support from good parent–child relationships. Thus, girls’ mental health continues to be more negatively affected by both-parent migration than boys. Finally, to enhance the mental health of adolescent left-behind girls, interventions are recommended that pay special attention to improving their parent–child, peer–peer, teacher–student, and grandparent–grandchild relationships.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from Dongyang Zhou upon request.
Notes
-
Including those with brothers only and those with both brothers and sisters.
-
Sobel test show that this change size was meaningful (Z = 3.180, SE = 0.215, p < 0.01).
References
Akezhuoli, H., Lu, J., Zhao, G., Xu, J., Wang, M., Wang, F., Li, L., & Zhou, X. (2022). Mother’s and father’s migrating in China: Differing relations to mental health and risk behaviors among left-behind children. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 894741. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.894741
Barnett, M. D., Maciel, I. V., Johnson, D. M., & Ciepluch, I. (2021). Social anxiety and perceived social support: Gender differences and the mediating role of communication styles. Psychological Reports, 124(1), 70–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294119900975
Blum, R. W., McNeely, C. A., & Rinehart, P. M. (2002). Improving the odds: The untapped power of schools to improve the health of teens. Center for Adolescent Health and Development, University of Minnesota. https://elkssl7298727feda98782f617e785ee07418bbaiduxue.casb.nju.edu.cn:4443/pdfs/ImprovingtheOdds.pdf
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). Contexts of child rearing: Problems and prospects. American Psychologist, 34(10), 844–850. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.844
Brown, B., & Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 74–103). John Wily and Sons Inc.
Bulanda, R. E., & Majumdar, D. (2009). Perceived parent–child relations and adolescent self-esteem. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18(2), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-008-9220-3
Chen, M., Sun, X., Chen, Q., & Chan, K. L. (2020). Parental migration, children’s safety and psychological adjustment in rural China: A meta-analysis. Trauma Violence & Abuse, 21(1), 113–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017744768
Chen, Y., Wang, L., & Zhao, J. (2021). Peer relationship profiles in rural chinese adolescents: Longitudinal relations with subjective well-being. Journal of Health Psychology, 26(11), 1803–1820. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105319888278
Cheng, S. T., & Chan, A. C. M. (2004). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support: Dimensionality and age and gender differences in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(7), 1359–1369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.01.006
Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social Capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120. https://doi.org/10.1086/228943
Cotter, K. L., & Smokowski, P. R. (2017). An investigation of relational risk and promotive factors associated with adolescent female aggression. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 48(5), 754–767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-016-0700-1
Cross, S. E., & Madson, L. (1997). Models of the self: Self-construals and gender. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 5–37. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.122.1.5
De Goede, I., Branje, S., Delsing, M., & Meeus, W. (2009). Linkages over time between adolescents’ relationships with parents and friends. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(10), 1304–1315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9403-2
Diener, M., & McGavran, M. B. (2008). What makes people happy? A developmental approach to the literature on family relationships and well-being. In M. Eid, & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), The science of subjective well-being (pp. 347–375). Guilford.
Domitrovich, C. E., & Bierman, K. L. (2001). Parenting practices and child social adjustment: Multiple pathways of influence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47(2), 235–263. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2001.0010
Dong, B., Yu, D., Ren, Q., Zhao, D., Li, J., & Sun, Y. (2019). The resilience status of chinese left-behind children in rural areas: A meta-analysis. Psychology Health & Medicine, 24(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2018.1487986
Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2009). Schools, academic motivation, and stage-environment fit. In R. M. Lerner, & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (3rd ed., pp. 404–434). Wiley.
Etaugh, C. A. (2017). In J. S. Bridges (Ed.), Women’s lives: A psychological exploration (4th ed.). Routledge.
Fellmeth, G., Rose-Clarke, K., Zhao, C., Busert, L. K., Zheng, Y., Massazza, A., Sonmez, H., Eder, B., Blewitt, A., Lertgrai, W., Orcutt, M., Ricci, K., Mohamed-Ahmed, O., Burns, R., Knipe, D., Hargreaves, S., Hesketh, T., Opondo, C., & Devakumar, D. (2018). Health impacts of parental migration on left-behind children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet, 392(10164), 2567–2582. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32558-3
Fruhauf, C. A., & Orel, N. A. (2008). Developmental issues of grandchildren who provide care to grandparents. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 67(3), 209–230. https://doi.org/10.2190/ag.67.3.b
Fu, M., Xue, Y., Zhou, W., & Yuan, T. (2017). Parental absence predicts suicide ideation through emotional disorders. Plos One, 12(12), e0188823. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188823
Fu, Y., & Zhou, X. (2022). Effects of parental migration on chinese children’s mental health: Mediating roles of social support from different sources. Child & Family Social Work, 27(3), 465–477. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12899
Furman, W., & Rose, A. J. (2015). Friendships, romantic relationships, and peer relationships. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science (Vol. 3, pp. 1–43). Wiley.
Guo, J., Ren, X., Wang, X., Qu, Z., Zhou, Q., Ran, C., Wang, X., & Hu, J. (2015). Depression among migrant and left-behind children in China in relation to the quality of parent-child and teacher-child relationships. Plos One, 10(12), e0145606. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145606
Haepp, T., & Lyu, L. (2018). The impact of primary school investment reallocation on educational attainment in rural China. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 23(4), 606–627. https://doi.org/10.1080/13547860.2018.1515004
Hair, E. C., Moore, K. A., Garrett, S. B., Ling, T., & Cleveland, K. (2008). The continued importance of quality parent–adolescent relationships during late adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18(1), 187–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00556.x
Hamilton, J. L., Stange, J. P., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2014). Stress and the development of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression explain sex differences in depressive symptoms during adolescence. Clinical Psychological Science, 3(5), 702–714. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614545479
Han, L., & Xu, W. (2022). Communication or alienation? Relationship between negative life events and mental health of left-behind children in rural China. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 17(6), 3559–3577. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-022-10079-3
Hartup, W. W., & Stevens, N. (1999). Friendships and adaptation across the life span. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(3), 76–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00018
He, B., Fan, J., Liu, N., Li, H., Wang, Y., Williams, J., & Wong, K. (2012). Depression risk of “left-behind children” in rural China. Psychiatry Research, 200(2–3), 306–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.04.001
Hilt, L., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2014). Gender differences in depression. In I. H. Gotlib & C. L. Hammen (Eds.), Handbook of depression (pp. 335–373). Guilford.
Jack, D. C. (2011). Reflections on the silencing the self scale and its origins. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(3), 523–529. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311414824
Jiang, H., Duan, T., & Wang, F. (2021). The effects of parental labor migration on children’s mental health in rural China. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 17(5), 2543–2562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-021-09989-5
Jordan, L. P., Ren, Q., & Falkingham, J. (2014). Youth education and learning in twenty-first century China disentangling the impacts of migration, residence, and hukou. Chinese Sociological Review, 47(1), 57–83. https://doi.org/10.2753/CSA2162-0555470103
Jou, Y. H. (2009). Typology and psychological effects of adolescents’ interpersonal relationships in Taiwan. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 12(2), 121–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2009.01279.x
Kendler, K. S., Myers, J., & Prescott, C. A. (2005). Sex differences in the relationship between social support and risk for major depression: A longitudinal study of opposite-sex twin pairs. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(2), 250–256. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.2.250
Lei, H., Zhang, Q., Wang, Z., & Shao, J. (2021). A longitudinal study of depressive symptoms and delinquency among chinese left-behind children. Psychiatry Research, 301, 113955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113955
Li, Q., Zhang, W., & Zhao, J. (2021). The longitudinal associations among grandparent–grandchild cohesion, cultural beliefs about adversity, and depression in chinese rural left-behind children. Journal of Health Psychology, 26(1), 140–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105318803708
Li, J., Wang, J., Li, J., Qian, S., Ling, R., Jia, R., Wang, Y., & Xu, Y. (2022). Family socioeconomic status and mental health in chinese adolescents: The multiple mediating role of social relationships. Journal of Public Health, 44(4), 823–833. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab280
Lin, C. Y., & Tsai, M. C. (2016). Effects of family context on adolescents’ psychological problems: Moderated by pubertal timing, and mediated by self-esteem and interpersonal relationships. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 11(3), 907–923. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-015-9410-2
Liu, H., Liu, L., & Jin, X. (2020). The impact of parental remote migration and parent-child relation types on the psychological resilience of rural left-behind children in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(15), 5388. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155388
Lodder, G. M. A., Scholte, R. H. J., Goossens, L., & Verhagen, M. (2017). Loneliness in early adolescence: Friendship quantity, friendship quality, and dyadic processes. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 46(5), 709–720. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1070352
Low, Y. T. A. (2021). Family conflicts, anxiety and depressive symptoms, and suicidal ideation of chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16(6), 2457–2473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-021-09925-7
Lyu, Y., Chow, J. C. C., Hwang, J. J., Li, Z., Ren, C., & Xie, J. (2022). Psychological well-being of left-behind children in China: Text mining of the social media website Zhihu. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(4), 2127. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042127
Maccoby, E. E. (1990). Gender and relationships: A developmental account. American Psychologist, 45(4), 513–520. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.45.4.513
Meadows, S. O., Brown, J. S., & Elder, G. H. (2006). Depressive symptoms, stress, and support: Gendered trajectories from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(1), 93–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-9021-6
Miller, T. (2012). China’s urban billion: The Story behind the biggest Migration in Human History. Zed Books.
Ming-Hsuan, L. (2011). Migration and children’s welfare in China: The schooling and health of left behind children. The Journal of Developing Areas, 44(2), 165–182. https://doi.org/10.1353/jda.0.0104
Mordeno, I. G., Gallemit, I. M. J. S., Lantud, S. S. B., & Hall, B. J. (2019). Personal psychological resources mediate parent–child relationship and mental health among left-behind children. PsyCh Journal, 8(3), 318–329. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.288
NBS (National Bureau of Statistics of China), China, U. N. I. C. E. F., & UNFPA China. (2017). Population Status of Children in China in 2015: Facts and Figures. Retrieved November 1, 2022. https://www.unicef.cn/en/reports/population-status-children-china-2015. Accessed 13 Nov 2022
Newman, J. L., Fuqua, D. R., Gray, E. A., & Simpson, D. B. (2006). Gender differences in the relationship of anger and depression in a clinical sample. Journal of Counseling & Development, 84(2), 157–162. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2006.tb00391.x
Otake, Y., Liu, X., & Luo, X. (2019). Involvement in bullying among left-behind children in provincial chinese cities: The role of perceived emotional support. Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma, 28(8), 943–957. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2017.1410749
Parreñas, R. S. (2005). Children of global migration: Transnational families and gendered woes. Stanford University Press.
Petersen, A. C., Sarigiani, P. A., & Kennedy, R. E. (1991). Adolescent depression: Why more girls? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 247–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537611
Pianta, R. C. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers (school psychology book series). American Psychological Association Order Dept.
Qi, S., Hua, F., Zhou, Z., & Shek, D. T. L. (2022). Trends of positive youth development publications (1995–2020): A scientometric review. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 17(1), 421–446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09878-3
Raboteg-Saric, Z., & Sakic, M. (2014). Relations of parenting styles and friendship quality to self-esteem, life satisfaction and happiness in adolescents. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 9(3), 749–765. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-013-9268-0
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
Riesch, S. K., Brown, R. L., Anderson, L. S., Wang, K., Canty-Mitchell, J., & Johnson, D. L. (2012). Strengthening families program (10‐14): Effects on the family environment. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 34, 340–376. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193945911399108
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 98–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1
Rose, A. J., Smith, R. L., Glick, G. C., & Schwartz-Mette, R. A. (2016). Girls’ and boys’ problem talk: Implications for emotional closeness in friendships. Developmental Psychology, 52(4), 629–639. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000096
Rueger, S. Y., Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2010). Relationship between multiple sources of perceived social support and psychological and academic adjustment in early adolescence: Comparisons across gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(1), 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9368-6
Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4(4), 99–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772395
Sakyi, K. S., Surkan, P. J., Fombonne, E., Chollet, A., & Melchior, M. (2015). Childhood friendships and psychological difficulties in young adulthood: An 18-year follow-up study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(7), 815–826. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0626-8
Santini, Z. I., Koyanagi, A., Tyrovolas, S., Mason, C., & Haro, J. M. (2015). The association between social relationships and depression: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 175, 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.12.049
SC (Office of the State Council of China) (2018). State Council’s Suggestions on Strengthening the Building of Small-Scale Schools and Boarding Schools in Rural Areas. Retrieved November 1, 2022. http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2018-05/02/content_5287465.htm. Accessed 13 Nov 2022
Shao, J., Zhang, L., Ren, Y., Xiao, L., & Zhang, Q. (2018). Parent–child cohesion, basic psychological needs satisfaction, and emotional adaptation in left-behind children in China: An indirect effects model. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1023. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01023
Shek, D. T. L., Dou, D., & Zhu, X. (2019). Positive youth development: Current perspectives. Adolescent Health Medicine and Therapeutics, 10, 131–141. https://doi.org/10.2147/AHMT.S179946
Shek, D. T. L., & Ma, C. M. S. (2010). Dimensionality of the chinese positive Youth Development Scale: Confirmatory factor analyses. Social Indicators Research, 98(1), 41–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9515-9
Shek, D. T. L., Sin, A., & Lee, T. (2007). The chinese positive youth development scale: A validation study. Research on Social Work Practice, 17(3), 380–391. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731506296196
Shek, D. T. L., & Zhu, X. (2020). Promotion of thriving among Hong Kong Chinese adolescents: Evidence from eight-wave data. Research on Social Work Practice, 30(8), 870–883. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731520947156
Shen, K., & Zhang, Y. (2018). The impacts of parental migration on children’s subjective well-being in rural China: A double-edged sword. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 59(2), 267–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2018.1482223
Shu, B. (2021). Parental migration, parental emotional support, and adolescent children’s life satisfaction in rural China: The roles of parent and child gender. Journal of Family Issues, 42(8), 1663–1705. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X20946345
Smokowski, P. R., Cotter, K. L., Robertson, C. I. B., & Guo, S. (2013). Anxiety and aggression in rural youth: Baseline results from the rural adaptation project. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 44(4), 479–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-012-0342-x
Song, J., Ma, C., Gu, C., & Zuo, B. (2018). What matters most to the left-behind children’s life satisfaction and school engagement: Parent or grandparent? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(8), 2481–2490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1086-4
Song, J., Ma, C., & Ruan, Y. (2021). Left-behind children’s grandparent–child and parent–child relationships and loneliness: A multivariable mediation model. Family Relations, 70(1), 195–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12480
State Council Information Office of China (2015). National Family Data Release: Rural Left-Behind Children Account for More Than 1/3. Retrieved November 1, 2022. http://www.scio.gov.cn/zhzc/8/4/Document/1433950/1433950.htm. Accessed 13 Nov 2022
Sun, X., Qin, X., Zhang, M., Yang, A., Ren, X., & Dai, Q. (2021). Prediction of parental alienation on depression in left-behind children: A 12-month follow-up investigation. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 30(e44), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796021000329
Tang, D., Choi, W. I., Deng, L., Bian, Y., & Hu, H. (2019). Health status of children left behind in rural areas of Sichuan Province of China: A cross-sectional study. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 19, Article 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-019-0191-9
Tang, W., Wang, G., Hu, T., Dai, Q., Xu, J., Yang, Y., & Xu, J. (2018). Mental health and psychosocial problems among chinese left-behind children: A cross-sectional comparative study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 241, 133–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.08.017
Tennant, J. E., Demaray, M. K., Malecki, C. K., Terry, M. N., & Elzinga, N. (2015). Students’ ratings of teacher support and academic and social-emotional well-being. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(4), 494–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000106
Turunen, J. (2013). Family structure, gender, and adolescent emotional well-being. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 54(6), 476–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2013.810982
Ueno, K. (2005). The effects of friendship networks on adolescent depressive symptoms. Social Science Research, 34(3), 484–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2004.03.002
Wang, L., Wei, Y., Ma, Y., & Wang, T. (2016). Fundamental literature and hot topics on rural leftbehind children in China: A bibliometric analysis. Child: Care Health and Development, 42(6), 852–858. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12390
Wang, F., Zhou, X., & Hesketh, T. (2017). Psychological adjustment and behaviours in children of migrant workers in China. Child: Care Health and Development, 43(6), 884–890. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12499
Wang, L., Wu, W., Qu, G., Tang, X., & Sun, Y. (2018). The personality traits of left-behind children in China: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychology Health & Medicine, 24(3), 253–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2018.1540787
Wang, C., Zhang, C., Ni, J., Zhang, H., & Zhang, J. (2019a). Family migration in China: Do migrant children affect parental settlement intention? Journal of Comparative Economics, 47(2), 416–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2019.01.002
Wang, F., Lin, L., Xu, M., Li, L., Lu, J., & Zhou, X. (2019b). Mental health among left-behind children in rural China in relation to parent-child communication. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(10), 1855. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101855
Wang, L., Zheng, Y., Li, G., Li, Y., Fang, Z., Abbey, C., & Rozelle, S. (2019c). Academic achievement and mental health of left-behind children in rural China: A causal study on parental migration. China Agricultural Economic Review, 11(4), 569–582. https://doi.org/10.1108/CAER-09-2018-0194
Wang, Y., Xiao, L., Rao, W., Chai, J., Zhang, S., Ng, C. H., Ungvari, G. S., Zhu, H., & Xiang, Y. (2019d). The prevalence of depressive symptoms in ‘left-behind children’ in China: A metaanalysis of comparative studies and epidemiological surveys. Journal of Affective Disorders, 244, 209–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.09.066
Wang, Z., & Zhang, X. (2022). Peer victimization, resilience and mental well-being among left-behind children: Dose gender make a difference? Psychological Reports, 125(5), 2357–2383. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941211018409
Wit, D. J. D., Karioja, K., Rye, B. J., & Shain, M. (2011). Perceptions of declining classmate and teacher support following the transition to high school: Potential correlates of increasing student mental health difficulties. Psychology in the Schools, 48(6), 556–572. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20576
Wu, J., & Zhang, J. (2017). The effect of parental absence on child development in rural China. Asian Economic Policy Review, 12(1), 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1111/aepr.12166
Wu, W., Qu, G., Wang, L., Tang, X., & Sun, Y. H. (2019). Meta-analysis of the mental health status of left-behind children in China. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 55(3), 260–270. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.14349
Xie, Q. W., Zhao, G., Lu, J., Chen, R., Xu, J., Wang, M., Akezhuoli, H., Wang, F., & Zhou, X. (2022). Mental health problems amongst left-behind adolescents in China: Serial mediation roles of parent-adolescent communication and school bullying victimisation. The British Journal of Social Work. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcac168. Advance online publication.
Xinhua. (2018). Number of left-behind children falls by 23%. China Daily. Retrieved November 1, 2022. http://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201809/05/WS5b8f3e44a310add14f389b95.html. Accessed 13 Nov 2022
Xu, D., Wu, X., Zhang, Z., & Dronkers, J. (2018). Not a zero-sum game: Migration and child well-being in contemporary China. Demographic Research, 38, 691–726. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.26
Yang, N., Qi, Y., Lu, J., Hu, J., & Ren, Y. (2021). Teacher-child relationships, self-concept, resilience, and social withdrawal among chinese left-behind children: A moderated mediation model. Children and Youth Services Review, 129, 106182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106182
Yu, Z., Du, Y., Hu, N., Zhang, Y., & Li, J. (2022). Association between parental absence and depressive symptoms in adolescence: Evidence from a national household longitudinal survey. Child Psychiatry & Human Developmen. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-022-01415-7. Advance online publication.
Yucel, D., & Yuan, A. S. V. (2016). Parents, siblings, or friends? exploring life satisfaction among early adolescents. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 11(4), 1399–1423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-015-9444-5
Zhan, X., Li, S., Liu, C., & Zhang, L. (2014). Effect of migration on children’s self-esteem in rural China. China & World Economy, 22(4), 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-124X.2014.12076.x
Zhang, Q., Luo, Y., Chen, H., Zhang, X., Deng, S., Zeng, W., & Wang, Y. (2019). Migrate with parent(s) or not? Developmental outcomes between migrant and left-behind children from rural China. Child Indicators Research, 12(4), 1147–1166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-018-9578-8
Zhang, Q., Pan, Y., Chen, Y., Liu, W., Wang, L., & Jean, J. A. (2022a). Effects of father-adolescent and mother-adolescent relationships on depressive symptoms among chinese early adolescents. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 17(5), 2657–2672. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-021-09997-5
Zhang, X., Dai, Z., Antwi, C. O., & Ren, J. (2022b). A cross-temporal meta-analysis of changes in left-behind children’s mental health in China. Children, 9(4), 464. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9040464
Zhao, J., Liu, X., & Wang, M. (2015). Parent–child cohesion, friend companionship and left-behind children’s emotional adaptation in rural China. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48, 190–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.07.005
Zhao, C., Wang, F., Li, L., Zhou, X., & Hesketh, T. (2017). Long-term impacts of parental migration on chinese children’s psychosocial well-being: Mitigating and exacerbating factors. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52(6), 669–677. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1386-9
Zhao, X., Zhang, A., Liu, W., Tao, F., & Sun, Y. (2022). Childhood separation from parents with cognitive and psychopathological outcomes in adolescence. Developmental Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13324. Article e13324.
Zheng, X., Zhang, Y., & Jiang, W. (2022). Internal migration and depression among junior high school students in China: A comparison between migrant and left-behind children. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 811617. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.811617
Zhou, M., Sun, X., Huang, L., Zhang, G., Kenny, K., Xue, H., Auden, E., & Rozelle, S. (2018). Parental migration and left-behind children’s depressive symptoms: Estimation based on a nationally-representative panel dataset. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(6), 1069. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061069
Zhou, Z., Shek, D. T. L., & Zhu, X. (2020a). The importance of positive youth development attributes to life satisfaction and hopelessness in mainland chinese adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 553313. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.553313
Zhou, Z., Shek, D. T. L., Zhu, X., & Dou, D. (2020b). Positive youth development and adolescent depression: A longitudinal study based on mainland Chinese high school students. International Journal of Environment Research and Public Health, 17(12), 4457. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124457
Zhou, C., Lv, Q., Yang, N., & Wang, F. (2021a). Left-behind experience, parent-child communication and psychological resilience: A structural equation modeling analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(10), 5123. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105123
Zhou, Y., Yu, N. X., Dong, P., & Zhang, Q. (2021b). Dyadic associations between grandparent–child relationship quality and well-being in chinese left-behind families: Mediating role of resilience. Journal of Happiness Studies, 22(4), 1889–1904. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-020-00300-1
Zhou, Y., Mak, L., Zhao, C., He, F., Huang, X., Tian, X., Yi-zheng, & Sun, J. (2022). Correlates of suicidal ideation in rural chinese junior high school left-behind children: A socioecological resilience framework. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 901627. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.901627
Zhu, X., & Shek, D. T. L. (2020). Impact of a positive youth development program on junior high school students in mainland China: A pioneer study. Children and Youth Services Review, 114, 105022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105022
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by “the Humanities and Social Sciences project of the Ministry of Education” (Grant Number: 21YJA880074), “the Social Science Foundation Project in Jiangsu Province” (Grant Number: 20JYB010), “the Major Project of Philosophy and Social Science Research in Colleges and University in Jiangsu Province” (Grant Number: 2022SJZD078), and High-Quality Development Evaluation Research Institute of Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
We declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendices
Appendix 1: Results of the PSM Balance Test
The results for the three PSM methods are listed in Appendix Table 4. After matching, the balance test of the two sample groups (both-parent migration and neither-parent migration) showed that the characteristics of the two groups were very close, and the samples were well balanced.
Appendix 2: Post-PSM Model Results
The multi-level mixed-effects linear regression model was used to investigate the impact of parental migration on the mental health of rural left-behind adolescents. The model estimation results are shown in Appendix Tables 5, 6, and 7. No matter which PSM the results were based on, when the other variables were controlled, the average mental health scores of left-behind adolescents in situations of both-parent migration were significantly lower than those in situations of neither-parent migration (p < 0.01). The girls’ score was significantly lower than that of the boys (p < 0.05).
When parental migration types and gender were added as interaction terms, the negative impact of parental migration on girls was still visibly greater than that on boys (the regression coefficients of the interaction terms were all negative, p < 0.05). When the parent–child relationship variable was added, the significance level of the regression coefficients of the interaction terms decreased (p > 0.1). When the variables of peer–peer, teacher–student, and grandparent–grandchild relationships were added, the model results were basically the same as those in Table 2. These results indicate that the findings were robust to the consideration of sample selection bias.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Li, X., Zhou, D., Duan, T. et al. Parental Migration, Social Relationships, and Left-Behind Adolescents’ Mental Health in Rural China: Examining Gender Differences. Applied Research Quality Life 18, 2795–2828 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-023-10208-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-023-10208-6