Original Article
Between- and within-child level associations between externalizing and internalizing behavior problems in a nationally representative sample of US elementary school children
Yoonkyung Oh,
Paul L. Morgan,
Mark T. Greenberg,
Tricia A. Zucker,
Susan H. Landry,
Corresponding Author
Yoonkyung Oh
Children's Learning Institute, Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas—Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
Correspondence
Yoonkyung Oh, Children's Learning Institute, The University of Texas—Health Science Center at Houston, 7000 Fannin St., Suite 2478, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorPaul L. Morgan
Department of Health Policy, Management and Behavior, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, NY, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMark T. Greenberg
Prevention Research Center, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorTricia A. Zucker
Children's Learning Institute, Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas—Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSusan H. Landry
Children's Learning Institute, Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas—Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
Search for more papers by this author
Yoonkyung Oh,
Paul L. Morgan,
Mark T. Greenberg,
Tricia A. Zucker,
Susan H. Landry,
Corresponding Author
Yoonkyung Oh
Children's Learning Institute, Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas—Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
Correspondence
Yoonkyung Oh, Children's Learning Institute, The University of Texas—Health Science Center at Houston, 7000 Fannin St., Suite 2478, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorPaul L. Morgan
Department of Health Policy, Management and Behavior, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, NY, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMark T. Greenberg
Prevention Research Center, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorTricia A. Zucker
Children's Learning Institute, Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas—Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSusan H. Landry
Children's Learning Institute, Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas—Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
Search for more papers by this author
First published: 22 January 2024
Conflict of interest statement: No conflicts declared.
Abstract
Background
Both transactional and common etiological models have been proposed as explanations of why externalizing behavior problems (EBP) and internalizing behavior problems (IBP) co-occur in children. Yet little research has empirically evaluated these competing theoretical explanations. We examined whether EBP and IBP are transactionally related at the within-child level while also identifying antecedents commonly associated with between-child differences in underlying stability of both EBP and IBP across elementary school.
Methods
We analyzed a nationally representative and longitudinal sample of US schoolchildren (N = 7,326; 51% male) using random-intercept cross-lagged panel modeling (RI-CLPM). We used teacher ratings of EBP and IBP as annually assessed from the spring of kindergarten (Mage = 6.12 years) through the spring of 5th grade (Mage = 11.09 years). Early childhood antecedents included child internal (i.e. inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and language/literacy) and external factors (i.e. parental warmth, harsh parenting, parenting stress, and maternal depressive symptoms).
Results
We found little evidence for within-child, transactional relations between EBP and IBP. Both types of behavior problems instead were substantially associated at the between-child level. Inhibitory control was the strongest common antecedent that explained this longitudinal overlap. Cognitive flexibility, working memory, language/literacy skills, and maternal depression contributed specifically to the stability of IBP. Measures of parenting were specific to the stability of EBP.
Conclusions
Common etiological factors rather than transactional relations better explain the co-occurrence of EBP and IBP during elementary school. Inhibitory control is a promising target of early intervention efforts for schoolchildren at risk of displaying both EBP and IBP.
Open Research
Data availability statement
The data files are publicly accessible at https://nces.ed.gov/ecls/dataproducts.asp. The final analysis data and analysis code files are available at https://osf.io/z2jwa.
Key points
- It is widely known that children with externalizing or internalizing behavior problems tend to show higher problems in the other domain. However, it remains unclear whether this is due to transactional processes between the two domains or common risk factors predisposing children to both domains.
- Evidence from the random-intercept cross-lagged panel model provides support for a shared-risk model—with a particular emphasis on the role of inhibitory control as a common etiology—rather than transactional hypotheses focusing on influences of one domain on the other.
- Our findings suggest that inhibitory control may be a promising target of early interventions for children at risk of externalizing-internalizing co-occurrence over the first 6 years of formal schooling.
Supporting Information
| Filename | Description |
|---|---|
| jcpp13950-sup-0001-Supinfo.docxWord 2007 document , 894.3 KB | Table S1. Descriptive statistics for analytic sample. Table S2. Correlations among all study variables. Table S3. Model fit statistics. Table S4. RI-CLPM, CLPM, ALT-SR results of linking externalizing and internalizing problems. Table S5. Predictors of latent stability of externalizing and internalizing problems. Table S6. Results of conditional models entering predictors in sequence. Figure S1. Model diagram of RI-CLPM of externalizing-internalizing problems. Figure S2. Observed individual trajectories of externalizing and internalizing problems. |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
References
- Abidin, R.R. (1990). The parenting stress index short form. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
- Anastopoulos, A.D., Beal, K.K., Reid, R.J., Reid, R., Power, T.J., & DuPaul, G.J. (2018). Impact of child and informant gender on parent and teacher ratings of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychological Assessment, 30, 1390–1394.
- Angold, A., Costello, E.J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40, 57–87.
- Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B: Methodological, 57, 289–300.
10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x Google Scholar
- Berry, D., & Willoughby, M.T. (2017). On the practical interpretability of cross-lagged panel models: Rethinking a developmental workhorse. Child Development, 88, 1186–1206.
- Bornstein, M.H., Hahn, C.S., & Haynes, O.M. (2010). Social competence, externalizing, and internalizing behavioral adjustment from early childhood through early adolescence: Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 717–735.
- Bornstein, M.H., Hahn, C.S., & Suwalsky, J.T. (2013). Language and internalizing and externalizing behavioral adjustment: Developmental pathways from childhood to adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 857–878.
- Boylan, K., Georgiades, K., & Szatmari, P. (2010). The longitudinal association between oppositional and depressive symptoms across childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 152–161.
- Caldwell, B.M., & Bradley, R.H. (1984). HOME observation for measurement of the environment. Little Rock, AK: University of Arkansas at Little Rock.
- Capaldi, D.M. (1992). Co-occurrence of conduct problems and depressive symptoms in early adolescent boys: II. A 2-year follow-up at grade 8. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 125–144.
- Carlson, G.A., & Cantwell, D.P. (1980). Unmasking masked depression in children and adolescents. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 445–449.
- Chang, H., Shaw, D.S., Dishion, T.J., Gardner, F., & Wilson, M.N. (2014). Direct and indirect effects of the family check-up on self-regulation from toddlerhood to early school-age. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1117–1128.
- Chow, J.C., Ekholm, E., & Coleman, H. (2018). Does oral language underpin the development of later behavior problems? A longitudinal meta-analysis. School Psychology Quarterly, 33, 337–349.
- Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F.A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.
- Conway, C.C., Raposa, E.B., Hammen, C., & Brennan, P.A. (2018). Transdiagnostic pathways from early social stress to psychopathology: A 20-year prospective study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 59, 855–862.
- Costello, E.J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 837–844.
- Curran, P.J., & Hancock, G.R. (2021). The challenge of modeling co-developmental processes over time. Child Development Perspectives, 15, 67–75.
- Daundasekara, S.S., Beauchamp, J.E.S., & Hernandez, D.C. (2021). Parenting stress mediates the longitudinal effect of maternal depression on child anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 295, 33–39.
- Deutz, M.H.F., Geeraerts, S.B., Belsky, J., Deković, M., van Baar, A.L., Prinzie, P., & Patalay, P. (2020). General psychopathology and dysregulation profile in a longitudinal community sample: Stability, antecedents and outcomes. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 51, 114–126.
- Diamond, A. (2016). Why improving and assessing executive functions early in life is critical. In J.A. Griffin, P. McCardle, & L.S. Freund (Eds.), Executive function in preschool-age children: Integrating measurement, neurodevelopment, and translational research (pp. 11–43). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
10.1037/14797-002 Google Scholar
- Dormann, C., & Griffin, M.A. (2015). Optimal time lags in panel studies. Psychological Methods, 20, 489–505.
- Drabick, D.A., Ollendick, T.H., & Bubier, J.L. (2010). Co-occurrence of ODD and anxiety: Shared risk processes and evidence for a dual-pathway model. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 17, 307–318.
- Duke, N.K., & Cartwright, K.B. (2021). The science of reading progresses: Communicating advances beyond the simple view of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56, S25–S44.
- Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T.L., & Eggum, N.D. (2010). Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children's maladjustment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 495–525.
- Enders, C.K. (2010). Applied missing data analysis. New York: Guildford Press.
- Englund, M.M., & Siebenbruner, J. (2012). Developmental pathways linking externalizing symptoms, internalizing symptoms, and academic competence to adolescent substance use. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 1123–1140.
- Flouri, E., Papachristou, E., Midouhas, E., Joshi, H., Ploubidis, G.B., & Lewis, G. (2018). Early adolescent outcomes of joint developmental trajectories of problem behavior and IQ in childhood. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 1595–1605.
- Flouri, E., Papachristou, E., Midouhas, E., Ploubidis, G.B., Lewis, G., & Joshi, H. (2019). Developmental cascades of internalising symptoms, externalising problems and cognitive ability from early childhood to middle adolescence. European Psychiatry, 57, 61–69.
- Gilliom, M., & Shaw, D.S. (2004). Codevelopment of externalizing and internalizing problems in early childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 313–333.
- Gong, X., Zhou, J., Huebner, E.S., & Tian, L. (2023). Longitudinal association and mediating mechanism between externalizing and internalizing problems among children: A within-person analysis. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2022.2158836
- Goodman, S.H., Rouse, M.H., Connell, A.M., Broth, M.R., Hall, C.M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 1–27.
- Gooren, E.M., van Lier, P.A., Stegge, H., Terwogt, M.M., & Koot, H.M. (2011). The development of conduct problems and depressive symptoms in early elementary school children: The role of peer rejection. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40, 245–253.
- Granic, I. (2014). The role of anxiety in the development, maintenance, and treatment of childhood aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 1515–1530.
- Gresham, F.M., & Elliott, S.N. (1990). Social skills rating system: Manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
- Grietens, H., Onghena, P., Prinzie, P., Gadeyne, E., Van Assche, V., Ghesquiere, P., & Hellinckx, W. (2004). Comparison of mothers', fathers', and teachers' reports on problem behavior in 5-to 6-year-old children. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26, 137–146.
- Hamaker, E.L., Kuiper, R.M., & Grasman, R.P. (2015). A critique of the cross-lagged panel model. Psychological Methods, 20, 102–116.
- Hentges, R.F., Weaver Krug, C.M., Shaw, D.S., Wilson, M.N., Dishion, T.J., & Lemery-Chalfant, K. (2020). The long-term indirect effect of the early family check-up intervention on adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms via inhibitory control. Development and Psychopathology, 32, 1544–1554.
- Hu, L.T., & Bentler, P.M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1–55.
- Keskin, G., Lougheed, J.P., & Duncan, R. (2023). Within- and between-person associations among internalizing and externalizing problems during middle childhood. Social Development, 32(3), 889–904.
- Kessler, R.C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K.R., & Walters, E.E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593–602.
- Knudsen, E.I. (2004). Sensitive periods in the development of the brain and behavior. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 1412–1425.
- Lee, E.J., & Stone, S.I. (2012). Co-occurring internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems: The mediating effect of negative self-concept. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 717–731.
- Liber, J.M., van Widenfelt, B.M., van der Leeden, A.J., Goedhart, A.W., Utens, E.M., & Treffers, P.D. (2010). The relation of severity and comorbidity to treatment outcome with cognitive behavioral therapy for childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 683–694.
- Littlefield, A.K., King, K.M., Acuff, S.F., Foster, K.T., Murphy, J.G., & Witkiewitz, K. (2022). Limitations of cross-lagged panel models in addiction research and alternative models: An empirical example using project MATCH. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 36, 271–283.
- Lu, W. (2017). Child and adolescent mental disorders and health care disparities: Results from the National Survey of Children's health, 2011–2012. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 28, 988–1011.
- Lynch, S.J., Sunderland, M., Newton, N.C., & Chapman, C. (2021). A systematic review of transdiagnostic risk and protective factors for general and specific psychopathology in young people. Clinical Psychology Review, 87, 102036.
- Martel, M.M., Pan, P.M., Hoffmann, M.S., Gadelha, A., do Rosário, M.C., Mari, J.J., … & Salum, G.A. (2017). A general psychopathology factor (P factor) in children: Structural model analysis and external validation through familial risk and child global executive function. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 137–148.
- Masten, A.S., Roisman, G.I., Long, J.D., Burt, K.B., Obradović, J., Riley, J.R., … & Tellegen, A. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41, 733–746.
- Mather, N., & Woodcock, R.W. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson III tests of achievement. Examiner's manual. Click here to enter text. Boston, MA: Riverside Publishing.
- Maughan, B., Rowe, R., Messer, J., Goodman, R., & Meltzer, H. (2004). Conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder in a national sample: Developmental epidemiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 45, 609–621.
- Miller, A.B., Machlin, L., McLaughlin, K.A., & Sheridan, M.A. (2021). Deprivation and psychopathology in the fragile families study: A 15-year longitudinal investigation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 62, 382–391.
- Moilanen, K.L., Shaw, D.S., & Maxwell, K.L. (2010). Developmental cascades: Externalizing, internalizing, and academic competence from middle childhood to early adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 635–653.
- Morgan, P.L., Farkas, G., & Wu, Q. (2009). Kindergarten predictors of recurring externalizing and internalizing psychopathology in the third and fifth grades. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 17, 67–79.
- Morin, A.J., Arens, A.K., Maïano, C., Ciarrochi, J., Tracey, D., Parker, P.D., & Craven, R.G. (2017). Reciprocal relationships between teacher ratings of internalizing and externalizing behaviors in adolescents with different levels of cognitive abilities. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 801–825.
- Murray, A.L., Eisner, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2020). Within-person analysis of developmental cascades between externalising and internalising problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61, 681–688.
- Murray, A.L., Obsuth, I., Speyer, L., Murray, G., McKenzie, K., Eisner, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2021). Developmental cascades from aggression to internalizing problems via peer and teacher relationships from early to middle adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50, 663–673.
- Nigg, J.T. (2017). Annual research review: On the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58, 361–383.
- Oh, Y., Greenberg, M.T., Willoughby, M.T., & Family Life Project Investigators. (2020). Examining longitudinal associations between externalizing and internalizing behavior problems at within-and between-child levels. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 48, 467–480.
- Olino, T.M., Dougherty, L.R., Bufferd, S.J., Carlson, G.A., & Klein, D.N. (2014). Testing models of psychopathology in preschool-aged children using a structured interview-based assessment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1201–1211.
- Orth, U., & Robins, R.W. (2022). The benefits of self-esteem: Reply to Krueger et al. (2022) and Brummelman (2022). The American Psychologist, 77, 23–25.
- Ottenbreit, N.S., Dobson, K.S., & Quigley, L. (2014). An examination of avoidance in major depression in comparison to social anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 56, 82–90.
- Petersen, I.T., Bates, J.E., D'Onofrio, B.M., Coyne, C.A., Lansford, J.E., Dodge, K.A., … & Van Hulle, C.A. (2013). Language ability predicts the development of behavior problems in children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 542–557.
- Polier, G.G., Vloet, T.D., Herpertz-Dahlmann, B., Laurens, K.R., & Hodgins, S. (2012). Comorbidity of conduct disorder symptoms and internalising problems in children: Investigating a community and a clinical sample. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 21, 31–38.
- Putnam, S.P., & Rothbart, M.K. (2006). Development of short and very short forms of the children's behavior questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 87, 103–113.
- Radloff, L.S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.
- Riggs, N.R., Greenberg, M.T., Kusché, C.A., & Pentz, M.A. (2006). The mediational role of neurocognition in the behavioral outcomes of a social-emotional prevention program in elementary school students: Effects of the PATHS curriculum. Prevention Science, 7, 91–102.
- Rimm-Kaufman, S.E., & Pianta, R.C. (2000). An ecological perspective on the transition to kindergarten: A theoretical framework to guide empirical research. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21, 491–511.
- Robson, D.A., Allen, M.S., & Howard, S.J. (2020). Self-regulation in childhood as a predictor of future outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 146, 324–354.
- Roos, L.E., Fisher, P.A., Shaw, D.S., Kim, H.K., Neiderhiser, J.M., Reiss, D., … & Leve, L.D. (2016). Inherited and environmental influences on a childhood co-occurring symptom phenotype: Evidence from an adoption study. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 111–125.
- Satorra, A., & Bentler, P.M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In A. Eye & C.C. Clogg (Eds.), Latent variables analysis: Applications for developmental research (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
- Sawyer, S.M., Afifi, R.A., Bearinger, L.H., Blakemore, S.J., Dick, B., Ezeh, A.C., & Patton, G.C. (2012). Adolescence: A foundation for future health. The Lancet, 379, 1630–1640.
- Schoemaker, K., Mulder, H., Dekovic, M., & Matthys, W. (2013). Executive functions in preschool children with externalizing behavior problems: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 457–471.
- Shi, Q., Ettekal, I., Deutz, M.H., & Woltering, S. (2020). Trajectories of pure and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems from early childhood to adolescence: Associations with early childhood individual and contextual antecedents. Developmental Psychology, 56, 1906–1918.
- Sourander, A., Jensen, P., Davies, M., Niemelä, S., Elonheimo, H., Ristkari, T., … & Almqvist, F. (2007). Who is at greatest risk of adverse long-term outcomes? The Finnish from a boy to a man study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1148–1161.
- Speyer, L.G., Hall, H.A., Hang, Y., Hughes, C., & Murray, A.L. (2022). Within-family relations of mental health problems across childhood and adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 63, 1288–1296.
- Stone, L.L., Otten, R., Engels, R.C., Kuijpers, R.C., & Janssens, J.M. (2015). Relations between internalizing and externalizing problems in early childhood. Child & Youth Care Forum, 44, 635–653.
- Swales, D.A., Snyder, H.R., Hankin, B.L., Sandman, C.A., Glynn, L.M., & Davis, E.P. (2022). Maternal depressive symptoms predict general liability in child psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 51, 85–96.
- Taraban, L., Shaw, D.S., Leve, L.D., Natsuaki, M.N., Ganiban, J.M., Reiss, D., & Neiderhiser, J.M. (2019). Parental depression, overreactive parenting, and early childhood externalizing problems: Moderation by social support. Child Development, 90, e468–e485.
- Toplak, M.E., West, R.F., & Stanovich, K.E. (2013). Practitioner review: Do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 131–143.
- Tourangeau, K., Nord, C., Lê, T., Wallner-Allen, K., Vaden-Kiernan, N., Blaker, L., & Najarian, M. (2019). Early childhood longitudinal study, Kindergarten class of 2010–11 (ECLS-K:2011) user's manual for the ECLS-K:2011 Kindergarten–fifth grade data file and electronic codebook, public version (NCES 2019). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
- van der Giessen, D., Branje, S., Overbeek, G., Frijns, T., Van Lier, P.A.C., Koot, H.M., & Meeus, W. (2013). Co-occurrence of aggressive behavior and depressive symptoms in early adolescence: A longitudinal multi-informant study. European Review of Applied Psychology, 63, 193–201.
- van Lier, P.A., Vitaro, F., Barker, E.D., Brendgen, M., Tremblay, R.E., & Boivin, M. (2012). Peer victimization, poor academic achievement, and the link between childhood externalizing and internalizing problems. Child Development, 83, 1775–1788.
- Wade, M., Plamondon, A., & Jenkins, J.M. (2021). A family socialization model of transdiagnostic risk for psychopathology in preschool children. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 49, 975–988.
- Whitmer, A.J., & Banich, M.T. (2007). Inhibition versus switching deficits in different forms of rumination. Psychological Science, 18, 546–553.
- Willner, C.J., Gatzke-Kopp, L.M., & Bray, B.C. (2016). The dynamics of internalizing and externalizing comorbidity across the early school years. Development and Psychopathology, 28(4pt1), 1033–1052.
- Wolfe, C.D., & Bell, M.A. (2004). Working memory and inhibitory control in early childhood: Contributions from physiology, temperament, and language. Developmental Psychobiology, 44, 68–83.
- Yan, N., Liu, Y., Ansari, A., Li, K., & Li, X. (2021). Mothers' depressive symptoms and children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors: Examining reciprocal trait-state effects from age 2 to 15. Child Development, 92, 2496–2508.
- Zelazo, P.D. (2006). The dimensional change card sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols, 1, 297–301.
