RESEARCH ARTICLE
Pre-COVID-19 predictors of low-income women's COVID-19 appraisal, coping, and changes in mental health during the pandemic
Liliana J. Lengua,
Caitlin M. Stavish,
Lindsey M. Green,
Lisa Shimomaeda,
Stephanie F. Thompson,
Rebecca Calhoun,
Natasha Moini,
Michele R. Smith,
Corresponding Author
Liliana J. Lengua
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Correspondence Liliana J. Lengua, Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Box 351525, Seattle, WA, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorCaitlin M. Stavish
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorLindsey M. Green
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorLisa Shimomaeda
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorStephanie F. Thompson
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorRebecca Calhoun
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorNatasha Moini
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMichele R. Smith
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this author
Liliana J. Lengua,
Caitlin M. Stavish,
Lindsey M. Green,
Lisa Shimomaeda,
Stephanie F. Thompson,
Rebecca Calhoun,
Natasha Moini,
Michele R. Smith,
Corresponding Author
Liliana J. Lengua
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Correspondence Liliana J. Lengua, Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Box 351525, Seattle, WA, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorCaitlin M. Stavish
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorLindsey M. Green
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorLisa Shimomaeda
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorStephanie F. Thompson
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorRebecca Calhoun
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorNatasha Moini
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMichele R. Smith
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this author
First published: 12 February 2023
Abstract
Study examined predictors and mental health consequences of appraisal (threat, support satisfaction) and coping (active, avoidant) in a sample of low-income women during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Pre-COVID-19 contextual risk and individual resources and COVID-19-specific risk factors were examined as predictors of COVID-19 appraisal and coping, which, in turn, were tested as predictors of changes in depression and anxiety across the pandemic. Pre-COVID-19 resilience predicted more active coping, whereas pre-COVID-19 anxiety and depression predicted more avoidant coping and lower support satisfaction, respectively. Increases in anxiety were predicted by lower pre-COVID-19 self-compassion and higher concurrent threat appraisal and avoidant coping. Increases in depression were related to lower pre-COVID-19 self-compassion, active coping and support satisfaction, and higher COVID-19 hardships and health risk. Findings highlight contextual and individual factors and processes that contribute to mental health problems in a vulnerable population during community-level stressors, with implications for prevention and intervention.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
REFERENCES
- Akgun, S. (2004). The effects of situation and learned resourcefulness on coping responses. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 32(5), 441–448. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2004.32.5.441
- Aldwin, C. M., Sutton, K. J., & Lachman, M. (1996). The development of coping resources in adulthood. Journal of Personality, 64(4), 837–871. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00946.x
- Anderson, R. E., Jones, S., Anyiwo, N., McKenny, M., & Gaylord-Harden, N. (2018). What's race got to do with it? Racial socialization's contribution to Black adolescent coping. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 29. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12440
- Aneshensel, C. S., & Mitchell, U. A. (2014). The stress process: Its origins, evolution, and future. In R. J. Johnson, R. J. Turner, & B. G. Link (Eds.), Springer briefs in sociology. Sociology of mental health: Selected topics from forty years, 1970s-2010s (pp. 53–74). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07797-0_3
10.1007/978-3-319-07797-0_3 Google Scholar
- Aspinwall, L. G. (2004). Dealing with adversity: Self-regulation, coping, adaptation, and health. In M. B. Brewer, & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Perspectives on social psychology. Applied social psychology (pp. 3–27). Blackwell Publishing.
- Berman, N. C., Wheaton, M. G., McGrath, P., & Abramowitz, J. S. (2010). Predicting anxiety: The role of experiential avoidance and anxiety sensitivity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(1), 109–113.
- Besser, A., & Priel, B. (2003). Trait vulnerability and coping strategies in the transition to motherhood. Current Psychology, 22(1), 57–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-003-1013-7
- Blalock, J. A., & Joiner, T. E., Jr. (2000). Interaction of cognitive avoidance coping and stress in predicting depression/anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24(1), 47–65. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005450908245
- Brose, A., Blanke, E. S., Schmiedek, F., Kramer, A. C., Schmidt, A., & Neubauer, A. B. (2020). Change in mental health symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of appraisals and daily life experiences. Journal of Personality. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12592
- Cameron, E. E., Joyce, K. M., Delaquis, C. P., Reynolds, K., Protudjer, J., & Roos, L. E. (2020). Maternal psychological distress & mental health service use during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Affective Disorders, 276, 765–774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.07.081
- Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol' too long: Consider the brief cope. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92–100.
- Cheah, C. S. L., Wang, C., Ren, H., Zong, X., Cho, H. S., & Xue, X. (2020). COVID19 racism and mental health in Chinese American families. Pediatrics, 146(5), e2020021816. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-021816
- Connor-Smith, J. K., & Flachsbart, C. (2007). Relations between personality and coping: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(6), 1080–1107. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.1080
- Conger, R. D., Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65, 541–561.
- Drost, J., Van der Does, W., van Hemert, A. M., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & Spinhoven, P. (2014). Repetitive negative thinking as a transdiagnostic factor in depression and anxiety: A conceptual replication. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 63, 177–183.
- Dvořáková, K., Greenberg, M. T., & Roeser, R. W. (2019). On the role of mindfulness and compassion skills in students' coping, well-being, and development across the transition to college: A conceptual analysis. Stress and Health, 35(2), 146–156. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2850
- Ewert, C., Vater, A., & Schröder-Abé, M. (2021). Self-compassion and coping: A meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 12(5), 1063–1077.
- Hijne, K., Penninx, B. W., van Hemert, A. M., & Spinhoven, P. (2020). The association of changes in repetitive negative thinking with changes in depression and anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders, 275, 157–164.
- Elliot, A. J., Thrash, T. M., & Murayama, K. (2011). A longitudinal analysis of self-regulation and well-being: Avoidance personal goals, avoidance coping, stress generation, and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality, 79(3), 643–674. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00694.x
- Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2013). Childhood poverty, chronic stress, self-regulation, and coping. Child Development Perspectives, 7(1), 43–48.
- Ewert, C., Vater, A., & Schröder-Abé, M. (2021). Self-Compassion and coping: A meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 12, 1063–1077.
- Ferro, M. A., & Speechley, K. N. (2013). Factor structure and longitudinal invariance of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) in adult women: Application in a population-based sample of mothers of children with epilepsy. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 16(2), 159–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-013-0331-5
- Freeman, D., Waite, F., Rosebrock, L., Petit, A., Causier, C., East, A., Jenner, L., Teale, A. L., Carr, L., Mulhall, S., Bold, E., & Lambe, S. (2022). Coronavirus conspiracy beliefs, mistrust, and compliance with government guidelines in England. Psychological Medicine, 52(2), 251–263.
- Gamble, W. C. (1994). Perceptions of controllability and other stressor event characteristics as determinants of coping among young adolescents and young adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 23(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537142
- Green, B. L., Korol, M., Grace, M. C., Vary, M. G., Leonard, A. C., Gleser, G. C., & Smitson-Cohen, S. (1991). Children and disaster: Age, gender, and parental effects on PTSD symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 945–951.
- Gutiérrez-Zotes, A., Labad, J., Martín-Santos, R., García-Esteve, L., Gelabert, E., Jover, M., Guillamat, R., Mayoral, F., Gornemann, I., Canellas, F., Gratacós, M., Guitart, M., Roca, M., Costas, J., Luis Ivorra, J., Navinés, R., De diego-Otero, Y., Vilella, E., & Sanjuan, J. (2015). Coping strategies and postpartum depressive symptoms: A structural equation modelling approach. European Psychiatry, 30, 701–708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.06.001
- Hagger, M. S., Keech, J. J., & Hamilton, K. (2020). Managing stress during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic and beyond: Reappraisal and mindset approaches. Stress and Health, 36, 396–401.
- Harville, E. W., Xiong, X., Smith, B. W., Pridjian, G., Elkind-Hirsch, K., & Buekens, P. (2011). Combined effects of Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Gustav on the mental health of mothers of small children. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 18(4), 288–296.
- Hassan, M. S., Al Halbusi, H., Razali, A., Ariffin, R. N. R., & Williams, K. A. (2022). The Swedish gamble: trust in the government and self-efficacy in the battle to combat COVID-19. Current Psychology, 1–16.
- Hayes, J. A., Lockard, A. J., Janis, R. A., & Locke, B. D. (2016). Construct validity of the Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form among psychotherapy clients. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 29(4), 405–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070.2016.1138397
- Holahan, C. J., Moos, R. H., Holahan, C. K., Brennan, P. L., & Schutte, K. K. (2005). Stress generation, avoidance coping, and depressive symptoms: A 10-Year model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(4), 658–666. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.4.658
- Jenkins, E. K., McAuliffe, C., Hirani, S., Richardson, C., Thomson, K. C., McGuinness, L., Morris, J., Kousoulis, A., & Gadermann, A. (2021). A portrait of the early and differential mental health impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada: Findings from the first wave of a nationally representative cross-sectional survey. Preventive Medicine, 145, 106333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106333
- Josephson, A., Kilic, T., & Michler, J. D. (2021). Socioeconomic impacts of COVID-19 in low-income countries. Nature Human Behaviour, 5, 557–565. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01096-7
- Kerns, C. E., Elkins, R. M., Carpenter, A. L., Chou, T., Green, J. G., & Comer, J. S. (2014). Caregiver distress, shared traumatic exposure, and child adjustment among area youth following the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing. Journal of Affective Disorders, 167, 50–55.
- Kiliç, C., Kiliç, E. Z., & Aydin, I. O. (2011). Effect of relocation and parental psychopathology on earthquake survivor-children's mental health. The Journal of nervous and mental disease, 199(5), 335–341.
- Khanijahani, A. (2021). Racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities in confirmed COVID19 cases and deaths in the United States: A county-level analysis as of November 2020. Ethnicity & Health, 26(1), 22–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2020.1853067
- Krause, N., Liang, J., & Yatomi, N. (1989). Satisfaction with social support and depressive symptoms: A panel analysis. Psychology and Aging, 4, 88–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.4.1.88
- Kyriazos, T. A., Stalikas, A., Prassa, K., Galanakis, M., Yotsidi, V., & Lakioti, A. (2018). Psychometric evidence of the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) and modeling distinctiveness of resilience from depression and stress. Psychology, 9(7), 1828–1857. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2018.97107
10.4236/psych.2018.97107 Google Scholar
- Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
- Lea, C. S., Littleton, H., Allen, A. B., & Beasley, C. M. (2020). Resilience, self-compassion, and mental health outcomes: Rebuilding eastern north carolina after natural disasters. North Carolina Medical Journal, 81(5), 315–319. https://doi.org/10.18043/ncm.81.5.315
- Long, R., Halvorson, M., & Lengua, L. J. (2021). A mindfulness-based promotive coping program improves well-being in college undergraduates. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 1–14.
- Lopez, M. H., Rainie, L., & Budiman, A. (2020). Financial and health impacts of COVID19 vary widely by race and ethnicity. Pew Research Center.
- McLeod, J. D. (2012). The meanings of stress: Expanding the stress process model. Society and Mental Health, 2(3), 172–186.
- Mitchell, M. D., Hargrove, G. L., Collins, M. H., Thompson, M. P., Reddick, T. L., & Kaslow, N. J. (2006). Coping variables that mediate the relation between intimate partner violence and mental health outcomes among low-income, African American women. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(12), 1503–1520.
- Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user's guide (6th ed.) Múthen & Múthen.
- Neff, K. D., & McGehee, P. (2010). Self-compassion and psychological resilience among adolescents and young adults. Self and Identity, 9(3), 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860902979307
- Newby, J. M., O'Moore, K., Tang, S., Christensen, H., & Faasse, K. (2020). Acute mental health responses during the COVID19 pandemic in Australia. PLoS One, 15(7), e0236562. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236562
- Park, C. L., Finkelstein-Fox, L., Russell, B. S., Fendrich, M., Hutchison, M., & Becker, J. (2021). Americans' distress early in the COVID19 pandemic: Protective resources and coping strategies. Psychological Trauma: Theory Research, Practice, and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000931
- Park, C. L., Russell, B. S., Fendrich, M., Finkelstein-Fox, L., Hutchison, M., & Becker, J. (2020). Americans' COVID19 stress, coping, and adherence to CDC guidelines. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-020-05898-9
- Parkes, K. R. (1986). Coping in stressful episodes: The role of individual differences, environmental factors, and situational characteristics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1277–1292.
- Pearlin, L. I. (1989). The sociological study of stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 241–256. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136956
- Pew Research Center. (2020). September 24, Economic Fallout From COVID19 Continues To Hit Lower-Income Americans the Hardest.
- Racine, N., Eirich, R., Cookee, J., Zhu, J., Pador, P., Dunnewold, N., & Madigan, S. (2021). When the bough breaks: A systematic review and meta-analysis of mental health symptoms in mothers of young children during the COVID-19 pandemic. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/u8pnh
10.31234/osf.io/u8pnh Google Scholar
- Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.
10.1177/014662167700100306 Google Scholar
- Raes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., & Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the Self-Compassion Scale. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 18(3), 250–255. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.702
- Regehr, C., Glancy, D., & Pitts, A. (2013). Interventions to reduce stress in university students: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 148(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.11.026
- Russell, B. S., Hutchison, M., Tambling, R., Tomkunas, A. J., & Horton, A. L. (2020). Initial challenges of caregiving during COVID19: Caregiver burden, mental health, and the parent–child relationship. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 51(5), 671–682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01037-x
- Sandler, I. N., Ramirez, R., & Reynolds, K. D. (1986). Life stress for children of divorce, bereaved and asthmatic children. General life events schedule for children. Poster Presented at the American Psychological Association Convention.
- Santiago, C. D., Wadsworth, M. E., & Stump, J. (2011). Socioeconomic status, neighborhood disadvantage, and poverty-related stress: Prospective effects on psychological syndromes among diverse low-income families. Journal of Economic Psychology, 32(2), 218–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2009.10.008
- Sarason, B. R., Shearin, E. N., Pierce, G. R., & Sarason, I. G. (1987). Interrelations of social support measures: Theoretical and practical implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 813–832.
- Sarason, I. G., Sarason, B. R., Shearin, E. N., & Pierce, G. R. (1987). A brief measure of social support: Practical and theoretical implications. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 4, 497–510.
- Shamblaw, A. L., Rumas, R. L., & Best, M. W. (2021). Coping during the COVID19 pandemic: Relations with mental health and quality of life. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000263
- Silwal, A. R., Engilbertsdottir, S., Cuesta, J., Newhouse, D., & Stewart, D. (2020). Global Estimate of Children in Monetary Poverty: An Update. (Poverty and Equity Discussion Paper). World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/34704
10.1596/34704 Google Scholar
- Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972
- Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B. W., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092–1097. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092
- Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics ( 6th ed.). Pearson.
- Trew, J. L. (2011). Exploring the roles of approach and avoidance in depression: An integrative model. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 1156–1168.
- Tyra, A. T., Ginty, A. T., & John-Henderson, N. A. (2021). Emotion regulation strategies predict PTSS during the COVID19 pandemic in an American Indian population. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 28, 808–812. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-021-09964-2
- Uzir, M. U. H., Al Halbusi, H., Lim, R., Jerin, I., Abdul Hamid, A. B., Ramayah, T., & Haque, A. (2021). Applied artificial intelligence and user satisfaction: Smartwatch usage for healthcare in Bangladesh during COVID-19. Technology in Society, 67, 101780.
- Vaculíková, J., & Soukup, P. (2019). Mediation pattern of proactive coping and social support on well-being and depression. International Journal of Psychology & Psychological Therapy, 19(1), 39–54.
- Van der Gucht, K., Takano, K., Van Broeck, N., & Raes, F. (2015). A mindfulness-Based intervention for economically disadvantaged people: Effects on symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression and on cognitive reactivity and overgeneralization. Mindfulness, 6(5), 1042–1052.
- Vilagut, G., Forero, C. G., Barbaglia, G., & Alonso, J. (2016). Screening for depression in the general population with the center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D): A systematic review with meta-analysis. PLoS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155431
- Vogt, D. S., Shipherd, J. C., & Resick, P. A. (2012). Posttraumatic maladaptive beliefs scale: Evolution of the personal beliefs and reactions scale. Assessment, 19(3), 308–317. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191110376161
- Warchoł-Biedermann, K., Daroszewski, P., Bączyk, G., Greberski, K., Bugajski, P., Karoń, J., & Samborski, W. (2021). Dysfunctional coping mediates the relationship between stress and mental health in health care staff working amid COVID-19 pandemic. Medical Principles and Practice.
- World Health Organization. (2020). Listings of WHO's response to COVID19. https://who.int/news/item/29-06-2020-covidtimeline
- Zacher, H., & Rudolph, C. W. (2021). Individual differences and changes in subjective wellbeing during the early stages of the COVID19 pandemic. American Psychologist, 76(1), 50–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000702
