Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Intersection of Sex and Depression: Pathogenesis, Presentation, and Treatments

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Sex and Gender Effects in Pharmacology

Part of the book series: Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology ((HEP,volume 282))

  • 394 Accesses

Abstract

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a highly prevalent, debilitating disorder. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 5% of adults suffer from depression worldwide and more women than men are affected. Yet, we have a very limited understanding of the pathogenesis of the disease, how sex and genetics influence the pathophenotype of MDD, and how they contribute to the responses to pharmacological treatment. This chapter addresses key theories about the etiology of depression, the variations in epidemiology and presentation, and the treatment options with respect to sex and gender. Additionally, we discuss the emerging wave of treatment modalities, diagnosis, and research focusing on MDD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Altshuler LL, Bauer M, Frye MA, Gitlin MJ, Mintz J, Szuba MP, Leight KL, Whybrow PC (2001) Does thyroid supplementation accelerate tricyclic antidepressant response? A review and meta-analysis of the literature. Am J Psychiatry 158:1617–1622

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5), 5th edn. American Psychiatric Association

    Google Scholar 

  • Bangasser DA, Cuarenta A (2021) Sex differences in anxiety and depression: circuits and mechanisms. Nat Rev Neurosci 22:674–684

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett EA, Yttredahl AA, Boldrini M, Tyrer AE, Hill KR, Ananth MR, Milak MS, Oquendo MA, Mann JJ, DeLorenzo C, Parsey RV (2023) In vivo serotonin 1A receptor hippocampal binding potential in depression and reported childhood adversity. Eur Psychiatry 66:e17

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Battle CL, Salisbury AL, Schofield CA, Ortiz-Hernandez S (2013) Perinatal antidepressant use: understanding women’s preferences and concerns. J Psychiatr Pract 19:443–453

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bigos KL, Pollock BG, Stankevich BA, Bies RR (2009) Sex differences in the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of antidepressants: an updated review. Gend Med 6:522–543

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bjorkholm C, Monteggia LM (2016) BDNF – a key transducer of antidepressant effects. Neuropharmacology 102:72–79

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Budni J, Moretti M, Freitas AE, Neis VB, Ribeiro CM, de Oliveira Balen G, Rieger DK, Leal RB, Rodrigues ALS (2021) Behavioral and neurochemical effects of folic acid in a mouse model of depression induced by TNF-alpha. Behav Brain Res 414:113512

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cahill B, Poelker-Wells S, Prather JF, Li Y (2021) A glimpse into the sexual dimorphisms in major depressive disorder through epigenetic studies. Front Neural Circuits 15:768571

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chan J, Natekar A, Einarson A, Koren G (2014) Risks of untreated depression in pregnancy. Can Fam Physician 60:242–243

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ciuculete DM, Voisin S, Kular L, Welihinda N, Jonsson J, Jagodic M, Mwinyi J, Schioth HB (2020) Longitudinal DNA methylation changes at MET may alter HGF/c-MET signalling in adolescents at risk for depression. Epigenetics 15:646–663

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conway CR, George MS, Sackeim HA (2017) Toward an evidence-based, operational definition of treatment-resistant depression: when enough is enough. JAMA Psychiatry 74:9–10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coppen A (1967) The biochemistry of affective disorders. Br J Psychiatry 113:1237–1264

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Damoiseaux VA, Proost JH, Jiawan VC, Melgert BN (2014) Sex differences in the pharmacokinetics of antidepressants: influence of female sex hormones and oral contraceptives. Clin Pharmacokinet 53:509–519

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson J, Turnbull CD, Strickland R, Miller R, Graves K (1986) The Montgomery-Asberg depression scale: reliability and validity. Acta Psychiatr Scand 73:544–548

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Long NE, Hyslop JR, Raha S, Hardy DB, Holloway AC (2014) Fluoxetine-induced pancreatic beta cell dysfunction: new insight into the benefits of folic acid in the treatment of depression. J Affect Disord 166:6–13

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delgado PL (2000) Depression: the case for a monoamine deficiency. J Clin Psychiatry 61(Suppl 6):7–11

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deligiannidis KM, Byatt N, Freeman MP (2014) Pharmacotherapy for mood disorders in pregnancy: a review of pharmacokinetic changes and clinical recommendations for therapeutic drug monitoring. J Clin Psychopharmacol 34:244–255

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Devlin NJ, Brooks R (2017) EQ-5D and the EuroQol group: past, present and future. Appl Health Econ Health Policy 15:127–137

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Diseases GBD, Injuries C (2020) Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet 396:1204–1222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ekhart C, van Hunsel F, Scholl J, de Vries S, van Puijenbroek E (2018) Sex differences in reported adverse drug reactions of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Drug Saf 41:677–683

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evaluation, I.o.H.M.a (2021) Global Health Data Exchange (GHDx). http://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-results-tool?params=gbd-api-2019-permalink/d780dffbe8a381b25e1416884959e88b

  • Ferguson JM, Hill H (2006) Pharmacokinetics of fluoxetine in elderly men and women. Gerontology 52:45–50

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giakoumatos CI, Osser D (2019) The psychopharmacology algorithm project at the Harvard South Shore program: an update on unipolar nonpsychotic depression. Harv Rev Psychiatry 27:33–52

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gimeno D, Delclos GL, Ferrie JE, De Vogli R, Elovainio M, Marmot MG, Kivimaki M (2011) Association of CRP and IL-6 with lung function in a middle-aged population initially free from self-reported respiratory problems: the Whitehall II study. Eur J Epidemiol 26:135–144

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Greil W, de Bardeci M, Seifert J, Bernegger X, Cattapan K, Stassen H, Wagner AL, Sieberer M, Grohmann R, Toto S (2022) Treatment of depression: are psychotropic drugs appropriately dosed in women and in the elderly? Dosages of psychotropic drugs by sex and age in routine clinical practice. Hum Psychopharmacol 37:e2809

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haley CL, Sung SC, Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Wisniewski SR, Luther JF, Kornstein SG (2013) The clinical relevance of self-reported premenstrual worsening of depressive symptoms in the management of depressed outpatients: a STAR*D report. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 22:219–229

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill J, Pickles A, Wright N, Quinn JP, Murgatroyd C, Sharp H (2019) Mismatched prenatal and postnatal maternal depressive symptoms and child behaviours: a sex-dependent role for NR3C1 DNA methylation in the wirral child health and development study. Cell 8

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill KR, Gardus JD, Bartlett EA, Perlman G, Parsey RV, DeLorenzo C (2021) Measuring brain glucose metabolism in order to predict response to antidepressant or placebo: a randomized clinical trial. Neuroimage Clin 32:102858

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Holingue C, Budavari AC, Rodriguez KM, Zisman CR, Windheim G, Fallin MD (2020) Sex differences in the gut-brain axis: implications for mental health. Curr Psychiatry Rep 22:83

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Horst WD, Preskorn SH (1998) Mechanisms of action and clinical characteristics of three atypical antidepressants: venlafaxine, nefazodone, bupropion. J Affect Disord 51:237–254

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde JS, Mezulis AH (2020) Gender differences in depression: biological, affective, cognitive, and sociocultural factors. Harv Rev Psychiatry 28:4–13

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iurescia S, Seripa D, Rinaldi M (2016) Role of the 5-HTTLPR and SNP promoter polymorphisms on serotonin transporter gene expression: a closer look at genetic architecture and in vitro functional studies of common and uncommon allelic variants. Mol Neurobiol 53:5510–5526

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang X, Chen Z, Yu X, Chen J, Sun C, Jing C, Xu L, Liu F, Ni W, Chen L (2021) Lipopolysaccharide-induced depression is associated with estrogen receptor-alpha/SIRT1/NF-kappaB signaling pathway in old female mice. Neurochem Int 148:105097

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kamran M, Bibi F, Ur Rehman A, Morris DW (2022) Major depressive disorder: existing hypotheses about pathophysiological mechanisms and new genetic findings. Genes (Basel) 13

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendrick T, Taylor D, Johnson CF (2019) Which first-line antidepressant? Br J Gen Pract 69:114–115

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC (2012) The costs of depression. Psychiatr Clin North Am 35:1–14

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khan A, Brodhead AE, Schwartz KA, Kolts RL, Brown WA (2005) Sex differences in antidepressant response in recent antidepressant clinical trials. J Clin Psychopharmacol 25:318–324

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khattab MH, Sherry AD, Devan SP, Luo G, Chaballout BH, Jean-Baptiste S, Xu J, Bick S, Petrie WM, Cmelak AJ (2022) Noninvasive capsulotomy for refractory depression by frameless stereotactic radiosurgery. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 113:960–966

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JM, Kim SW, Stewart R, Kim SY, Yoon JS, Jung SW, Lee MS, Yim HW, Jun TY (2011) Predictors of 12-week remission in a nationwide cohort of people with depressive disorders: the CRESCEND study. Hum Psychopharmacol 26:41–50

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim DW, Yao Z, Graybuck LT, Kim TK, Nguyen TN, Smith KA, Fong O, Yi L, Koulena N, Pierson N, Shah S, Lo L, Pool AH, Oka Y, Pachter L, Cai L, Tasic B, Zeng H, Anderson DJ (2019) Multimodal analysis of cell types in a hypothalamic node controlling social behavior. Cell 179:713–728 e717

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB (2001) The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med 16:606–613

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kuehner C (2017) Why is depression more common among women than among men? Lancet Psychiatry 4:146–158

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LeGates TA, Kvarta MD, Thompson SM (2019) Sex differences in antidepressant efficacy. Neuropsychopharmacology 44:140–154

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lei Y, Wang J, Wang D, Li C, Liu B, Fang X, You J, Guo M, Lu XY (2020) SIRT1 in forebrain excitatory neurons produces sexually dimorphic effects on depression-related behaviors and modulates neuronal excitability and synaptic transmission in the medial prefrontal cortex. Mol Psychiatry 25:1094–1111

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu S, Sheng J, Li B, Zhang X (2017) Recent advances in non-invasive brain stimulation for major depressive disorder. Front Hum Neurosci 11:526

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez-Munoz F, Alamo C (2009) Monoaminergic neurotransmission: the history of the discovery of antidepressants from 1950s until today. Curr Pharm Des 15:1563–1586

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marazziti D, Baroni S, Picchetti M, Piccinni A, Carlini M, Vatteroni E, Falaschi V, Lombardi A, Dell’Osso L (2013) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of psychotropic drugs: effect of sex. CNS Spectr 18:118–127

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maul S, Giegling I, Fabbri C, Corponi F, Serretti A, Rujescu D (2020) Genetics of resilience: implications from genome-wide association studies and candidate genes of the stress response system in posttraumatic stress disorder and depression. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 183:77–94

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller AH, Raison CL (2016) The role of inflammation in depression: from evolutionary imperative to modern treatment target. Nat Rev Immunol 16:22–34

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Misztak P, Panczyszyn-Trzewik P, Nowak G, Sowa-Kucma M (2020) Epigenetic marks and their relationship with BDNF in the brain of suicide victims. PLoS One 15:e0239335

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Moncrieff J, Cooper RE, Stockmann T, Amendola S, Hengartner MP, Horowitz MA (2022) The serotonin theory of depression: a systematic umbrella review of the evidence. Mol Psychiatry

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore TJ, Mattison DR (2017) Adult utilization of psychiatric drugs and differences by sex, age, and race. JAMA Intern Med 177:274–275

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Narayan GA, Hill KR, Wengler K, He X, Wang J, Yang J, Parsey RV, DeLorenzo C (2022) Does the change in glutamate to GABA ratio correlate with change in depression severity? A randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Mol Psychiatry 27:3833–3841

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nemeroff CB (2020) The state of our understanding of the pathophysiology and optimal treatment of depression: glass half full or half empty? Am J Psychiatry 177:671–685

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osman A, Kopper BA, Barrios F, Gutierrez PM, Bagge CL (2004) Reliability and validity of the Beck depression inventory–II with adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Psychol Assess 16:120–132

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Otte C, Gold SM, Penninx BW, Pariante CM, Etkin A, Fava M, Mohr DC, Schatzberg AF (2016) Major depressive disorder. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2:16065

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pae CU, Mandelli L, Kim TS, Han C, Masand PS, Marks DM, Patkar AA, Steffens DC, De Ronchi D, Serretti A (2009) Effectiveness of antidepressant treatments in pre-menopausal versus post-menopausal women: a pilot study on differential effects of sex hormones on antidepressant effects. Biomed Pharmacother 63:228–235

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Price RB, Iosifescu DV, Murrough JW, Chang LC, Al Jurdi RK, Iqbal SZ, Soleimani L, Charney DS, Foulkes AL, Mathew SJ (2014) Effects of ketamine on explicit and implicit suicidal cognition: a randomized controlled trial in treatment-resistant depression. Depress Anxiety 31:335–343

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Priess-Groben HA, Hyde JS (2013) 5-HTTLPR X stress in adolescent depression: moderation by MAOA and gender. J Abnorm Child Psychol 41:281–294

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff LS (1977) The CES-D scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl Psychol Meas 1:385–401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rajkumar RP (2021) Gut hormones as potential therapeutic targets or biomarkers of response in depression: the case of motilin. Life (Basel) 11

    Google Scholar 

  • Rawat R, Tunc-Ozcan E, McGuire TL, Peng CY, Kessler JA (2022) Ketamine activates adult-born immature granule neurons to rapidly alleviate depression-like behaviors in mice. Nat Commun 13:2650

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rosa PB, Ribeiro CM, Bettio LE, Colla A, Lieberknecht V, Moretti M, Rodrigues AL (2014) Folic acid prevents depressive-like behavior induced by chronic corticosterone treatment in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 127:1–6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan J, Burger HG, Szoeke C, Lehert P, Ancelin ML, Henderson VW, Dennerstein L (2009) A prospective study of the association between endogenous hormones and depressive symptoms in postmenopausal women. Menopause 16:509–517

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Santomauro D, Mantilla Herrera A, Shadid J, Collaborators C-MD (2021) Global prevalence and burden of depressive and anxiety disorders in 204 countries and territories in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet 398:1700–1712

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanwald S, Gahr M, Widenhorn-Muller K, Schonfeldt-Lecuona C, Richter K, Connemann BJ, Kammer T, Montag C, Kiefer M (2020) Relation of promoter methylation of the oxytocin gene to stressful life events and depression severity. J Mol Neurosci 70:201–211

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scarpa JR, Fatma M, Loh YE, Traore SR, Stefan T, Chen TH, Nestler EJ, Labonte B (2020) Shared transcriptional signatures in major depressive disorder and mouse chronic stress models. Biol Psychiatry 88:159–168

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schwalsberger K, Reininghaus B, Reiter A, Dalkner N, Fleischmann E, Fellendorf F, Platzer M, Reininghaus EZ (2022) Sex-related differences in the pharmacological treatment of major depression – are women and men treated differently? Psychiatr Danub 34:219–228

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shobeiri P, Kalantari A, Teixeira AL, Rezaei N (2022) Shedding light on biological sex differences and microbiota-gut-brain axis: a comprehensive review of its roles in neuropsychiatric disorders. Biol Sex Differ 13:12

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sit DK, Perel JM, Helsel JC, Wisner KL (2008) Changes in antidepressant metabolism and dosing across pregnancy and early postpartum. J Clin Psychiatry 69:652–658

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Strawbridge R, Javed RR, Cave J, Jauhar S, Young AH (2022) The effects of reserpine on depression: a systematic review. J Psychopharmacol:2698811221115762

    Google Scholar 

  • Thase ME, Entsuah R, Cantillon M, Kornstein SG (2005) Relative antidepressant efficacy of venlafaxine and SSRIs: sex-age interactions. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 14:609–616

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tordoff DM, Wanta JW, Collin A, Stepney C, Inwards-Breland DJ, Ahrens K (2022) Mental health outcomes in transgender and nonbinary youths receiving gender-affirming care. JAMA Netw Open 5:e220978

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Trajkovic G, Starcevic V, Latas M, Lestarevic M, Ille T, Bukumiric Z, Marinkovic J (2011) Reliability of the Hamilton rating scale for depression: a meta-analysis over a period of 49 years. Psychiatry Res 189:1–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venkatasubramanian R, Kumar CN, Pandey RS (2013) A randomized double-blind comparison of fluoxetine augmentation by high and low dosage folic acid in patients with depressive episodes. J Affect Disord 150:644–648

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins CC, Pieper AA, Treisman GJ (2011) Safety considerations in drug treatment of depression in HIV-positive patients: an updated review. Drug Saf 34:623–639

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiechmann T, Roh S, Sauer S, Czamara D, Arloth J, Kodel M, Beintner M, Knop L, Menke A, Binder EB, Provencal N (2019) Identification of dynamic glucocorticoid-induced methylation changes at the FKBP5 locus. Clin Epigenetics 11:83

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Williams AV, Trainor BC (2018) The impact of sex as a biological variable in the search for novel antidepressants. Front Neuroendocrinol 50:107–117

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wissman AM, May RM, Woolley CS (2012) Ultrastructural analysis of sex differences in nucleus accumbens synaptic connectivity. Brain Struct Funct 217:181–190

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yao W, Cao Q, Luo S, He L, Yang C, Chen J, Qi Q, Hashimoto K, Zhang JC (2022) Microglial ERK-NRBP1-CREB-BDNF signaling in sustained antidepressant actions of (R)-ketamine. Mol Psychiatry 27:1618–1629

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yu M, Cullen N, Linn KA, Oathes DJ, Seok D, Cook PA, Duprat R, Aselcioglu I, Moore TM, Davatzikos C, Oquendo MA, Weissman MM, Shinohara RT, Sheline YI (2021) Structural brain measures linked to clinical phenotypes in major depression replicate across clinical centres. Mol Psychiatry 26:2764–2775

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zarate CA Jr, Singh JB, Carlson PJ, Brutsche NE, Ameli R, Luckenbaugh DA, Charney DS, Manji HK (2006) A randomized trial of an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:856–864

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao L, Han G, Zhao Y, Jin Y, Ge T, Yang W, Cui R, Xu S, Li B (2020) Gender differences in depression: evidence from genetics. Front Genet 11:562316

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng P, Zeng B, Zhou C, Liu M, Fang Z, Xu X, Zeng L, Chen J, Fan S, Du X, Zhang X, Yang D, Yang Y, Meng H, Li W, Melgiri ND, Licinio J, Wei H, Xie P (2016) Gut microbiome remodeling induces depressive-like behaviors through a pathway mediated by the host’s metabolism. Mol Psychiatry 21:786–796

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank members of the Tsirka lab, especially Miguel Madeira, for his input to this review. This work is partially supported by T32GM135746 (KKN) and R01MH123093W1.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Renaissance School of Medicine at Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA

    Dafni F. T. Frohman, Kimberly Nnah & Stella E. Tsirka

  2. Program in Neuroscience, Stony Brook, NY, USA

    Kimberly Nnah & Stella E. Tsirka

  3. Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook, NY, USA

    Kimberly Nnah & Stella E. Tsirka

Authors
  1. Dafni F. T. Frohman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kimberly Nnah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Stella E. Tsirka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stella E. Tsirka .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Renaissance School of Medicine/Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA

    Stella E. Tsirka

  2. Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Renaissance School of Medicine/Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA

    Maricedes Acosta-Martinez

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Frohman, D.F.T., Nnah, K., Tsirka, S.E. (2023). Intersection of Sex and Depression: Pathogenesis, Presentation, and Treatments. In: Tsirka, S.E., Acosta-Martinez, M. (eds) Sex and Gender Effects in Pharmacology . Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, vol 282. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/164_2023_670

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation