Abstract
Personality vulnerabilities (i.e., dependency and self-criticism) have been established as critical risk factors for psychopathology in general and for depression in particular. However, research does not address ways of treating those who score high on both dependency and self-criticism, or mixed-vulnerability individuals. To benefit these individuals, we developed an online, group-administered, multi-component positive psychology intervention (MPPI) and tested its effects and mechanisms. Participants (N = 70) were randomly assigned to either receive the MPPI or an active placebo control. The six-session intervention took place over three weeks, and measures were completed at baseline, midtest, posttest, and one-month follow-up stages. Compared to the control condition, the MPPI significantly attenuated self-criticism and dependency for up to one month. The intervention also decreased depression and promoted self-esteem and subjective well-being (SWB). Parallel mediation analyses revealed that lower self-criticism mediated the intervention’s effects on depression, self-esteem, and SWB, while lower dependency mediated effects on self-esteem. This study highlights how an MPPI can decrease personality vulnerability in mixed-vulnerability individuals, and how this change can have further positive effects.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abi-Habib, R., & Luyten, P. (2013). The role of dependency and self-criticism in the relationship between anger and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(8), 921–925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.466
Andersen, E. M., Malmgren, J. A., Carter, W. B., & Patrick, D. L. (1994). Screening for depression in well older adults: Evaluation of a short form of the CES-D (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale). American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 10, 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(18)30622-6
Bagby, R. M., Parker, J. D. A., Joffe, R. T., & Buis, T. (1994). Reconstruction and validation of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire. Assessment, 1(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191194001001009
Blanco, I., Contreras, A., Chaves, C., Lopez-Gomez, I., Hervas, G., & Vazquez, C. (2020). Positive interventions in depression change the structure of well-being and psychological symptoms: A network analysis. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 15(5), 623–628. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1789696
Blatt, S. J. (1974). Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 29(1), 107–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.1974.11822616
Blatt, S. J. (1995). The destructiveness of perfectionism: Implications for the treatment of depression. American Psychologist, 50, 1003–1020. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.12.1003
Blatt, S. J. (2004). Experiences of depression: Theoretical, clinical, and research perspectives. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10749-000
Blatt, S. J. (2008). Polarities of experience: Relatedness and self-definition in personality development, psychopathology, and the therapeutic process. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11749-000
Blatt, S., & Luyten, P. (2009). A structural-developmental psychodynamic approach to psychopathology: Two polarities of experience across the life span. Development and Psychopathology, 21(3), 793–814. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409000431
Blatt, S. J., & Shichman, S. (1983). Two primary configurations of psychopathology. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 6, 187–254. https://doi.org/10.1037/11749-006
Blatt, S. J., Quinlan, D. M., Chevron, E. S., McDonald, C., & Zuroff, D. (1982). Dependency and self-criticism: Psychological dimensions of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50(1), 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.50.1.113
Blatt, S. J., D'Afflitti, J. P., & Quinlan, D. M. (1976). Experiences of depression in normal young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 383-389. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.85.4.383
Blatt, S. J., Zohar, A. H., Quinlan, D. M., Zuroff, D. C., & Mongrain, M. (1995). Subscales within the dependency factor of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64(2), 319–339. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6402_11
Boone, L., Soenens, B., Mouratidis, A., Vansteenkiste, M., Verstuyf, J., & Braet, C. (2012). Daily fluctuations in perfectionism dimensions and their relation to eating disorder symptoms. Journal of Research in Personality, 46(6), 678–687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2012.08.001
Bornstein, R. F. (1992). The dependent personality: Developmental, social, and clinical perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.3
Campos, R. C., Besser, A., & Blatt, S. J. (2010). The mediating role of self-criticism and dependency in the association between perceptions of maternal caring and depressive symptoms. Depression and Anxiety, 27(12), 1149–1157. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20763
Campos, R. C., Holden, R. R., Baleizão, C., Caçador, B., & Fragata, A. S. (2018). Self-criticism, neediness, and distress in the prediction of suicide ideation: Results from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. The Journal of Psychology, 152(4), 237–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2018.1446895
Carr, A., Cullen, K., Keeney, C., Canning, C., Mooney, O., Chinseallaigh, E., & O’Dowd, A. (2020). Effectiveness of positive psychology interventions: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Positive Psychology, 1–21, 749–769. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1818807
Casalin, S., Luyten, P., Besser, A., Wouters, S., & Vliegen, N. (2014). A longitudinal cross-lagged study of the role of parental self-criticism, dependency, depression, and parenting stress in the development of child negative affectivity. Self and Identity, 13(4), 491–511. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2013.873076
Celano, C. M., Beale, E. E., Mastromauro, C. A., Stewart, J. G., Millstein, R. A., Auerbach, R. P., Bedoya, C. A., & Huffman, J. C. (2017). Psychological interventions to reduce suicidality in high-risk patients with major depression: A randomized controlled trial. Psychological Medicine, 47(5), 810–821. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716002798
Chaves, C., López-Gomez, I., Hervas, G., & Vazquez, C. (2016). A comparative study on the efficacy of a positive psychology intervention and a cognitive behavioral therapy for clinical depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41, 417–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-016-9778-9
Chilver, M. R., & Gatt, J. M. (2022). Six-week online multi-component positive psychology intervention improves subjective wellbeing in young adults. Journal of Happiness Studies, 23, 1267–1288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-021-00449-3
Claes, L., Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., & Vandereycken, W. (2012). The scars of the inner critic: Perfectionism and nonsuicidal self-injury in eating disorders. European Eating Disorders Review, 20, 196–202. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.1158
Costello, E. J., Copeland, W., & Angold, A. (2011). Trends in psychopathology across the adolescent years: What changes when children become adolescents, and when adolescents become adults? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 52(10), 1015–1025. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02446.x
Dagnino, P., Pérez, C., Gómez, A., Gloger, S., & Krause, M. (2017). Depression and attachment: How do personality styles and social support influence this relation? Research in Psychotherapy (milano), 20(1), 53–62. https://doi.org/10.4081/ripppo.2017.237
Deng, Y., Xiang, R., Zhu, Y., Li, Y., Yu, S., & Liu, X. (2019a). Counting blessings and sharing gratitude in a Chinese prisoner sample: Effects of gratitude-based interventions on subjective well-being and aggression. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(3), 303–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1460687
Deng, Y., Wang, S., Leng, L., Chen, H., Yang, T., & Liu, X. (2019b). Pleasing or withdrawing: Differences between dependent and self-critical depression in psychosocial functioning following rejection. Personality and Individual Differences, 140, 4–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.02.037
Desmet, M., Vanheule, S., Groenvynck, H., Verhaeghe, P., Vogel, J., & Bogaerts, S. (2007). The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire: An inquiry into the different scoring procedures. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 23(2), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.23.2.89
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Doerig, N., Schlumpf, Y., Spinelli, S., Späti, J., Brakowski, J., Quednow, B. B., ... & Grosse Holtforth, M. (2014). Neural representation and clinically relevant moderators of individualised self-criticism in healthy subjects. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(9), 1333–1340. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst123
Falgares, G., De Santis, S., Gullo, S., Kopala-Sibley, D. C., Scrima, F., & Livi, S. (2018). Psychometric aspects of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire: Implications for clinical assessment and research. Journal of Personality Assessment, 100, 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2017.1282493
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Endler, N. S., & Bagby, R. M. (1995). Conceptualization and assessment of personality factors in depression. European Journal of Personality, 9(5), 309–350. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2410090504
Fuhr, S. K., & Shean, G. (1992). Subtypes of depression, efficacy, and the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire. Journal of Psychology, 126, 495–506. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1992.10543383
Ghielen, S. T. S., van Woerkom, M., & Christina Meyers, M. (2018). Promoting positive outcomes through strengths interventions: A literature review. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(6), 573–585. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1365164
Gilbert, P., & Irons, C. (2004). A pilot exploration of the use of compassionate images in a group of self-critical people. Memory, 12(4), 507–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210444000115
Gilbert, P., & Procter, S. (2006). Compassionate mind training for people with high shame and self-criticism: Overview and pilot study of a group therapy approach. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 13(6), 353–379. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.507
Hankin, B. L., & Abela, J. R. (Eds.). (2005). Development of psychopathology: A vulnerability-stress perspective. Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452231655
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. A regression-based approach. Guilford Press.
Hendriks, T., Schotanus-Dijkstra, M., Hassankhan, A., de Jong, J., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2020). The efficacy of multi-component positive psychology interventions: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(1), 357–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00082-1
Higgins, S., Sokolowski, C. M., Vishwanathan, M., Schmidt, M. D., Evans, E. M., & Lewis, R. D. (2019). Sex-specific muscular mediation of the relationship between physical activity and cortical bone in young adults. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 35(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbmr.3868
Kelley, T. L. (1939). The selection of upper and lower groups for the validation of test items. Journal of Educational Psychology, 30, 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0057123
Kelly, A. C., Zuroff, D. C., & Shapira, L. B. (2009). Soothing oneself and resisting self-attacks: The treatment of two intrapersonal deficits in depression vulnerability. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33, 301–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-008-9202-1
Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., Matsumoto, H., & Norasakkunkit, V. (1997). Individual and collective processes in the construction of the self: Self-enhancement in the United States and self-criticism in Japan. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(6), 1245–1267. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1245
Klein, D. N., Harding, K., Taylor, E. B., & Dickstein, S. (1988). Dependency and self-criticism in depression: Evaluation in a clinical population. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(4), 399–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.97.4.399
Kopala-Sibley, D. C., & Zuroff, D. C. (2014). The developmental origins of personality factors from the self-definitional and relatedness domains: A review of theory and research. Review of General Psychology, 18(3), 137–155. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000013
Kopala-Sibley, D. C., Zuroff, D. C., Russell, J. J., & Moskowitz, D. S. (2013). Understanding heterogeneity in social anxiety disorder: Dependency and self-criticism moderate fear responses to interpersonal cues. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53(2), 141–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12032
Kopala-Sibley, D. C., Zuroff, D. C., Hankin, B. L., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2015). The development of self-criticism and dependency in early adolescence and their role in the development of depressive and anxiety symptoms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(8), 1094–1109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167215590985
Kopala-Sibley, D. C., Klein, D. N., Perlman, G., & Kotov, R. (2017). Self-criticism and dependency in female adolescents: Prediction of first onsets and disentangling the relationships between personality, stressful life events, and internalizing psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(8), 1029–1043. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000297
Koydemir, S., & Sun-Selışık, Z. E. (2016). Well-being on campus: Testing the effectiveness of an online strengths-based intervention for first year college students. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 44(4), 434–446. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2015.1110562
Layous, K., Chancellor, J., Lyubomirsky, S., Wang, L., & Doraiswamy, P. M. (2011). Delivering happiness: Translating positive psychology intervention research for treating major and minor depressive disorders. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 17(8), 675–683. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2011.0139
Levy, K. N., Edell, W. S., & McGlashan, T. H. (2007). Depressive experiences in inpatients with borderline personality disorder. Psychiatric Quarterly, 78(2), 129–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-006-9033-8
Little, R. J. A. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83, 1198–1202. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1988.10478722
Longe, O., Maratos, F. A., Gilbert, P., Evans, G., Volker, F., Rockliff, H., & Rippon, G. (2010). Having a word with yourself: Neural correlates of self-criticism and self-reassurance. NeuroImage, 49(2), 1849–1856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.09.019
Luyten, P., & Blatt, S. J. (2013). Interpersonal relatedness and self-definition in normal and disrupted personality development: Retrospect and prospect. American Psychologist, 68(3), 172–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032243
Luyten, P., & Blatt, S. J. (2016). A hierarchical multiple-level approach to the assessment of interpersonal relatedness and self-definition: Implications for research, clinical practice, and DSM planning. Journal of Personality Assessment, 98, 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2015.1091773
Luyten, P., Sabbe, B., Blatt, S. J., Meganck, S., Jansen, B., De Grave, C., … Corveleyn, J. (2007). Dependency and self-criticism: Relationship with major depressive disorder, severity of depression, and clinical presentation. Depression and Anxiety, 24(8), 586–596. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20272
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39(1), 99–128. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Cultural variation in the self-concept. In The self: Interdisciplinary approaches (pp. 18–48). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-8264-5_2
Mauas, V., Kopala-Sibley, D. C., & Zuroff, D. C. (2014). Depressive symptoms in the transition to menopause: The roles of irritability, personality vulnerability, and self-regulation. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 17(4), 279–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-014-0434-7
Mongrain, M. (1998). Parental representations and support-seeking behaviors related to dependency and self-criticism. Journal of Personality, 66(2), 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00007
Mongrain, M., & Zuroff, D. C. (1995). Motivational and affective correlates of dependency and self-criticism. Personality and Individual Differences, 18(3), 347–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)00139-J
Mongrain, M., Komeylian, Z., & Barnhart, R. (2015). Happiness vs. mindfulness exercises for individuals vulnerable to depression. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(4), 366–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1092569
Neff, K. (2003). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
Onken, L. S. (2019). History and evolution of the NIH stage model. In S. Dimidjian (Ed.), Evidence-based practice in action: Bridging clinical science and intervention (pp. 28–42). The Guildford Press.
Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2009). Review of the satisfaction with life scale. In Diener, E. (Eds.), Assessing well-being (Social Indicators Research Series, Vol. 39, S. 101–117). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2354-4_5
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification (Vol. 1). Oxford University Press/American Psychological Association.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(4), 717–731. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206553
Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16, 93–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022658
Priel, B., & Shahar, G. (2000). Dependency, self-criticism, social context and distress: Comparing moderating and mediating models. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(3), 515–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00116-6
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
Rashid, T. (2009). Positive interventions in clinical practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 461–466. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20588
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
Rosenfarb, I. S., Becker, J., Khan, A., & Mintz, J. (1994). Dependency, self-criticism, and perceptions of socialization experiences. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103(4), 669–675. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.103.4.669
Schanche, E. (2013). The transdiagnostic phenomenon of self-criticism. Psychotherapy, 50(3), 316–321. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032163
Sekowski, M., Lengiewicz, I., & Lester, D. (2022). The complex relationships between dependency and self-criticism and suicidal behavior and ideation in early adulthood. Personality and Individual Differences, 19(8), 1674–1681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111806
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410
Sergeant, S., & Mongrain, M. (2011). Are positive psychology exercises helpful for people with depressive personality styles? The Journal of Positive Psychology, 6(4), 260–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2011.577089
Shahar, G. (2015). Erosion: The psychopathology of self-criticism. Oxford University Press.
Shahar, G., & Henrich, C. (2019). Role of adolescent exposure to rockets in the links between personality vulnerability and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 31(4), 1367–1380. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418000792
Shahar, G., Blatt, S. J., & Ford, R. Q. (2003). Mixed anaclitic-introjective psychopathology in treatment-resistant inpatients undergoing psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 20(1), 84–102. https://doi.org/10.1037/0736-9735.20.1.84
Shahar, B., Carlin, E. R., Engle, D. E., Hedge, J., Szepsenwol, O., & Arkowitz, H. (2012). A pilot investigation of emotion-focused tow-chair dialogue intervention for self-criticism. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19(6), 496–507. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.762
Shapira, L. B., & Mongrain, M. (2010). The benefits of self-compassion and optimism exercises for individuals vulnerable to depression. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(5), 377–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2010.516763
Shen, Z.-L., & Cai, T.-S. (2008). Disposal to the 8th item of Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Chinese version). Chinese Mental Health Journal, 22(9), 661–663.
Shiffman, S., Stone, A. A., & Hufford, M. R. (2008). Ecological momentary assessment. Annual Reviews of Clinical Psychology, 4(1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091415
Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2012). A 21 word solution. Dialogue: The Official Newsletter of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, 26, 4–7. http://ssrn.com/abstract=2160588. Accessed 04 Mar 2014
Sin, N. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: A practice-friendly meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 467–487. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20593
Sink, C. A., & Mvududu, N. H. (2010). Statistical power, sampling, and effect sizes: Three keys to research relevancy. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 1, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137810373613
Slemp, G. R., Lee, M. A., & Mossman, L. H. (2021). Interventions to support autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs in organizations: A systematic review with recommendations for research and practice. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 94(2), 427–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12338
Sobrinho, A. T., Campos, R. C., & Holden, R. R. (2016). Parental rejection, personality, and depression in the prediction of suicidality in a sample of nonclinical young adults. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 33(4), 554–570. https://doi.org/10.1037/pap0000051
Tejada-Gallardo, C., Blasco-Belled, A., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2020). Effects of school-based multicomponent positive psychology interventions on well-being and distress in adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49, 1943–1960. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01289-9
Tiedemann, F. (2022). gghalves: Compose half-half plots using your favourite geoms. R package version 0.1.4. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=gghalves
Van Agteren, J., Iasiello, M., Lo, L., Bartholomaeus, J., Kopsaftis, Z., Carey, M., & Kyrios, M. (2021). A systematic review and meta-analysis of psychological interventions to improve mental wellbeing. Nature Human Behaviour, 5(5), 631–652. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01093-w
Vandenkerckhove, B., Brenning, K., Vansteenkiste, M., Luyten, P., & Soenens, B. (2019). The explanatory role of basic psychological need experiences in the relation between dependency, self-criticism and psychopathology in adolescence. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 41(4), 574–588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-019-09719-0
Vandenkerckhove, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Brenning, K., Boncquet, M., Flamant, N., Luyten, P., & Soenens, B. (2020). A longitudinal examination of the interplay between personality vulnerability and need-based experiences in adolescents’ depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(6), 1145–1161. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12562
Wang, C., Zhang, J., Sun, J., Chen, M., & Yang, J. (2020). Public environmental facilities: Hygiene factors for tourists’ environmental behaviour. Environmental Science & Policy, 106, 40–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2020.01.009
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
Wen, J., Tao, Y., Pang, L., Cao, Y., Lin, H., & Zhou, Y. (2023). Parental feeding styles and risk of a new carious lesion in preschool children: A longitudinal study. Nutrients, 15(20), 4387. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15204387
Whelton, W. J., & Greenberg, L. S. (2005). Emotion in self-criticism. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 1583–1595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.09.024
Wickham, H. (2016). ggplot2: Elegant graphics for data analysis. Springer.
Yao, S., Fang, J., Zhu, X., & Zuroff, D. C. (2009). The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire: Construct validity and prediction of depressive symptoms in a sample of Chinese undergraduates. Depression and Anxiety, 26(10), 930–937. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20465
Zuroff, D. C. (1992). New directions for cognitive models of depression. Psychological Inquiry, 3(3), 274–277. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0303_19
Zuroff, D. C., Mongrain, M., & Santor, D. A. (2004). Conceptualizing and measuring personality vulnerability to depression: Comment on Coyne and Whiffen (1995). Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 489–511. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.489
Zuroff, D. C., Sadikaj, G., Kelly, A. C., & Leybman, M. J. (2015). Conceptualizing and measuring self-criticism as both a personality trait and a personality state. Journal of Personality Assessment, 98(1), 14–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2015.1044604
Funding
Beijing Municipal Education Commission, KM202210028001, Yanhe Deng
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing Interests
All authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Deng, Y., Zhang, J., Chen, H. et al. Benefiting Individuals High in Both Self-Criticism and Dependency Through an Online Multi-component Positive Psychology Intervention: Effects and Mechanisms. J Happiness Stud 25, 16 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-024-00713-2
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-024-00713-2