Introduction

Recent advances in fertility technologies and legislation are allowing more sexual minority people to become parents than ever before (e.g., Bos & Gartrell, 2020; Carone et al., 2021a; Shenkman & Shmotkin, 2020). Correspondingly, studies on the psychological adjustment of children and parents in sexual minority parent families are increasing (e.g., Carone et al., 2020a; Golombok, 2020; Shenkman et al., 2023). Most prior research in this area has shown that neither sexual minority parents nor their children differ from their heterosexual counterparts, in terms of mental health (Carone et al., 2020b; Costa et al., 2021; Imrie & Golombok, 2020; Shenkman et al., 2020a; Van Rijn-van Gelderen et al., 2018). However, some studies have provided evidence of better mental health outcomes for sexual minority parents relative to heterosexual parents (Erez & Shenkman, 2016; Shenkman et al., 2020b, 2023).

Common explanations for these differences emphasize the deliberate, intentional, and planned nature of sexual minority parenthood, as well as personal psychological resources associated with the ability to contend with the financial and bureaucratic challenges of pursuing parenthood as a sexual minority individual (Shenkman & Shmotkin, 2014; Shenkman et al., 2022c). To date, no research has investigated the specific role played by parents’ positivity (i.e., the tendency to view life with a positive outlook) in determining better mental health outcomes among sexual minority parents, relative to heterosexual parents. Moreover, most research on the mental health outcomes of sexual minority parents through assisted reproduction has focused on gay fathers, in comparison with heterosexual fathers (Carneiro et al., 2017; Erez & Shenkman, 2016; Shenkman et al., 2020a, b); in contrast, research on the potential differences between lesbian mothers and heterosexual parents has received less attention (Bos & Gartrell, 2020; Shenkman, 2018). The present study aimed at filling this gap in the literature by exploring the role played by positivity in mediating mental health differences between lesbian mothers and heterosexual parents. This investigation can shed light on the potential mechanisms explaining the resiliency manifested by better mental health outcomes among lesbian mothers. So doing, the study echoes the call to further investigate resiliency factors among sexual minorities as a research agenda (e.g., Prendergast & MacPhee, 2018; Shenkman et al., 2018). The outcome variable of mental health was indicated by both a negative (i.e., depressive symptomatology) and a positive (i.e., life satisfaction) aspect, as is typical for this field of research (e.g., Shenkman & Shmotkin, 2020), and in which the use of both polarities of mental health may serve as a comprehensive point of view of one's well-being (e.g., Shenkman et al., 2022b; Shmotkin, 2005).

Mental Health Differences Between Same-Gendered and Different-Gendered Parents

Minority stress (i.e., accumulated stress relating to stigma, discrimination, and harassment based on one’s minority identity, including one’s sexual orientation) may adversely affect the mental health of sexual minority people (e.g., King et al., 2008; Meyer, 2013). Most research on minority stress within sexual minority people has involved child-free participants. However, the studies that have focused on sexual minority parents have shown that these parents do not report worse mental health outcomes than heterosexual parents (Bos et al., 2004; Carneiro et al., 2017; Farr & Vázquez, 2020; Shapiro et al., 2009; Van Rijn-van Gelderen et al., 2018). In fact, some have even reported better mental health outcomes among sexual minority parents (Shenkman et al., 2020b, 2023). To explain this result, it has been proposed that parenthood may serve as a potential protective factor for mental health among sexual minority people (Shenkman et al., 2022c).

The present study was conducted in the familistic and pronatalist context of Israel, where parenthood (irrespective of one’s sexual orientation) implies entry into the social consensus, linked with positive psychological outcomes (Shenkman et al., 2021; Tsfati & Ben-Ari, 2019). For sexual minority people, the process of overcoming legal, financial, and bureaucratic hardships to become a parent may result in a sense of triumph, growth, and accomplishment, which might protect against adverse mental health (Shenkman et al., 2022b). Additionally, it may be linked to better psychological well-being (Erez & Shenkman, 2016; Shenkman et al., 2020b). Furthermore, in Israel, motherhood is a core identity characteristic and often seen as a “national mission” (Berkovitch, 1997). Therefore, lesbian mothers in Israel may benefit from increased social support, which may contribute to protecting their mental health (Shenkman et al., 2023). Moreover, the tendency to strike an equal division of labor between parents in lesbian mother families and to focus on the satisfaction of basic needs in the couple relationship may also support lesbian mothers’ positive psychological welfare (e.g., Shenkman, 2018).

Personal psychological resources may additionally explain the optimal functioning and better mental health that tend to characterize lesbian mothers, in comparison with heterosexual parents. Positivity, or the tendency to view oneself, one’s life, and one’s future with a positive outlook, is an individual characteristic that promotes well-being and mental health and helps to manage adversity (Caprara et al., 2019). To the best of our knowledge, no prior research has explored the role of this psychological asset in the context of mental health disparities between lesbian mothers and heterosexual parents.

Positivity, Mental Health, and Parents’ Sexual Orientation

Research has shown links between higher positivity and greater optimism, resilience, self-esteem, life satisfaction, and positive health outcomes (e.g., Caprara et al., 2019; Livi et al., 2015). Some studies have even shown that positivity may protect against mental illness—specifically depression (Caprara et al., 2012; Thartori et al., 2021). Several theories posit that negative views of the self, the world, and the future are the major characteristics of depressive symptomatology (e.g., Clark et al., 2000). Positivity enables individuals to reflect on their experiences and hardships while trying to give meaning to their lives; this, in turn, may mitigate depressive symptomatology (Alessandri et al., 2012). Considering the major stressor of COVID-19 and its connection to anxiety and depression, recent findings have also pointed to the protective role played by positivity in reducing individuals’ anxiety and depressive symptomatology during the pandemic (Thartori et al., 2021).

While differences in positivity as a function of sexual orientation have been scarcely examined, a recent study found that lesbian mothers reported higher positivity than heterosexual parents (Shenkman et al., 2022a, 2023). This result was then interpreted in the context of more favorable outcomes (e.g., greater life satisfaction and social support) for lesbian mothers, relative to heterosexual parents. In this vein, lesbian motherhood may represent a victory over the prejudice against sexual minority parents and possible social approval within the Israeli pronatalist and familistic context, which may support better mental health outcomes (Shenkman et al., 2022a, 2023). However, it remains unknown whether positivity might mediate the relation between parents’ sexual orientation (i.e., lesbian vs. heterosexual) and mental health. Evidence on the role played by positivity in counteracting adverse mental health among lesbian mothers may contribute to the literature on the strengths and adaptation of sexual minority parents (e.g., Shenkman et al., 2022b; Shenkman et al.,2020b), as well as the literature on the protective mechanisms of positivity with respect to mental health vulnerability in challenging times, such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Thartori et al., 2021).

The current study was framed by positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014) and minority stress theory (Meyer, 2013), which focus on factors associated with individual mental health. Positive psychology emphasizes the contribution of personal psychological resources to mental health and optimal functioning. In a similar vein, minority stress theory emphasizes that sexual minority individuals’ mental health depends on the interaction between stressful social environment created by experiences of stigma, prejudice, and discrimination and possible stress-ameliorating factors, divided to personal and group resources (Hsieh, 2014; Meyer, 2013). In the current study, we suggest positivity as a protective personal resource that may buffer against stigma while enhancing mental health.

Notably, our study was conducted in Israel. The socio-cultural setting of Israel offers a unique context for comparing the mental health of lesbian versus heterosexual parents. On the one hand, Israel is a familistic and pronatalist society that sanctifies parenthood, and especially motherhood. This is evidenced by its fertility rate (i.e., 3.1 children per family), which is the highest among all countries in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (Birenbaum-Carmeli, 2016; OECD, 2019). Moreover, all women in Israel, irrespective of their marital or family status, are entitled to wide health maintenance organization (HMO) coverage for multiple in vitro fertilization (IVF) cycles, up to the age of 45 years (Birenbaum-Carmeli & Dirnfeld, 2008). On the other hand, until recently, Israeli legislation restricted access to parenthood for sexual minority people (Costa & Shenkman, 2020). Moreover, the Israeli context is considered patriarchal, machoistic, and influenced by the Orthodox Jewish law, which tends to disapprove of sexual minority people. This context can maintain a hostile atmosphere for sexual minorities (Shenkman & Shmotkin, 2016). Research into the mediating role of positivity among lesbian mothers in this context, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, could contribute important insights.

Research Hypotheses

The hypotheses were derived from the abovementioned literature on mental health differences between lesbian and heterosexual parents, as well as the literature on the impact of positivity on mental health. Specifically, it was hypothesized that:

  • H1: positivity would mediate the association between sexual orientation and life satisfaction, such that higher life satisfaction among lesbian mothers, relative to heterosexual parents, would be accounted for by lesbian mothers’ greater positivity;

  • H2: positivity would mediate the association between sexual orientation and depressive symptomatology, such that lower depressive symptomatology among lesbian mothers, relative to heterosexual parents, would be accounted for by lesbian mothers’ greater positivity.

Method

Sample

The participants were 72 Israeli lesbian mothers (from 36 families) through donor insemination and 72 Israeli heterosexual parents (from 36 families) through assisted reproduction (without donated gametes). All parents self-identified as cisgender and had at least one child born through assisted reproduction, aged 3–10 years (M = 65.60 months, SD = 25.50). Most participants were highly educated, worked full-time, were secular, and were in a relationship defined by marriage, civil partnership, or contract. The two family types significantly differed on several socio-demographic variables. Specifically, relative to heterosexual parents, lesbian mothers were in relationships of shorter duration, estimate =  − .747, SE = .220, p = .001, younger, estimate = .439, SE = .210, p = .041, and less likely to be married or in a civil partnership, χ2(1) = 6.89, p = .009. Table 1 displays the full demographics. Notably, due to the relatively small sample size, when analyzing indirect effects, we have calculated a post hoc power analysis based on the findings.

Table 1 Socio-demographic information of participating families (N = 72)
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Procedure

The participants were originally recruited for a larger, ongoing, cross-cultural study on socialization about family diversity in families formed by assisted reproduction (Shenkman et al., 2023). Israeli parents were recruited via announcements placed on Israeli Internet forums pertaining to IVF and LGB parenting, social media, and the Web sites of fertility agencies and local LGBTQ + organizations. The study only included parenting couples. To ensure that members from the same couple could be identified, each participant was asked to create a password using the first letters of the target child’s name and the numbers of the target child’s birth date. This allowed the reports of each parent in a family to be matched.

The inclusion criteria for parents were as follows: (a) self-identified as a lesbian or heterosexual cisgender parent; (b) parent to a child born through assisted reproduction (i.e., sperm donation for lesbian mothers, assisted reproduction without donated gametes for heterosexual parents), aged 3–10 years, with no physical and/or mental illness or disability; and (c) residing in Israel. Participating couples who filled in the questionnaire considering different target children in the family were omitted, since their responses could not be matched. Parents who indicated sexual intercourse as a method of conception were also excluded. The final sample was comprised of 144 parents, nested in 72 families.

The questionnaires were administered in Israel between December 2019 and February 2021, using two main sources: personal email, with the questionnaire included as an attached Word document to be completed and emailed back to the researcher; and a Qualtrics link, which 443 people accessed. The questionnaire completion method determined no differences across family types on any of the study variables. Most parents (i.e., 69 lesbian mothers, 62 heterosexual parents) completed the questionnaire during the first or second wave of COVID-19 and its related lockdowns in Israel. However, no differences were found across family types on the number of parents who completed the questionnaire before or during the COVID-19 pandemic, χ2(1) = 3.04, p = .081. Similarly, the period of completion determined no differences across family types on any of the study variables. All participants were informed that their participation was voluntary, and all consented to take part in the research. Prior to data collection, the study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Reichman university (IDC Herzliya), for compliance with the standards for the ethical treatment of human participants.

Measures

Demographics

Participants supplied demographic data on their family type, sexual orientation (lesbian, gay, bisexual, heterosexual, other), gender identity (man, woman, other), age, religiosity, relationship duration, marital status, working status, educational level, number of children, child age and gender. See Table 1.

Life Satisfaction

Parents’ global life satisfaction was assessed using the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985). The SWLS is comprised of 5 items (e.g., “The conditions of my life are excellent”), which are rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). In the current study, a total score was calculated for each participant, with higher values representing greater life satisfaction. Cronbach’s alphas were 0.81 and 0.83 for lesbian mothers and heterosexual parents, respectively. The instrument was proven to have very good psychometric properties and was widely used worldwide and in Israel (Pavot & Diener, 1993; Shenkman et al., 2022b).

Depressive Symptomatology

Self-reported depressive symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD-S; Radloff, 1977). This 20-item measure asks respondents to report the frequency with which, over the prior week, they experienced symptoms associated with depression (e.g., “I felt that I could not shake off the blues even with help from my family or friends”) on a scale ranging from 1 (rarely or none of the time) to 4 (most or all of the time). In the current study, a total score was calculated for each participant, with higher values representing more depressive symptoms. Cronbach’s alphas were 0.86 and 0.88 for lesbian mothers and heterosexual parents, respectively. This instrument has been extensively used for research and clinical purposes (Stansbury et al., 2006) and was widely used in Israel (e.g., Shenkman & Shmotkin, 2020; Shenkman et al., 2020a, b).

Positivity

Parents’ tendency to view their life and experiences positively was assessed using the Positivity Scale (POS; Caprara et al., 2012). The POS is comprised of 8 items (e.g., “I look to the future with hope and optimism”), which are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In the current study, a total score was calculated for each participant, with higher values reflecting greater positivity. Cronbach’s alphas were 0.82 and 0.83 for lesbian mothers and heterosexual parents, respectively. This instrument was proven to have very good psychometric properties and was used worldwide and in Israel (e.g., Caprara et al., 2019; Shenkman et al., 2023).

Individual, Couple, and Family COVID-19 Experiences

Parents who completed the questionnaire during the first or second wave of COVID-19 and the associated lockdowns in Israel were asked to indicate the extent to which COVID-19 had impacted eight individual, couple, and family domains (i.e., financial strain, work-related stress, homeschooling-related stress, personal frustration, worry about loved ones, couple tension, family tension, worry about the future) on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (very much). A total score was calculated for this 8-item scale, with higher scores indicating more negative experiences. Cronbach’s alphas were 0.74 and 0.82 for lesbian mothers and heterosexual parents, respectively.

Data Analysis

All analyses were performed using the statistical software R (R Core Team, 2021). Effects that were significant at p < 0.05 were interpreted. The preliminary outlier analysis was conducted with the interquartile range method; no outliers were identified. Data distribution was checked with skewness and kurtosis values, with all study variables falling into the acceptable ranges (i.e., skewness ± 2, kurtosis ± 7) (West et al., 1995), indicating a normal distribution. Preliminary chi-square tests (for categorical data) and mixed models (for continuous data) were run to compare potential differences in individual and family socio-demographic variables between lesbian mother and heterosexual parent families (see “Sample” section). Multilevel correlations were also performed to identify associations among socio-demographic variables and parents’ depression, life satisfaction, and positivity, while accounting for within-couple dependency. Mixed models and multilevel correlations were used to account for the nested data structure (i.e., two parents participating in each family). Multilevel modeling also served to enhance the estimation of models and standard errors, providing a more accurate estimation of between- and within-couple variance (Smith et al., 2020).

Finally, the two mediational hypotheses on the influence of parents’ sexual orientation on parents’ depression and life satisfaction through positivity were tested using two mediational models (lavaan R package)—one for each outcome—with 95% CIs for bootstrap percentiles and 5,000 resamples (Hayes, 2017). A post hoc Monte Carlo power simulation was computed to obtain the statistical power of the results for the indirect effects. Given that parents’ age, marital status, and relationship duration significantly differed between the two groups, these variables were controlled for in the model. Also, as most data were collected during the first or second wave of COVID-19 in Israel, the individual, couple, and family COVID-19 experiences score was entered as a further covariate.

Results

Associations Among Parental, Family Socio-demographic, and Study Variables

Table 2 displays the full significant and non-significant multilevel associations among parental, family socio-demographic, and study variables, by parents’ sexual orientation. Lesbian mothers reporting higher depressive symptoms demonstrated significantly lower life satisfaction (r =  − .534, p < .001) and lower positivity (r =  − .597, p < .001), and a significantly higher negative impact of COVID-19 on individual, couple, and family levels (r = .435, p = .003). Also, lesbian mothers who reported higher life satisfaction demonstrated significantly higher positivity (r = .698, p .001) and a significantly lower negative impact of COVID-19 on individual, couple, and family levels (r = .435, p = .001); additionally, those demonstrating higher positivity reported a significantly lower negative impact of COVID-19 on individual, couple, and family levels (r =  − .414, p = .007). Similarly, heterosexual parents reporting higher depressive symptoms perceived significantly lower life satisfaction (r =  − .521, p < .001) and lower positivity (r =  − .481, p = .001); additionally, those demonstrating higher positivity showed significantly higher life satisfaction (r = .434, p = .007).

Table 2 Multilevel correlations among socio-demographic variables and parents’ depression, life satisfaction, and positivity (N = 144)
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Mediation of Parents’ Positivity in the Association Between Parents’ Sexual Orientation and Parents’ Depression or Life Satisfaction

The mediation analysis with confidence intervals computed using the Bootstrap percentiles method and 5000 resamples indicated that the indirect effect of parents’ sexual orientation on parents’ depression through positivity was significant, point estimate = 0.095, SE = 0.042, 95% CI [− 0.188, - 0.022], t =  − 2.271, p = .023. As shown in Fig. 1, compared to heterosexual parents, lesbian mothers reported higher positivity, which was, in turn, associated with lower depressive symptomatology. However, the direct effect of parents’ sexual orientation on depression was not significant, point estimate =  − 0.062, SE = 0.065, 95% CI [− 0.189, 0.065], p = .347, indicating a complete mediation of parents’ positivity. A Monte Carlo power analysis for the indirect effects showed a large power of 80% (based on a 95% CI).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Mediation of parents’ positivity in the association between parents’ sexual orientation and parents’ depression (N = 144). B = unstandardized betas. Parents’ sexual orientation was coded as 1 = heterosexual, 2 = lesbian. The mediational analysis was controlled for parents’ age, B =  − 0.063, SE = 0.030, t =  − 2.114, p = .036; marital status, B = 0.034, SE = 0.093, t = 0.362, p = .718; relationship duration, B = 0.046, SE = 0.032, t = 1.443, p = .152; and individual, couple, and family COVID-19 experiences, B = 0.073, SE = 0.030, t = 2.457, p = .015

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Similarly, the indirect effect of parents’ sexual orientation on life satisfaction through positivity was significant, point estimate = 0.269, SE = 0.108, 95% CI [0.071, 0.492], t = 2.480, p = .013. As shown in Fig. 2, lesbian mothers reported higher positivity, which was, in turn, associated with greater life satisfaction. Again, since the direct effect of parents’ sexual orientation on life satisfaction was not significant, point estimate = 0.113, SE = 0.151, 95% CI [− 0.063, 0.527], p = .142, there was evidence of a complete mediation of parents’ positivity. A Monte Carlo power analysis for the indirect effects showed a large power of 80% (based on a 95% CI). Figures 1 and 2 display the full statistics.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Mediation of parents’ positivity in the association between parents’ sexual orientation and parents’ life satisfaction (N = 144). B = unstandardized betas. Parents’ sexual orientation was coded as 1 = heterosexual, 2 = lesbian. The mediational analysis was controlled for parents’ age, B = 0.117, SE = 0.069, t = 1.693, p = .093; marital status, B =  − 0.174, SE = 0.216, t =  − 0.806, p = .422; relationship duration, B =  − 0.141, SE = 0.073, t = 1.915, p = .058; and individual, couple, and family COVID-19 experiences, B =  − 0.169, SE = 0.068, t =  − 2.468, p = .015

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Discussion

The present study investigated the mediating role of positivity in the association between sexual orientation and mental health (i.e., depressive symptomatology, life satisfaction) among lesbian mothers and heterosexual parents, in light of evidence of significant mental health differences between these groups (Hsieh, 2014; Shenkman et al., 2023). Consistent with the first hypothesis, a significant mediation effect for positivity emerged, explaining the association between sexual orientation (i.e., lesbian vs. heterosexual) and life satisfaction. Similarly, and in line with the second hypothesis, positivity also had a significant mediation effect on the association between sexual orientation (i.e., lesbian vs. heterosexual) and depressive symptomatology.

Lesbian mothers reported greater positivity, higher life satisfaction, and less depressive symptomatology in comparison to heterosexual parents. These results align with prior findings suggesting that sexual minority parents do not tend to report worse mental health in comparison to heterosexual parents, and sometimes even report better mental health outcomes (Erez & Shenkman, 2016; Shenkman et al., 2023). It has been proposed that a more egalitarian and equal division of labor and greater attention to the satisfaction of basic psychological needs in lesbian couples may support lesbian mothers’ better mental health (Bos & Gartrell, 2020; Carone & Lingiardi, 2022; Patterson et al., 2004; Shenkman, 2018). Moreover, in the Israeli pronatalist context, which highly cherishes childrearing yet presents hardships for sexual minority individuals who wish to become parents (Shenkman et al., 2022c), the achievement of parenthood may be experienced as a triumph (Shenkman & Shmotkin, 2020). This sense of victory, alongside entry to the social consensus via parenthood, may be associated with elevated mental health indicators (Shenkman et al., 2020b). Such an explanation may be especially relevant to lesbian mothers, as motherhood is a cardinal characteristic of Israeli women (Berkovitch, 1997) that is likely to elicit greater social support (Shenkman et al., 2023).

The mediating role of positivity in the mental health differences between lesbian mothers and heterosexual parents may explain prior evidence of higher life satisfaction and lower depressive symptomatology among lesbian mothers, in comparison with heterosexual parents. It seems that positivity, as a personal psychological asset, is characteristic of Israeli lesbian mothers, and may serve as a force of resiliency (Milioni et al., 2016) related to greater life satisfaction and less depressive symptomatology. This new evidence of the protective and strengthening role of positivity for lesbian mothers in Israel contributes important insights to the growing literature on diverse family forms in diverse societal contexts (Carone et al., 2021a), building on positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014) and minority stress theory (Meyer, 2013).

Strengths and Limitations

The main strength of the current study was the identification of positivity as a mediating mechanism in mental health disparities between lesbian mothers and heterosexual parents. Additionally, the multilevel modeling analyses enabled us to accurately analyze the reports from both parents in a couple, while accounting for within-couple dependency (Smith et al., 2020).

Yet, several limitations should also be noted. First, as the study relied solely on self-report questionnaires, it was vulnerable to self-presentation biases. For example, a “positivity” bias could be attributed to participants filling the questionnaires of positivity in a “good day.” Future studies should consider the use of other sources of data to prevent this possible bias. Second, the sampling was not based on a random or representative sample. Unfortunately, current Israeli representative national surveys do not collect data on respondents’ sexual orientation, therefore such representative samples of sexual minority individuals are currently not feasible. Third, although the mediation analyses suggested a possible specific mechanism concerning the results, the cross-sectional correlational design did not allow for causal inferences to be drawn. Thus, it could also be suggested that parenthood in the Israeli context could improve relationships with family members (Shenkman et al., 2022c), leading to more life satisfaction and less depressive symptomatology, which could, in turn, associate with more positive views of the world. Longitudinal study design could clarify the issue of causality.

Fourth, most participants reported themselves as university educated and employed full-time, and these characteristics may not be representative of all lesbian mothers and heterosexual parents in Israel. Fifth, the comparison of lesbian women and heterosexual parents may have overlooked family dynamics or processes that are specific to sexual minority parent families (Fish & Russell, 2018), as well as particular gender differences in the study variables may have been undetected. Sixth, although post hoc power simulations were used to obtain satisfactory statistical power of the results, the relatively small sample size should be acknowledged. Seventh, while the distinctiveness of the Israeli pronatalist and familistic society may be considered one of the strengths of the study, it also restricts the generalizability of the results to other social contexts. Many of the abovementioned methodological limitations reflect common difficulties of research with sexual minority populations (e.g., Krueger et al., 2020).

Future research should examine the suggested mediation mechanism in other socio-cultural contexts and among diverse forms of sexual minority parent families, such as families headed by gay, bisexual, or trans parents. Such exploration among diverse sexual minorities could contribute to the visibility of other subjectivities in the LGBTQ + acronym (Carone et al., 2021b; Salvati & Koc, 2022). Further possible mediation effects of adjacent variables, such as parents’ optimism (e.g., Scheier & Carver, 1985), should also be explored in the association between parents’ sexual orientation and mental health.

Social-Policy Implications and Conclusion

The current study found that, compared to heterosexual parents, lesbian mothers reported higher positivity, which was, in turn, associated with greater life satisfaction and lower depressive symptomatology. Positivity mediated disparities in life satisfaction and depressive symptomatology between the parental groups. The results have practical implications for counselors, clinicians, and mental health professionals, as they highlight the importance of improving positive orientation toward oneself, one’s life, and one’s future as a chief strategy for reducing depressive symptomatology and supporting life satisfaction. These results seem especially relevant for parents with young children, who may be more likely to experience significant anxiety and depression (Nomaguchi & Milkie, 2020). Moreover, the results are relevant to family and mental health researchers, highlighting the importance of considering positivity as a key research variable.

Policymakers and social agents should also be aware that parenthood among sexual minorities is associated with heightened reports of mental health, as also reported by previous research (e.g., Erez & Shenkman, 2016; Shenkman et al., 2020b). These results are different from most studies on childless sexual minority individuals, who tend to report worsen mental health than heterosexual counterparts (e.g., King et al., 2008; Meyer, 2013). These findings shout out the need for policy makers and legislators to ease the access to parenthood for LGBTQ + individuals and to promote supportive and inclusive policies for diverse family forms. This may be very relevant in the wide context of modern societies, where sexual minority individuals still face prejudice and discrimination quite often (Salvati et al., 2020), and also in contemporary Israel, where legislation regarding sexual minority rights is currently changing (Shenkman, 2022) and is in constant social debates.