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Recognition and Application of Catalysis in Secondary Rechargeable Batteries

  • Changhao Wang
    Changhao Wang
    State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Discipline of Intelligent Instrument and Equipment, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
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  • , 
  • Xiaohong Wu
    Xiaohong Wu
    State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
    More by Xiaohong Wu
    Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-4905-0792
  • , 
  • Yilong Chen
    Yilong Chen
    State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
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  • , 
  • Baodan Zhang
    Baodan Zhang
    State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
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  • , 
  • Haiyan Luo
    Haiyan Luo
    State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
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  • Zhengang Li
    Zhengang Li
    State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
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    Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-1848-3998
  • , 
  • Yawen Yan
    Yawen Yan
    State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
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  • , 
  • Zixin Wu
    Zixin Wu
    State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
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  • , 
  • Kai Fang
    Kai Fang
    State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
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  • , 
  • Yu Qiao*
    Yu Qiao
    State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
    *Email for Y.Q.: [email protected]
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    Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-2191-3875
  • , and 
  • Shi-Gang Sun*
    Shi-Gang Sun
    State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
    *Email for S.G.S.: [email protected]
    More by Shi-Gang Sun
    Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-2327-4090
Cite this: ACS Catal. 2023, 13, 16, 10641–10650
Publication Date (Web):July 31, 2023
https://doi.org/10.1021/acscatal.3c02455

Copyright © 2023 American Chemical Society. This publication is available under these Terms of Use.

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Abstract

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With the exponentially increasing requirement for cost-effective energy storage systems, secondary rechargeable batteries have become a major topic of research interest and achieved remarkable progresses. For the past few years, a growing number of studies have introduced catalysts or the concept of catalysis into battery systems for achieving better electrochemical performance or designing materials with distinctive structures and excellent properties. In this brief Perspective, we explore the catalysis in secondary rechargeable batteries, including: 1) classical battery systems with exquisite catalyst design; 2) manipulation of electrode–electrolyte interface layers via selective catalysis; and 3) design of cathodes with distinctive structures using the mindset of catalysis toward anionic redox activity. This Perspective emphasizes catalysis in battery studies with the aim of inspiring distinctive ideas and directions for the future development of rechargeable battery technology.

This publication is licensed for personal use by The American Chemical Society.

1. Introduction

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The increasing demand for sustainable energy storage has triggered the interest of researchers around the world. (1−3) Nowadays, merging the concept of catalysis into battery studies has become more and more important, whether in scientific investigations or industrial technologies. (4−9) Catalysis, an old term, was first proposed by Jöns Jakob Berzelius from Sweden. (10) In 1836, he accidentally discovered that platinum powder can accelerate the oxidation of alcohol with air. After that, this phenomenon was called catalysis (katalύein in the Greek word), which means “to dissolve”. Over a period of nearly 200 years, catalysts have been widely used in various industries, including petroleum refining, fuel cell, textile industry, pharmaceutical industry, and so on. (11−14) In the book “Catalysis: Concepts and Green Applications”, the author Gadi Rothenberg (15) pointed out that “A catalyst is a substance that facilitates a chemical reaction, without being consumed in the process. In most cases, the catalyst in fact opens a different, faster reaction pathway.” Due to these intrinsic properties of catalysts, many high-efficiency catalysts were also employed recently in rechargeable batteries to achieve the anticipated purposes. (16−18)
In this Perspective, we discuss the related issues of catalysis in secondary rechargeable batteries. We divide this article into three parts based on the purpose of catalysis (Figure 1). First, we review and discuss the conventional catalysts used in lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) and lithium-oxygen batteries (LOBs). In this part, we expect that the catalysts can speed up the reaction kinetics as much as possible, leading to a better electrochemical performance of batteries. Second, the formation of electrode–electrolyte interfaces in batteries is narrated in detail. This section shows the importance of selective catalysis for battery systems. In the third section, according to the broad theory of catalysis, we discuss the design of new electrode materials by regulating the energy level/band structure. Finally, we discuss opportunities and challenges of rechargeable batteries associated with catalysis and how to make better use of catalysis in batteries.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Selected most popular research orientations in catalysis which used in secondary rechargeable batteries. Copyright 2012 Springer Nature. (36) Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society. (57) Copyright 2016 Springer Nature. (73)

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2. Discussion

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2.1. Conventional Catalysis: Accelerating the Kinetics of a Battery

In terms of catalysis used in secondary batteries, the first things we could think of are Li-S and Li-O2 batteries. As for the LSB, (19−22) it is consisted of a cathode with sulfur (S) as the active material, electrolyte (solid-state or liquid), an anode (Li metal), and a separator (Figure 2a). (23) Due to the multielectron reaction (S8 + 16Li+ + 16e– ⇋ 8Li2S), LSBs possess a high theoretical capacity of 1674 mAh g–1, which is much higher than that of commercialized lithium ion batteries (LIBs). (24−26) However, the chemical/electrochemical conversion process of S8 is a multistage reaction, which would inevitably generate lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) as intermediates. Because of the solid–liquid conversion reaction (insoluble S8, Li2S2/Li2S and soluble long chain LiPSs), the sluggish kinetics of LSBs limits its further commercialization. (24,27) Besides, the notorious polysulfide shuttle effect and large volume change of sulfur-containing cathodes in LSBs lead to dreadful Coulombic efficiency, unsatisfactory cycling performance, and various security concerns. (28−30) To solve these problems, tremendous studies have been conducted and researchers found that integrating conductive host materials (such as carbon-based materials) and catalysts (especially for single atom catalysts (SACs)) with sulfur to fabricate composite electrodes is one of the most efficient strategies to improve the overall performance of LSBs. (31) The role of conductive host materials is to enhance the electrical conductivity of cathode. Meanwhile, these scaffolds can provide more spaces to accommodate sulfur and confine the shuttle effect of LiPSs. The reason for employing efficient catalysts in LSBs is to anchor the soluble LiPSs, accelerate the conversion reaction of LiPSs, and improve the dynamic performance of LSBs. Based on this, a large number of transition metal (TM) oxides, sulfides, phosphates, MXene, and other heterostructures were used in sulfur-containing cathodes to explore their catalytic performance toward the conversion reaction of LiPSs (reducing the redox reaction energy barriers of LiPSs conversion). Zhao et al. (32) utilized density functional theory (DFT) to elaborately compute the catalytic activities and anchoring effects of a series of transition metal phthalocyanines (TMPcs) in LSBs (Figure 2b). The TMPcs with TM-N4 structure can be regarded as SAC analogues. DFT results show that the binding energy between S8/LiPSs and TMPcs is higher than those between S8/LiPSs and metal-free phthalocyanine (H2Pc). Additionally, the charge density distributions suggest that compared with the Li–N bond, the TM–S bond would be stronger in the anchoring effect of LiPSs than Li–N bond. With the help of TMPcs, the Li–S bond can be effectively weakened, lowering the decomposition energy barrier of Li2S. The experimental results also show that TMPcs, especially TiPc, are excellent adsorption-catalysis dual-functional additives for LSBs, increasing reversible capacity and ensuring long-term cycle stability.

Figure 2

Figure 2. (a) Schematic illustration of operating principle of Li-S batteries. Copyright 2017 Wiley-VCH. (23) (b) Free-energy profiles for the S8/LiPSs conversion on the surface of TiPc and H2Pc. Copyright 2021 Elsevier. (32) (c) Abridged general view of a nonaqueous Li-O2 battery with dominant Li2O2 product on the cathode side. Copyright 2014 American Chemical Society. (37) (d) Mechanisms of O2 reduction in Li-O2 batteries during recharge process. Copyright 2012 American Chemical Society. (41) (e) Free energy diagram of CoPt@gra-OH&NH2 system. Copyright 2021 Elsevier. (43)

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As for the LOBs, Abraham et al. introduced the first rechargeable Li-O2 batteries in 1996, although this new battery system gained limited attention all over the world due to its nauseous cycle life. (33) Ten years later, Bruce et al. successfully proved the rechargeability of LOBs, which intrigued researchers all over the world. (34) Li-O2 batteries can be simply classified by the type of electrolytes. Taking aprotic Li-O2 batteries as an example, as shown in Figure 2c, it is made up of a porous cathode, a separator, an aprotic electrolyte with lithium salts, and a Li metal anode. (35,36) In the process of discharge, Li metal at the anode side is oxidized to form Li+ and then dissolved into electrolyte. Meanwhile, the dissolved O2 at the cathode side would react with Li+ to produce discharge product Li2O2 on porous cathodes (oxygen reduction reaction, or ORR). In this case, electrons would transfer from external circuits (from anode to cathode) to provide electric energy. In reverse, the Li2O2 would be decomposed and then released the O2 during the charging process (oxygen evolution reaction, or OER). The electrochemical reaction can be described as 2Li ↔ 2Li+ + 2e– (anode side) and 2Li+ + O2 + 2e– ↔ Li2O2 (cathode side). (37) The aprotic Li-O2 batteries possess a theoretically specific energy density of 3500 Wh kg–1 on the basis of Li2O2 mass loading. Besides, it is worth mentioning that Li-O2 batteries with aqueous electrolytes would produce hydrated LiOH as a discharge product. (38) The theoretical energy density of these aqueous LOBs is lower than that of aprotic Li-O2 batteries. (39) Despite the huge specific capacity of Li-O2 batteries, there are still numerous scientific and technical problems needed to be solved before commercialization. One of these hurdles is high overpotential especially for the charging process. As for the aprotic LOBs, their discharging overpotentials are usually ∼0.3 V, but charging overpotentials can be up to ∼1.0–1.5 V, which leads to low round-trip efficiency (<70%) with huge energy consumption. The essential reason for this phenomenon stems from the sluggish kinetics of ORR/OER in LOBs. (40) As indicated in Figure 2d, Lu et al. (41) analyzed the mechanism of the increase in recharging potential detailed. Recently, the effective solution to this issue is applying high-efficiency catalysts in cathode side, which can decrease the reaction energy barriers in charging/discharging process. (42) Zhang et al. (43) synthesized CoPt clusters on modified graphene (grafting with OH– and NH2– groups, named as CoPt@gra-OH&NH2) and added it into the cathode of LOBs (Figure 2e). They employed density functional theory (DFT) to calculate Gibbs free energy (ΔG) to evaluate the ORR/OER properties of CoPt@gra-OH&NH2 catalyst. The calculated overpotentials (η) were regarded as the descriptor for assessing the catalytic activity in Li-O2 batteries. Compared with CoPt clusters on ordinary graphene or commonly used porous carbon cloth cathodes, the CoPt@gra-OH&NH2 catalyst possesses lower ηORR of the rate-determining step (about 0.42 V). For the OER process, the overpotential of CoPt@gra-OH&NH2 catalyst in the rate-determining step is also the lowest (0.68 V). With the aid of the adsorption-catalysis-conversion effect of these high-efficiency catalysts, the overpotential of LOBs during the charging and discharging process could be significantly decreased, leading to higher energy efficiency and longer cycle life.
From the viewpoint of common battery systems of the LSBs and LOBs discussed above, we recognized the importance of catalysts to accelerate the kinetics and improve the reversibility of the batteries. We expect the catalytic performance of these catalysts to be as high as possible. However, some catalysts work in different ways into the batteries, which we define as selective catalysis.

2.2. Selective Catalysis: Enhancing the Stability of an Electrolyte–Electrode Interface

Generally, laboratory-grade lithium-ion batteries are mainly composed of cathode, anode, separator, and electrolyte. As for the aprotic electrolytes such as carbonate-based electrolytes, they would be reduced at negative electrodes and oxidized at positive electrodes to form the well-known solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) by various complicated electrochemical and chemical reactions. (44) During the operation of the batteries, a stable electrode–electrolyte interface (EEI) layer is of vital importance to obtain a long cycle life and a high voltage output. Even so, it is difficult to develop an ideal EEI layer to keep the batteries operating for a long time. (45) For example, due to the high reactivity of the Li anode (or other alkali metals), it would react with electrolyte to form an ionically conductive but electronically insulating SEI layer. Nonetheless, the developed SEI layer is commonly nonuniform and fragile, which would lead to dendrite growth and even catastrophic short circuit. Based on the previous works, the formation of EEI layer depends on the electrode material and specific salt and solvent used in the electrolyte. (46−48) The compatibility between the electrode and electrolyte is usually related to the composition/structure of EEI layers. Substantially, according to the theory of Goodenough et al., the thermodynamic driving force of the formation of EEI layer is derived from the difference between the Fermi level of the electrode and the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) or the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) levels of the electrolyte. (49) Thinking from a different view, the key point of catalysis is to regulate the energy level structure. Following this thought, we may audaciously assert that fine-tuning the Fermi level of the electrode or aligning the HOMO or LUMO levels of the electrolyte takes advantage of the ideology of catalysis in a broad sense. This modification strategy is an effective and commonly used method that can acquire stable and beneficial EEI layers. In detail, as shown in Figure 3a, if the LUMO level of the electrolyte locates under that of the Fermi level of the anode, the electrolyte would obtain the electrons from the anode, causing the reduction of the electrolyte until a passivated SEI layer is generated. Similarly, if the HOMO level of the electrolyte is higher in energy than the Fermi level of the cathode, the electrons would transfer from the solvent-electrolyte to the cathode, resulting in the oxidation of the electrolyte on the positive electrode. It should be pointed out that the calculated LUMO or HOMO values of solvent molecules can indeed be used to describe the reduction and oxidation of solvent. Based on this theory, many researchers regulate the EEI layers by adjusting the formula of the electrolyte or adding new additives (selective catalysis or purposive redox pair regulation). Nevertheless, some scholars analyzed experimental data elaborately and found that the reduction potentials or oxidation potentials (related with the LUMO or HOMO levels), which are computed employing hybrid functional density functional theory (DFT) calculations in the polarizable continuum model (PCM), are different from practical data. (50−52) In fact, the LUMO values of various pure carbonate solvent (such as ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, and dimethyl carbonate) are not significantly different in DFT calculation models. (53) Due to the interaction between Li+ and carbonate solvent (the extra electron surrounded at the carbon atom), this resulted in lower LUMO levels of the electrolytes compared with pure solvents (Figure 3b). Additionally, the salt anions in electrolytes (e.g., PF6–, ClO4–, and BF4–) could also cause the similar effects. (54−56) Generally, the calculated HOMO values of pure carbonate solvents in DFT models are quite low, which are below the Fermi level of cathode materials, just consulting their numerical values. Its corresponding oxidation potential is about 7 V (vs Li/Li+). (48) In practice, the highest oxidation potential of these carbonate electrolytes is about 5.5 V (vs Li/Li+). In addition, if we take the existence of impurities into account, the oxidation potential of these electrolytes would become lower (∼4.5 V vs Li/Li+), as shown in Figure 3b. It is important to know that the decomposition of electrolyte in the battery is not only the effect of applied potential but also the result of catalysis/electrocatalysis, and the real battery systems are much more complex. Therefore, these catalysis or electrocatalysis issues must be taken into account when we govern the surface-interface (or EEI layers) of the electrodes by electrolyte modification. (57) Besides, the electrode materials are equally important to establish a stable EEI layer. This issue illustrates that the electrode materials with different catalytic properties would also change the decomposition of solvent or redox properties of anions in electrolytes. In a nutshell, as described in Figure 3c, Yang Shao-Horn et al. (58) found that the thermodynamic driving force for dehydrogenation of carbonate solvents would be enhanced with increased nickel content in the LiNixCoyMnzO2 (NCM) system (both nickel and nickel ion possess strong catalytic performance inherently). Moreover, the content of delithiation is also a crucial influencing factor on the decomposition of carbonate solvents. NCM with a high delithiation state contributes to dehydrogenation of solvents such as ethylene carbonate (EC), resulting in a stronger catalysis/oxidation effect toward carbonate-based electrolytes. This viewpoint is supported by calculating the O-p band center trend of NCM111, 622, and 811. (59) DFT results indicate that as the Fermi level approaches the O-p band because of high delithiation state or the increase of Ni content in NMC, the dissociative adsorption of EC on the oxide surface becomes more energetically favorable. Gasteiger et al. (60) deemed that highly charged NCM systems (especially at xLi = ∼0.2) would generate highly reactive catalytic species such as singlet oxygen, which can attack carbonate molecules in the electrolyte. Ulteriorly, the dehydrogenated carbonate intermediates can participate in the formation of the EEI layers (organic composition). Additionally, the generated protic species would potentially bond with anions such as PF6– to produce oxidized resultants (PF3O), which can be aggregated on the surface of cathodes (one of the compositions of EEI layers). (61,62) In addition, from the perspective of material structure, it has been reported that the generated SEI layer would be quite different in compositions and thicknesses on the basal and edge planes of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG). (63−65) As exhibited in Figure 3d, on the edge plane, the SEI is mainly inorganic composition; however, the SEI on the basal plane principally consists of organic species. Although there are many explanations for the nature of this phenomenon, further proofs are needed to consolidate these hypotheses. But we must know that the decomposition of electrolytes also depends on the different planes of materials, which is associated with charge transfer kinetics. (66−68) Through reasonable material design, using selective adsorption/catalysis to establish prospective EEI layers is crucial for the life of batteries.

Figure 3

Figure 3. (a) Schematic energy diagram of a liquid electrolyte under open-circuit state. Eg is the stable window of the electrolyte. ΦA and ΦC signify the anode and cathode work functions, respectively. Copyright 2010 American Chemical Society. (49) (b) Computed reduction and oxidation energy levels of common solvents and solvated salts used in Li-ion batteries. Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society. (57) (c) Ethylene carbonate dissociative adsorption energy on LiNi0.33Co0.33Mn0.33O2, LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2, and LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 (dashed lines) by projecting their computed O 2p band centers onto the trend established by layered oxides. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society. (58) (d) Schematic illustration of the SEI on basal (top) and edge (bottom) planes of HOPG. Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society. (57)

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In this section, we realized that catalysis is actually inseparable from batteries at present. Designing the electrolytes/electrode materials consciously on the basis of the concept of selective catalysis is extremely important. Innumerable researchers have contributed to the realization of more stable and superior batteries in this way. Nonetheless, due to some extent of misguidance when using approximated electronic structure theory (LUMO/HOMO levels), we need new and reliable descriptors (preferably ones that are easy to compute) to evaluate electrolytes and electrode materials. How to better connect these three parameters of composition, structure, and performance with quantitative methods is a great challenge for us.

2.3. Generalized Catalysis: Regulating the Energy Level Structure to Design New Cathodes

Given that the essence of catalysis is to regulate the energy level/band structure. Further, in this section, we focus on the design of cathodes with new structures using this mindset of catalysis. Due to the higher specific capacities, lithium-rich oxides are regarded as next-generation cathodes, which bridge the capacity gap between traditional layered-oxide and future oxygen/sulfur cathodes. As shown in Figure 4a, in traditional layered-oxide (AMO2, A and M are alkali-metal ions and transition metal ions, respectively), the overlaps between O 2p orbits and M (n+1)s/(n+1)p orbits constitute bonding a1g/t1u and antibonding a1g*/t1u*. The nd (eg) orbitals of M are bonded with oxygen, forming strong σ bonds (eg and eg*); however, the nd (t2g) orbitals of M remain nonbonding orbitals. Because the Fermi level of AMO2 is located at eg* or t2g with M nd character, the capacity of AMO2 cathode is principally stemmed from the redox couple of Mx+/My+. (69) By manipulating the energy levels, the O 2p orbitals are hybridized with M nd (eg), (n+1)s and (n+1)p orbitals to form antibonding orbitals (a1* and b2*), and σ-type bonds (a1 and b2) are also formed in A2MO3. The difference is that π-type less-bonding (b1) and less-antibonding (b1*) molecular orbitals can be generated between two O 2p orbitals (A-O-A axis) and two M nd (t2g) orbitals, as exhibited in Figure 4b. Because the energy level of the occupied M nd (t2g) is lower than that of O 2p, the formed b1* antibonding orbitals are predominantly made up of O 2p, which results in an additional capacity associated O redox. (70) Based on this, a series of new materials with high theoretical capacity, such as lithium-rich materials, are currently being designed, which can realize cationic and anionic redox simultaneously.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Molecular orbital energy diagrams of (a) an OA3M3 octahedron in layered AMO2 and (b) an OA4M2 octahedron in A-excess layered A2MO3. A and M denote alkali-metal ions and transition metal ions, respectively. Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society. (69) Taking Mott-Hubbard splitting into consideration, the Li2MO3 band structure can be classified under three cases (c–e), depending on the interaction between the d–d Coulomb repulsion term U and the charge transfer term Δ. UHB and LHB signify the upper and lower Hubbard bands, respectively. Copyright 2018 Springer Nature. (71) (f) projected DOS of the O-2p and Fe-3d orbitals of O2– ions in the Li6-O configurations and nearest Fe ions in cation-disordered Li3FeO3.5. Increased pDOS near the Fermi level for the O2– coordinated by six Li+ manifests the particular Li6-O configuration. Copyright 2017 Springer Nature. (85) (g) Schematic illustration of the role played by the Li6-O configurations during the lithiation or delithiation of Li5FeO4. Copyright 2017 Springer Nature. (85)

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To better understand the anionic redox reaction (ARR) in lithium-rich oxides. Jean-Marie Tarascon et al. (71,72) introduced the d-d Coulomb interaction term U to evaluate the repulsive interaction of d orbital electrons based on solid state physics. There is a split in the partially filled (M-O)* band (labeled Mott-Hubbard splitting), which leads to filled lower and empty upper-Hubbard bands (LHB and UHB respectively. The relative position of the O 2p nonbonding band and LHB decide the values of U and Δ. In the first case (Figure 4c), U ≪ Δ, electrons would only be exchanged from the filled LHB, which suggests the traditional layered-oxide with M redox. (73) In the second case (Figure 4d), U/2 ≈ Δ, the overlap between the O 2p nonbonding bands and LHB could deliver a dual capacity from cationic redox and anion redox. In this situation, due to the instability when removing electrons, the structural distortion including Jahn–Teller or Peierls distortions would occur. By lowering the symmetry of the structure and refreaming oxygen network (the formation of O–O dimers), M-(O2)n− interactions would be stabilized, (74,75) which is consistent with the experimental data of Li2IrO3, (76,77) Li2RuO3, (78,79) and so on. This momentous discovery sheds light on the construction of high-quality cathodes with extra capacity due to anion redox. The delicate balance between Δ and U is crucial, which can be manipulated via regulation of the energy level/band structure (choosing metal–ligand combinations). In the last case (Figure 4e), U ≫ Δ, the electrons can be directly removed from the nonbonding O 2p band, which is situated above the filled LHB. This would produce the highly reactive On– species or even O2, leading to irreversible processes in electrode materials. However, these materials are not useless. Some of them (antifluorite) are often used as cathode prelithiation additives such as Li6CoO4, Li5FeO4, and so on. (80−84) As shown in Figures 4f and 4g, Amine et al. (85) investigated Li5FeO4 with antifluorite structure via density of states (DOS) and charge/spin density analyses, which can realize simultaneous anionic and cationic redox at the same potential. They discussed the internal mechanism of the anionic redox related with the reversibility of structures, the influence of charge/discharge cutoff voltage, and the interaction between cationic redox (Fe3+/Fe4+) with anionic redox (O2–/O–/O2) in detail. The experimental results confirm that the O2–/O– redox could be reversible in Li5FeO4 by lowering the charging cutoff voltage. Ensuring the stability of Li6-O configurations in Li5FeO4 can effectively avoid the generation of O2, enhancing the reversibility of the electrode material. On the other hand, as mentioned above, these materials with antifluorite structure can be used as cathode prelithiation additives based on their intrinsic properties. Taking the simplest example, lithium oxide (Li2O) with antifluorite structure can provide Li+ and realize charge compensation by oxygen (Li2O ⇋ 0.5 Li2O2 + Li+ + e–). (86) Based on this, Li2O was considered as a potential candidate for prelithiation additives. However, it is hard for pristine Li2O to be an ideal cathode prelithiation additive due to its poor ionic/electronic conductivity and low electrochemical activity. The effective Li2O/Li2O2 conversion always requires appropriate catalysts to accelerate this electrochemical process, lowering the reaction barrier. The interaction between Li2O and catalysts in the mixing (high-energy ball milling) or calcination (high temperature sintering) process can be regarded as the formation of defective antifluorite compounds such as Li6MnO4, Li6CoO4, Li5FeO4, and so on. (85) The introduction of M (M = Mn, Co, Fe, and so on) in antifluorite materials could effectively reduce its decomposition potential via regulating the energy level/band structure. These materials have been proven to be effective prelithiation additives which has gradually been adopted by various companies such as Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. and Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Limited. (13,87,88) Although these antifluorite materials can meet the criteria to be cathode prelithiation additives (donable capacity, appropriate decomposition potential, industrial compatibility and scalability), some other problems or challenges are still thought-provoking and need to be addressed such as safety hazards of prelithiation, residues and side reactions, chemical and ambient stability, and so on. (80,89−93)

3. Challenges and Prospects

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In this Perspective, multifarious catalysis used in secondary rechargeable batteries are discussed point by point. Whether introducing catalysts directly into the cathodes (such as LSBs and LOBs) to accelerate the reaction kinetics or adopting selective catalysis to obtain the desired EEI layers via optimizing the compositions of the electrolytes and tailoring the components and structures of the electrode materials, even employing the essential concept of catalysis to design/synthesize materials with new structures, we can see that catalysis and batteries are already intertwined and inseparable. Based on what we have achieved so far, our future direction should be to further master the underlying mechanism of catalysts used in secondary rechargeable batteries. There are a range of long-standing puzzles/challenges that need to be elucidated/solved, including: where is the exact catalytic sites of the catalysts used in batteries? what is the specific catalytic mechanism/reaction path? what parameters/descriptors can accurately describe the formation of EEI layers? How can we better use the concept of catalysis to design new materials? what is the essential mechanism between prelithiation additives such as Li2O and the catalysts? Fortunately, with the constant development of advanced characterization technologies, especially in situ or in operando techniques (in situ surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy (SEIRAS), differential electrochemical mass spectrometry (DEMS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), surface-enhanced Raman, and so on) and novel computational simulations (machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) calculation), the chance of success is highly provided for us to elaborately deal with the aforementioned challenges. The in-depth understanding of these existing ambiguities or problems would certainly guide us to develop new design principles to predict/realize better electrochemical performance in secondary rechargeable batteries. Hope must prevail!

Author Information

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  • Corresponding Authors
  • Authors
    • Changhao Wang - State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Discipline of Intelligent Instrument and Equipment, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
    • Xiaohong Wu - State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China;  Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-4905-0792
    • Yilong Chen - State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
    • Baodan Zhang - State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
    • Haiyan Luo - State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
    • Zhengang Li - State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China;  Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-1848-3998
    • Yawen Yan - State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
    • Zixin Wu - State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
    • Kai Fang - State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

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This work was financially supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 22288102).

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This article references 93 other publications.

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    N-Doped NiO Nanosheet Arrays as Efficient Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction
    Wang, Changhao; Li, Yahao; Wang, Xiuli; Tu, Jiangping
    Journal of Electronic Materials (2021), 50 (9), 5072-5080CODEN: JECMA5; ISSN:0361-5235. (Springer)
    Exploration of cost-effective high-performance non-noble-metal-based electrocatalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) has attracted huge attention. In this work, a nitrogen doping method is adopted to construct self-supported, N-doped NiO nanosheet arrays (N-NiO) as an effective HER electrocatalyst. The N-NiO nanosheet arrays are firmly anchored on a nickel foam substrate, forming a free-standing integrated electrode with an open nanostructure. By virtue of its larger electrochem. active surface areas and better electron cond., the N-NiO electrode has admirable electrocatalytic HER performance with a low overpotential (154 mV at a c.d. of 10 mA cm-2) and a low Tafel slope of 90 mV dec-1. In addn., the N-NiO nanosheet arrays exhibit relatively stable electrocatalytic activity after a 10 h continuous test in an alk. soln. Our reported rational design principle and optimization strategy provide a powerful way to construct advanced transition-metal-based electrocatalysts for the HER.
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  19. 19
    Yang, H. J.; Qiao, Y.; Chang, Z.; He, P.; Zhou, H. S. Designing Cation-Solvent Fully Coordinated Electrolyte for High-Energy-Density Lithium-Sulfur Full Cell Based on Solid-Solid Conversion. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2021, 60, 17726– 17734,  DOI: 10.1002/anie.202106788
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    Designing Cation-Solvent Fully Coordinated Electrolyte for High-Energy-Density Lithium-Sulfur Full Cell Based On Solid-Solid Conversion
    Yang, Huijun; Qiao, Yu; Chang, Zhi; He, Ping; Zhou, Haoshen
    Angewandte Chemie, International Edition (2021), 60 (32), 17726-17734CODEN: ACIEF5; ISSN:1433-7851. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
    Sulfur chem. based on solid-liq. dissoln.-deposition route inevitably encounters shuttle of lithium polysulfides, its parasitic interaction with lithium (Li) anode and flood electrolyte environment. The sulfurized pyrolyzed poly(acrylonitrile) (S@pPAN) cathode favors solid-solid conversion mechanism in carbonate ester electrolytes but fails to pair high-capacity Li anode. Herein, we rationally design a cation-solvent fully coordinated ether electrolyte to simultaneously resolve the problems of both Li anode and S@pPAN cathode. Raman spectroscopy reveals a highly suppressed solvent activity and a cation-solvent fully coordinated structure (molar ratio 1:1). Consequently, Li electrodeposit evolves into round-edged morphol., LiF-rich interphase, and high reversibility. Moreover, S@pPAN cathode inherits a neat solid-phase redox reaction and fully eliminated the dissoln. of lithium polysulfides. Finally, we harvest a long-life Li-S@pPAN pouch cell with slight Li metal excessive (0.4 time) and ultra-lean electrolyte design (1μL mgS-1), delivering 394 Wh kg-1 energy d. based on electrodes and electrolyte mass.
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  20. 20
    Zhou, T.; Liang, J. N.; Ye, S. H.; Zhang, Q. L.; Liu, J. H. Fundamental, Application and Opportunities of Single Atom Catalysts for Li-S Batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 2023, 55, 322– 355,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ensm.2022.12.002
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    Sha Li, X. Gu-Lian Wang, Hui-Qun Wang, Wei-Ming Xiong, Li Zhang. Ultraviolet-Initiated In-Situ Cross-Linking of Multifunctional Binder Backbones Enables Robust Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. J. Electrochem. 2023, 29, 2217004
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    Zhen-Yu Wang, X.-P. G. Metals and Alloys as Catalytic Hosts of Sulfur Cathode for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. J. Electrochem. 2023, 29, 2217001
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    Zhang, J.; Huang, H.; Bae, J.; Chung, S. H.; Zhang, W. K.; Manthiram, A.; Yu, G. H. Nanostructured Host Materials for Trapping Sulfur in Rechargeable Li-S Batteries: Structure Design and Interfacial Chemistry. Small Methods 2018, 2, 1700279,  DOI: 10.1002/smtd.201700279
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    Wang, C. H.; Li, Y. H.; Cao, F.; Zhang, Y. Q.; Xia, X. H.; Zhang, L. J. Employing Ni-Embedded Porous Graphitic Carbon Fibers for High-Efficiency Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2022, 14, 10457– 10466,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c24755
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    Employing Ni-Embedded Porous Graphitic Carbon Fibers for High-Efficiency Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
    Wang, Changhao; Li, Yahao; Cao, Feng; Zhang, Yongqi; Xia, Xinhui; Zhang, Lingjie
    ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2022), 14 (8), 10457-10466CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)
    The rational electrode design is one of the most important ways to enhance the electrochem. properties of lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs). In this contribution, we use Ni-embedded porous graphitic carbon fiber (PGCF@Ni) as the scaffold to construct a novel cathode and anode for LSBs. With the help of elaborate surface engineering, the constructed solid electrolyte interface (SEI)@Li/PGCF@Ni anodes can effectively restrain the growth of lithium dendrites during the cycle, exhibiting an ultralow overpotential of ~ 10 mV for 2000 h at 1 mA cm-2/1 mA h cm-2. The underlying mechanism is further investigated by COMSOL Multiphysics simulations. Addnl., the PGCF@Ni/S cathode fabricated by the molten sulfurizing method manifests superior rate performance and stability. Ultimately, the assembled SEI@Li/PGCF@Ni||PGCF@Ni/S full battery exhibits prominent electrochem. property with a high capacity retention of about 77.9% after 600 cycles at 1 C. Such success at the performance improvement in LSBs may open up avenues toward other rational designs of high-quality electrodes in electrochem. energy storage.
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    Wang, C. H.; Li, Y. H.; Zhang, Y. Q.; Zhang, L. J.; Gu, C. D.; Wang, X. L.; Tu, J. P. Integrating a 3D Porous Carbon Fiber Network Containing Cobalt with Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interphase to Consummate Advanced Electrodes for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. Mater. Today Energy 2022, 24, 100930,  DOI: 10.1016/j.mtener.2021.100930
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    Integrating a 3D porous carbon fiber network containing cobalt with artificial solid electrolyte interphase to consummate advanced electrodes for lithium-sulfur batteries
    Wang, Changhao; Li, Yahao; Zhang, Yongqi; Zhang, Lingjie; Gu, Changdong; Wang, Xiuli; Tu, Jiangping
    Materials Today Energy (2022), 24 (), 100930CODEN: MTEACH; ISSN:2468-6069. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) are deemed as one of the most promising next-generation energy storage systems due to their high theor. energy d. However, their intrinsic shortcomings hindered their practical commercialization. In this work, a powerful three-dimensional (3D) filter paper porous carbon decorated with cobalt (FPPC@Co) matrix is employed to fabricate high-quality anode and cathode simultaneously. Combining with in-situ surface engineering, the rationally designed solid electrolyte interphase @Li/FPPC@Co anodes can plate/strip Li uniformly without Li dendrites, manifesting a low overpotential of about 20 mV for 1000 h at 1 mA/cm2/1 mA h/cm2. COMSOL Multiphysics simulations further testify the underlying mechanisms. Meanwhile, with the help of molten sulfurizing method, the synthesized FPPC@Co/S cathode exhibits excellent stability with high capacity retention of 73.3% after 200 cycles at 1 C. Furthermore, we paired SEI@Li/FPPC@Co anode and FPPC@Co/S cathode to assemble lithium-sulfur full cells. The SEI@Li/FPPC@Co||FPPC@Co/S full cell shows superior electrochem. performance with a long-term cycle life (a capacity retention of 88.7% after 200 cycles at 1 C). Insight gained from this work opens a new door for fabrication of high-quality electrodes for LSBs.
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    Wang, H. S.; Yu, Z.; Kong, X.; Kim, S. C.; Boyle, D. T.; Qin, J.; Bao, Z. N.; Cui, Y. Liquid electrolyte: The Nexus of Practical Lithium Metal Batteries. Joule 2022, 6, 588– 616,  DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2021.12.018
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    Liquid electrolyte: The nexus of practical lithium metal batteries
    Wang, Hansen; Yu, Zhiao; Kong, Xian; Kim, Sang Cheol; Boyle, David T.; Qin, Jian; Bao, Zhenan; Cui, Yi
    Joule (2022), 6 (3), 588-616CODEN: JOULBR; ISSN:2542-4351. (Cell Press)
    A review. The specific energy of com. lithium (Li)-ion batteries is reaching the theor. limit. Future consumer electronics and elec. vehicle markets call for the development of high energy d. Li metal batteries, which have been plagued by poor cyclability. Electrolyte engineering can afford a promising approach to address the issues assocd. with Li metal batteries and has recently resulted in much improved cycle life under practical conditions. However, gaps still exist between the performance of current Li metal batteries and those required for com. applications. Further improvements will require systematic anal. of existing electrolyte design methodologies. In this review, we first summarize recent approaches of advanced electrolytes for Li metal batteries paired with high-voltage cathodes. We then ext. common features among these advanced electrolytes and finally discuss the future rational design directions and strategies.
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    Wu, Q. P.; Yao, Z. G.; Zhou, X. J.; Xu, J.; Cao, F. H.; Li, C. L. Built-In Catalysis in Confined Nanoreactors for High-Loading Li-S Batteries. ACS Nano 2020, 14, 3365– 3377,  DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b09231
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    Built-in catalysis in confined nanoreactors for high-loading Li-S batteries
    Wu, Qingping; Yao, Zhenguo; Zhou, Xuejun; Xu, Jun; Cao, Fahai; Li, Chilin
    ACS Nano (2020), 14 (3), 3365-3377CODEN: ANCAC3; ISSN:1936-0851. (American Chemical Society)
    A cathode host with strong sulfur/polysulfide confinement and fast redox kinetics is a challenging demand for high-loading lithium-sulfur batteries. Recently, porous carbon hosts derived from metal-org. frameworks (MOFs) have attracted wide attention due to their unique spatial structure and customizable reaction sites. However, the loading and rate performance of Li-S cells are still restricted by the disordered pore distribution and surface catalysis in these hosts. Here, we propose a concept of built-in catalysis to accelerate lithium polysulfide (LiPSs) conversion in confined nanoreactors, i.e., laterally stacked ordered crevice pores encompassed by MoS2-decorated carbon thin layers. The functions of S-fixability and LiPS catalysis in these mesoporous cavity reactors benefit from the 2D interface contact between ultrathin catalytic MoS2 and conductive C pyrolyzed from Al-MOF. The integrated function of adsorption-catalysis-conversion endows the sulfur-infused C@MoS2 electrode with a high initial capacity of 1240 mAh g-1 at 0.2 C, long life cycle stability of at least 1000 cycles at 2 C, and high rate endurance up to 20 C. This electrode also exhibits com. potential in view of considerable capacity release and reversibility under high sulfur loading (6 mg cm-2 and ~ 80 wt %) and lean electrolyte (E/S ratio of 5μL mg-1). This study provides a promising design soln. of a catalysis-conduction 2D interface in a 3D skeleton for high-loading Li-S batteries.
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    Bi, C. X.; Zhao, M.; Hou, L. P.; Chen, Z. X.; Zhang, X. Q.; Li, B. Q.; Yuan, H.; Huang, J. Q. Anode Material Options Toward 500 Wh kg–1 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. Adv. Sci. 2022, 9, 2103910,  DOI: 10.1002/advs.202103910
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    Anode Material Options Toward 500 Wh kg-1 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
    Bi, Chen-Xi; Zhao, Meng; Hou, Li-Peng; Chen, Zi-Xian; Zhang, Xue-Qiang; Li, Bo-Quan; Yuan, Hong; Huang, Jia-Qi
    Advanced Science (Weinheim, Germany) (2022), 9 (2), 2103910CODEN: ASDCCF; ISSN:2198-3844. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
    A review Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) battery is identified as one of the most promising next-generation energy storage systems due to its ultra-high theor. energy d. up to 2600 Wh kg-1. However, Li metal anode suffers from dramatic vol. change during cycling, continuous corrosion by polysulfide electrolyte, and dendrite formation, rendering limited cycling lifespan. Considering Li metal anode as a double-edged sword that contributes to ultrahigh energy d. as well as limited cycling lifespan, it is necessary to evaluate Li-based alloy as anode materials to substitute Li metal for high-performance Li-S batteries. In this contribution, the authors systematically evaluate the potential and feasibility of using Li metal or Li-based alloys to construct Li-S batteries with an actual energy d. of 500 Wh kg-1. A quant. anal. method is proposed by evaluating the required amt. of electrolyte for a targeted energy d. Based on a three-level (ideal material level, practical electrode level, and pouch cell level) anal., highly lithiated lithium-magnesium (Li-Mg) alloy is capable to achieve 500 Wh kg-1 Li-S batteries besides Li metal. Accordingly, research on Li-Mg and other Li-based alloys are reviewed to inspire a promising pathway to realize high-energy-d. and long-cycling Li-S batteries.
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  29. 29
    Liu, Y. R.; Zhao, M.; Hou, L. P.; Li, Z.; Bi, C. X.; Chen, Z. X.; Cheng, Q.; Zhang, X. Q.; Li, B. Q.; Kaskel, S.; Huang, J. Q. An Organodiselenide Comediator to Facilitate Sulfur Redox Kinetics in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries with Encapsulating Lithium Polysulfide Electrolyte. Angew. Chem. 2023, 135, e202303363,  DOI: 10.1002/ange.202303363
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    Chen, Z. X.; Zhang, Y. T.; Bi, C. X.; Zhao, M.; Zhang, R.; Li, B. Q.; Huang, J. Q. Premature Deposition of Lithium Polysulfide in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. J. Energy Chem. 2023, 82, 507– 512,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jechem.2023.03.015
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    Premature deposition of lithium polysulfide in lithium-sulfur batteries
    Chen, Zi-Xian; Zhang, Yu-Tong; Bi, Chen-Xi; Zhao, Meng; Zhang, Rui; Li, Bo-Quan; Huang, Jia-Qi
    Journal of Energy Chemistry (2023), 82 (), 507-512CODEN: JECOFG; ISSN:2095-4956. (Science Press)
    Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries have attracted extensive attention due to ultrahigh theor. energy d. of 2600 Wh kg-1. Liq.-solid deposition from dissolved lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) to solid lithium sulfide (Li2S) largely dets. the actual battery performances. Herein, a premature liq.-solid deposition process of LiPSs is revealed at higher thermodn. potential than Li2S deposition in Li-S batteries. The premature solid deposit exhibits higher chem. state and hemispherical morphol. in comparison with Li2S, and the premature deposition process is slower in kinetics and higher in deposition dimension. Accordingly, a supersatn. deposition mechanism is proposed to rationalize the above findings based on thermodn. simulation. This work demonstrates a unique premature liq.-solid deposition process of Li-S batteries.
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    Zhou, L.; Danilov, D. L.; Eichel, R. A.; Notten, P. H. L. Host Materials Anchoring Polysulfides in Li-S Batteries Reviewed. Adv. Energy Mater. 2021, 11, 2001304,  DOI: 10.1002/aenm.202001304
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    Host Materials Anchoring Polysulfides in Li-S Batteries Reviewed
    Zhou, Lei; Danilov, Dmitri L.; Eichel, Ruediger-A.; Notten, Peter H. L.
    Advanced Energy Materials (2021), 11 (15), 2001304CODEN: ADEMBC; ISSN:1614-6840. (Wiley-Blackwell)
    A review. Lithium-sulfur batteries (Li-S) have become a viable alternative to future energy storage devices. The electrochem. reaction based on lithium and sulfur promises an extraordinary theor. energy d., which is far higher than current commercialized Li-ion batteries. However, the principal disadvantage impeding the success of Li-S batteries lies in the severe leakage and migration of sol. lithium polysulfide intermediates out of cathodes upon cycling. The loss of active sulfur species incurs significant capacity decay and poor battery lifespans. Considerable efforts have been devoted to developing various sulfur host materials that can effectively anchor lithium polysulfides. Herein, a comprehensive review is presented of recent advances in sulfur host materials. On the basis of the electrochem. of Li-S batteries, the strategies for anchoring polysulfides are systematically categorized into phys. confinement and chem. bonding. The structural merits of various sulfur host materials are highlighted, and the interaction mechanisms with sulfur species are discussed in detail, which provides valuable insights into the rational design and engineering of advanced sulfur host materials facilitating the commercialization of Li-S batteries. Future challenges and promising research prospects for sulfur host materials are proposed at the end of the review.
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    Yu, B.; He, Q.; Zhao, Y. Exploring the Anchoring Effect and Catalytic Mechanism of 3d Transition Metal Phthalocyanine for S8/LiPSs: A Density Functional Theory Study. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2021, 558, 149928,  DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2021.149928
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    Exploring the anchoring effect and catalytic mechanism of 3d transition metal phthalocyanine for S8/LiPSs: A density functional theory study
    Yu, Bin; He, Qiu; Zhao, Yan
    Applied Surface Science (2021), 558 (), 149928CODEN: ASUSEE; ISSN:0169-4332. (Elsevier B.V.)
    The strong anchoring effects for lithium polysulfides (LiPSs), as well as fast redox kinetics, are of great significance and necessity for the com. development of lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs). Metal phthalocyanines (MPc), with special M-N4 moieties, are a class of macrocyclic compds. that have the potential to be employed as sulfur host materials in LSBs. Herein, a series of 3d transition metal phthalocyanines (M = Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn) were systematically investigated for the anchoring effects and catalytic conversion activities for S8/LiPSs. The binding energy anal. demonstrates that most of MPc (except NiPc and CuPc) have stronger binding strength for S8/LiPSs than metal-free phthalocyanine (H2Pc), mainly due to the strong interaction between transition metals and S atoms. Meanwhile, the formation of the M-S bond shows a weakening effect on the Li-S bonds of Li2S then boosts the decompn. of Li2S, and MPc also possesses a relatively lower lithium diffusion barrier than H2Pc. Moreover, MPc can also accelerate the multi-step conversions from S8 to Li2S by reducing the free energy of the rate-limiting reaction (Li2S2 to Li2S) in sulfur redn. reactions (SRR). Among these MPc, TiPc has the best performance in anchoring LiPSs, accelerating the decompn. of Li2S, and promoting SRR.
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    Abraham, K. M.; Jiang, Z. A Polymer Electrolyte-Based Rechargeable Lithium/Oxygen Battery. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 1– 5,  DOI: 10.1149/1.1836378
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    A polymer electrolyte-based rechargeable lithium/oxygen battery
    Abraham, K. M.; Jiang, Z.
    Journal of the Electrochemical Society (1996), 143 (1), 1-5CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
    A novel rechargeable Li/O battery is described. The battery comprises a Li+ conductive org. polymer electrolyte membrane sandwiched by a thin Li metal foil anode and a thin carbon composite electrode on which oxygen, the electroactive cathode material, accessed from the environment, is reduced during discharge to generate elec. power. It features an all solid state design in which electrode and electrolyte layers are laminated to form a 200-300 μm thick battery cell. The overall cell reaction during discharge appears to be 2Li + O2 → Li2O2. The battery has an open-circuit voltage of ∼3 V, and a load voltage that spans between 2 and 2.8 V depending on the load resistance. The cell can be recharged with good coulombic efficiency using a cobalt phthalocyanine catalyzed carbon electrode.
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    Ogasawara, T.; Debart, A.; Holzapfel, M.; Novak, P.; Bruce, P. G. Rechargeable Li2O2 Electrode for Lithium Batteries. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 1390– 1393,  DOI: 10.1021/ja056811q
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    Rechargeable Li2O2 Electrode for Lithium Batteries
    Ogasawara, Takeshi; Debart, Aurelie; Holzapfel, Michael; Novak, Petr; Bruce, Peter G.
    Journal of the American Chemical Society (2006), 128 (4), 1390-1393CODEN: JACSAT; ISSN:0002-7863. (American Chemical Society)
    Rechargeable lithium batteries represent one of the most important developments in energy storage for 100 years, with the potential to address the key problem of global warming. However, their ability to store energy is limited by the quantity of lithium that may be removed from and reinserted into the intercalation cathode, LixCoO2, 0.5 < x < 1 (corresponding to 140 mA·h/g of charge storage). Abandoning the intercalation electrode and allowing Li to react directly with O2 from the air at a porous electrode increases the theor. charge storage by a remarkable 5-10 times. Here we demonstrate two essential prerequisites for the successful operation of a rechargeable Li/O2 battery: (a) the Li2O2 formed on discharging such an O2 electrode is decompd. to Li and O2 on charging (shown here by in situ mass spectrometry), with or without a catalyst, and (b) charge/discharge cycling is sustainable for many cycles.
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    Feng, N. N.; He, P.; Zhou, H. S. Critical Challenges in Rechargeable Aprotic Li-O2 Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2016, 6, 1502303,  DOI: 10.1002/aenm.201502303
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    Bruce, P. G.; Freunberger, S. A.; Hardwick, L. J.; Tarascon, J. M. Li-O2 and Li-S Batteries with High Energy Storage. Nat. Mater. 2012, 11, 19– 29,  DOI: 10.1038/nmat3191
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    Li-O2 and Li-S batteries with high energy storage
    Bruce, Peter G.; Freunberger, Stefan A.; Hardwick, Laurence J.; Tarascon, Jean-Marie
    Nature Materials (2012), 11 (1), 19-29CODEN: NMAACR; ISSN:1476-1122. (Nature Publishing Group)
    Li-ion batteries have transformed portable electronics and will play a key role in the electrification of transport. However, the highest energy storage possible for Li-ion batteries is insufficient for the long-term needs of society, for example, extended-range elec. vehicles. To go beyond the horizon of Li-ion batteries is a formidable challenge; there are few options. Here Li-air (O2) and Li-S batteries are considered. The energy that can be stored in Li-air (based on aq. or non-aq. electrolytes) and Li-S cells is compared with Li-ion; the operation of the cells is discussed, as are the significant hurdles that will have to be overcome if such batteries are to succeed. Fundamental scientific advances in understanding the reactions occurring in the cells as well as new materials are key to overcoming these obstacles. The potential benefits of Li-air and Li-S justify the continued research effort that will be needed.
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    Luntz, A. C.; McCloskey, B. D. Nonaqueous Li-Air Batteries: A Status Report. Chem. Rev. 2014, 114, 11721– 11750,  DOI: 10.1021/cr500054y
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    Nonaqueous Li-Air Batteries: A Status Report
    Luntz, Alan C.; McCloskey, Bryan D.
    Chemical Reviews (Washington, DC, United States) (2014), 114 (23), 11721-11750CODEN: CHREAY; ISSN:0009-2665. (American Chemical Society)
    A review summarizing current status of research on nonaq. lithium-air batteries.
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    Lu, J.; Cheng, L.; Lau, K. C.; Tyo, E.; Luo, X. Y.; Wen, J. G.; Miller, D.; Assary, R. S.; Wang, H. H.; Redfern, P.; Wu, H. M.; Park, J. B.; Sun, Y. K.; Vajda, S.; Amine, K.; Curtiss, L. A. Effect of the Size-Selective Silver Clusters on Lithium Peroxide Morphology in Lithium-Oxygen Batteries. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 4895,  DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5895
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    Effect of the size-selective silver clusters on lithium peroxide morphology in lithium-oxygen batteries
    Lu, Jun; Cheng, Lei; Lau, Kah Chun; Tyo, Eric; Luo, Xiangyi; Wen, Jianguo; Miller, Dean; Assary, Rajeev S.; Wang, Hsien-Hau; Redfern, Paul; Wu, Huiming; Park, Jin-Bum; Sun, Yang-Kook; Vajda, Stefan; Amine, Khalil; Curtiss, Larry A.
    Nature Communications (2014), 5 (), 4895CODEN: NCAOBW; ISSN:2041-1723. (Nature Publishing Group)
    Lithium-oxygen batteries have the potential needed for long-range elec. vehicles, but the charge and discharge chemistries are complex and not well understood. The active sites on cathode surfaces and their role in electrochem. reactions in aprotic lithium-oxygen cells are difficult to ascertain because the exact nature of the sites is unknown. Here we report the deposition of subnanometre silver clusters of exact size and no. of atoms on passivated carbon to study the discharge process in lithium-oxygen cells. The results reveal dramatically different morphologies of the electrochem. grown lithium peroxide dependent on the size of the clusters. This dependence is found to be due to the influence of the cluster size on the formation mechanism, which also affects the charge process. The results of this study suggest that precise control of subnanometre surface structure on cathodes can be used as a means to improve the performance of lithium-oxygen cells.
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    Kraytsberg, A.; Ein-Eli, Y. Review on Li-Air Batteries-Opportunities, Limitations and Perspective. J. Power Sources 2011, 196, 886– 893,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.09.031
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    Review on Li-air batteries-Opportunities, limitations and perspective
    Kraytsberg, Alexander; Ein-Eli, Yair
    Journal of Power Sources (2011), 196 (3), 886-893CODEN: JPSODZ; ISSN:0378-7753. (Elsevier B.V.)
    A review. Li-air batteries are potentially viable ultrahigh energy d. chem. power sources, which could potentially offer specific energies up to ∼3000O Wh·kg-1 being rechargeable. The modern state of art and the challenges in the field of Li-air batteries are considered. Although their implementation holds the greatest promise in a no. of applications ranging from portable electronics to elec. vehicles, there are also impressive challenges in development of cathode materials and electrolyte systems of these batteries.
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    McCloskey, B. D.; Burke, C. M.; Nichols, J. E.; Renfrew, S. E. Mechanistic Insights for the Development of Li-O2 Battery Materials: Addressing Li2O2 Conductivity Limitations and Electrolyte and Cathode Instabilities. Chem. Commun. 2015, 51, 12701– 12715,  DOI: 10.1039/C5CC04620C
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    Mechanistic insights for the development of Li-O2 battery materials: addressing Li2O2 conductivity limitations and electrolyte and cathode instabilities
    McCloskey, Bryan D.; Burke, Colin M.; Nichols, Jessica E.; Renfrew, Sara E.
    Chemical Communications (Cambridge, United Kingdom) (2015), 51 (64), 12701-12715CODEN: CHCOFS; ISSN:1359-7345. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
    A review of mechanistic insights for the development of the Li-O2 battery, esp. with emphasis on Li2O2 cond. and limitations on instabilities of the electrolyte and the cathode. Other topics discussed include Li2O2 formation and parasitic side reactions, galvanostatic Li-O2 battery discharge-charge cycle, measurement of rechargeability in Li-O2 batteries, heterogeneous electrocatalysts, polymer binders and binder-free electrodes, mechanism of Li2O2 deposition, high-capacity electrolytes, and use of redox mediators and solubilizing agents. Electrolyte and cathode instabilities and Li2O2 cond. limitations are then discussed, and suggestions for future materials research development to alleviate these issues are provided.
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    Lu, Y. C.; Shao-Horn, Y. Probing the Reaction Kinetics of the Charge Reactions of Nonaqueous Li-O2 Batteries. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2013, 4, 93– 99,  DOI: 10.1021/jz3018368
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    Probing the Reaction Kinetics of the Charge Reactions of Nonaqueous Li-O2 Batteries
    Lu, Yi-Chun; Shao-Horn, Yang
    Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters (2013), 4 (1), 93-99CODEN: JPCLCD; ISSN:1948-7185. (American Chemical Society)
    Understanding the reaction mechanism of nonaq. oxygen redn. reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is key to increase the low round-trip efficiency and power capability of rechargeable Li-air batteries. Here we show that the ORR kinetics are much faster than OER kinetics and OER occurs in two distinct stages upon Li-air battery charging. The first OER stage occurs at low overpotentials (<400 mV) with a slopping voltage profile, whose kinetics are relatively insensitive to charge rates and catalysts. This OER stage could be attributed to the delithiation of the outer part of Li2O2 forming lithium-deficient Li2-xO2, which is chem. disproportionate to evolve O2. The second stage takes place at high overpotentials (400-1200 mV), whose kinetics are sensitive to discharge/charge rates and catalysts, which can be attributed to the oxidn. of bulk Li2O2 particles. Our study provides insights into bridging current two schools of thought on the OER mechanism.
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    McCloskey, B. D.; Scheffler, R.; Speidel, A.; Bethune, D. S.; Shelby, R. M.; Luntz, A. C. On the Efficacy of Electrocatalysis in Nonaqueous Li-O2 Batteries. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 18038– 18041,  DOI: 10.1021/ja207229n
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    On the Efficacy of Electrocatalysis in Nonaqueous Li-O2 Batteries
    McCloskey, Bryan D.; Scheffler, Rouven; Speidel, Angela; Bethune, Donald S.; Shelby, Robert M.; Luntz, A. C.
    Journal of the American Chemical Society (2011), 133 (45), 18038-18041CODEN: JACSAT; ISSN:0002-7863. (American Chemical Society)
    Heterogeneous electrocatalysis has become a focal point in rechargeable Li-air battery research to reduce overpotentials in both the O redn. (discharge) and esp. O evolution (charge) reactions. Past reports of traditional cathode electrocatalysis in nonaq. Li-O2 batteries were indeed true, but gas evolution related to electrolyte solvent decompn. was the dominant process being catalyzed. In dimethoxyethane, where Li2O2 formation is the dominant product of the electrochem., no catalytic activity (compared to pure C) is obsd. using the same (Au, Pt, MnO2) nanoparticles. Nevertheless, the onset potential of O evolution is only slightly higher than the open circuit potential of the cell, indicating conventional O evolution electrocatalysis may be unnecessary.
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    Xia, H.; Xie, Q. F.; Tian, Y. H.; Chen, Q.; Wen, M.; Zhang, J. L.; Wang, Y.; Tang, Y. P.; Zhang, S. High-Efficient CoPt/Activated Functional Carbon Catalyst for Li-O2 Batteries. Nano Energy 2021, 84, 105877,  DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.105877
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    High-efficient CoPt/activated functional carbon catalyst for Li-O2 batteries
    Xia, Han; Xie, Qifan; Tian, Yuhui; Chen, Qiang; Wen, Ming; Zhang, Jianli; Wang, Yao; Tang, Yiping; Zhang, Shanqing
    Nano Energy (2021), 84 (), 105877CODEN: NEANCA; ISSN:2211-2855. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    The rational design and synthesis of highly-efficient cathode catalysts are of importance to high-performance lithium-oxygen batteries (LOBs). In this work, We use crab shell waste as a carbon source through carbonization, activation, and sol-gel method to synthesize activated functional carbon (AFC) and fabricate CoPt/AFC catalyst for Li-O2 batteries. The as-prepd. AFC possesses abundant hydroxyl (OH-) and amino (NH2-) groups as the link bridge for enhancing the metal-support interaction. Revealed by the d. functional theory calcns., the tuned adsorption for intermediates and reduced overpotentials for both oxygen redn. and evolution reactions (ORR and OER) are achieved on such the composite structure. Exptl., CoPt nanoparticles are evenly distributed on the surface of OH- and NH2- functionalized porous carbon through the sol-gel method. The abundant pore structures in the resultant catalyst (CoPt/AFC) can provide sufficient room for depositing discharge products. Moreover, the side reactions are effectively suppressed, as evidenced by the in-situ Raman spectra. As a result, the LOBs with the CoPt/AFC cathode present excellent electrochem. performances with a high discharge specific capacity of 8.25 mAh cm-2, a low overpotential of 0.47 V, and good cycling stability of 156 cycles.
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    Liu, W.; Liu, P. C.; Mitlin, D. Review of Emerging Concepts in SEI Analysis and Artificial SEI Membranes for Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium Metal Battery Anodes. Adv. Energy Mater. 2020, 10, 2002297,  DOI: 10.1002/aenm.202002297
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    Review of emerging concepts in solid electrolyte interphase analysis and artificial solid electrolyte interphase membranes for lithium, sodium, and potassium metal battery anodes
    Liu, Wei; Liu, Pengcheng; Mitlin, David
    Advanced Energy Materials (2020), 10 (43), 2002297CODEN: ADEMBC; ISSN:1614-6840. (Wiley-Blackwell)
    A review. Anodes for lithium metal batteries, sodium metal batteries, and potassium metal batteries are susceptible to failure due to dendrite growth. This review details the structure-chem.-performance relations in membranes that stabilize the anodes solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), allowing for stable electrochem. plating/stripping. Case studies involving Li, Na, and K are presented to illustrate key concepts. "Classical" vs. "modern" understandings of the SEI are described, with an emphasis on the new structural insights obtained through novel anal. techniques, including in situ liq.-secondary ion mass spectroscopy, titrn. gas chromatog., and tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. This Review highlights diverse approaches for increasing SEI stability, either by inserting a secondary layer between the native SEI and the separator, or by combining the membrane with a native SEI to form a hybrid composite. Exciting and nonintuitive findings are discussed, such as that the metal anode roughness profoundly affects the SEI structure and stability, or that org. artificial SEI-layers may be more effective than the native inorg.-org. SEIs. Emerging multifunctional architectures are presented, which serve a dual role as metal hosts and metal surface protection layers. Throughout the Review, fruitful future research directions and the crit. areas where there is incomplete understanding are discussed.
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    Adenusi, H.; Chass, G. A.; Passerini, S.; Tian, K. V.; Chen, G. H. Lithium Batteries and the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI)-Progress and Outlook. Adv. Energy Mater. 2023, 13, 2203307,  DOI: 10.1002/aenm.202203307
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    Lithium Batteries and the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI)-Progress and Outlook
    Adenusi, Henry; Chass, Gregory A.; Passerini, Stefano; Tian, Kun V.; Chen, Guanhua
    Advanced Energy Materials (2023), 13 (10), 2203307CODEN: ADEMBC; ISSN:1614-6840. (Wiley-Blackwell)
    A review. Interfacial dynamics within chem. systems such as electron and ion transport processes have relevance in the rational optimization of electrochem. energy storage materials and devices. Evolving the understanding of fundamental electrochem. at interfaces would also help in the understanding of relevant phenomena in biol., microbial, pharmaceutical, electronic, and photonic systems. In lithium-ion batteries, the electrochem. instability of the electrolyte and its ensuing reactive decompn. proceeds at the anode surface within the Helmholtz double layer resulting in a buildup of the reductive products, forming the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). This review summarizes relevant aspects of the SEI including formation, compn., dynamic structure, and reaction mechanisms, focusing primarily on the graphite anode with insights into the lithium metal anode. Furthermore, the influence of the electrolyte and electrode materials on SEI structure and properties is discussed. An update is also presented on state-of-the-art approaches to quant. characterize the structure and changing properties of the SEI. Lastly, a framework evaluating the standing problems and future research directions including feasible computational, machine learning, and exptl. approaches are outlined.
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    Borodin, O.; Jow, T. R. Quantum Chemistry Studies of the Oxidative Stability of Carbonate, Sulfone and Sulfonate-Based Electrolytes Doped with BF4–, PF6– Anions. ECS Trans. 2011, 33, 77– 84,  DOI: 10.1149/1.3563092
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    Quantum chemistry studies of the oxidative stability of carbonate, sulfone and sulfonate-based electrolytes doped with BF4-, PF6- anions
    Borodin, Oleg; Jow, T. Richard
    ECS Transactions (2011), 33 (28, Non-Aqueous Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries), 77-84CODEN: ECSTF8; ISSN:1938-5862. (Electrochemical Society)
    Quantum chem. studies of the oxidative stability of carbonate, sulfonate and sulfone-based solvents with and without BF4-, PF6- anions were performed using M05-2X Minnesota d. functional and cc-pvTz basis set. Presence of BF4- and PF6- anions was found to significantly decrease oxidative stability of a no. of carbonate solvents such as ethylene carbonate, di-Me carbonate and propylene carbonate via HF formation. Oxidn. of the tetra-Me sulfone/BF4- and propargyl methanesulfonate/PF6- complexes resulted in the fluorine transfer to the solvent. Oxidn. of the tetra-Me sulfone/BF4- complex also resulted in a spontaneous ring opening. No water was needed to form PF5 and BF3 upon oxidn. of the solvent/BF4- and solvent/PF6- complexes. D. functional ests. of the solvent/anion oxidative stability were found in good agreement with available exptl. data for non-active electrodes after polarized continuum model was utilized to implicitly account for the surrounding solvent dielec. permittivity.
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    Xing, L. D.; Borodin, O.; Smith, G. D.; Li, W. S. Density Functional Theory Study of the Role of Anions on the Oxidative Decomposition Reaction of Propylene Carbonate. J. Phys. Chem. A 2011, 115, 13896– 13905,  DOI: 10.1021/jp206153n
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    Density Functional Theory Study of the Role of Anions on the Oxidative Decomposition Reaction of Propylene Carbonate
    Xing, Lidan; Borodin, Oleg; Smith, Grant D.; Li, Weishan
    Journal of Physical Chemistry A (2011), 115 (47), 13896-13905CODEN: JPCAFH; ISSN:1089-5639. (American Chemical Society)
    The oxidative decompn. mechanism of the lithium battery electrolyte solvent propylene carbonate (PC) with and without PF6- and ClO4- anions has been investigated using the d. functional theory at the B3LYP/6-311++G(d) level. Calcns. were performed in the gas phase (dielec. const. ε = 1) and employing the polarized continuum model with a dielec. const. ε = 20.5 to implicitly account for solvent effects. It has been found that the presence of PF6- and ClO4- anions significantly reduces PC oxidn. stability, stabilizes the PC-anion oxidn. decompn. products, and changes the order of the oxidn. decompn. paths. The primary oxidative decompn. products of PC-PF6- and PC-ClO4- were CO2 and acetone radical. Formation of HF and PF5 was obsd. upon the initial step of PC-PF6- oxidn. while HClO4 formed during initial oxidn. of PC-ClO4-. The products from the less likely reaction paths included propanal, a polymer with fluorine and fluoro-alkanols for PC-PF6- decompn., while acetic acid, carboxylic acid anhydrides, and Cl- were found among the decompn. products of PC-ClO4-. The decompn. pathways with the lowest barrier for the oxidized PC-PF6- and PC-ClO4- complexes did not result in the incorporation of the fluorine from PF6- or ClO4- into the most probable reaction products despite anions and HF being involved in the decompn. mechanism; however, the pathway with the second lowest barrier for the PC-PF6- oxidative ring opening resulted in a formation of fluoro-org. compds., suggesting that these toxic compds. could form at elevated temps. under oxidizing conditions.
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    Zhang, X. R.; Pugh, J. K.; Ross, P. N. Computation of Thermodynamic Oxidation Potentials of Organic Solvents Using Density Functional Theory. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2001, 148, E183– E188,  DOI: 10.1149/1.1362546
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    Computation of thermodynamic oxidation potentials of organic solvents using density functional theory
    Zhang, Xuerong; Pugh, James K.; Ross, Philip N.
    Journal of the Electrochemical Society (2001), 148 (5), E183-E188CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
    Ethers and org. carbonates are commonly used as solvents in lithium battery electrolyte. It is important to det. the oxidn. potentials of these org. solvents due to the high cathode potential (∼5 V) in many of these batteries. There are significant variations in the reported oxidn. potentials for electrolytes contg. these solvents. The factors contributing to the variation include the type of salt used in the electrolyte, compn. of the electrode, and a somewhat arbitrary detn. of the oxidn. potential from the anodic cutoff current. We report here the application of d. functional theory (DFT) to calc. solvent oxidn. potentials assuming oxidn. occurs via one-electron transfer to form the radical cation. No specific ion-ion, ion-solvent, or ion-electrode interactions are included. These values are then compared to the exptl. observations. Eleven solvent mols. are studied: 1,2-dimethoxyethane, THF, 1,3-dioxolane, diethylcarbonate, dimethylcarbonate, ethylmethylcarbonate, ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, butylene carbonate, vinylene carbonate, and catechol carbonate. Optimized geometries of the radical cations correlate well with the fragmentation patterns obsd. in mass spectrometry. The oxidn. potentials of satd. carbonates are calcd. to be approx. 1 V higher than the org. ethers, which is consistent with reported literature values. Quant. comparison with expt. will require more careful measurements to eliminate other oxidn. reactions and a standardized procedure for detg. the oxidn. potential.
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    Goodenough, J. B.; Kim, Y. Challenges for Rechargeable Li Batteries. Chem. Mater. 2010, 22, 587– 603,  DOI: 10.1021/cm901452z
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    Challenges for Rechargeable Li Batteries
    Goodenough, John B.; Kim, Youngsik
    Chemistry of Materials (2010), 22 (3), 587-603CODEN: CMATEX; ISSN:0897-4756. (American Chemical Society)
    A review of challenges for further development of Li rechargeable batteries for elec. vehicles. Most important is safety, which requires development of a nonflammable electrolyte with either a larger window between its LUMO and HOMO or a constituent (or additive) that can develop rapidly a solid/electrolyte interface (SEI) layer to prevent plating of Li on a carbon anode during a fast charge of the battery. A high Li+-ion cond. (σLi > 10-4 S/cm) in the electrolyte and across the electrode/electrolyte interface is needed for a power battery. Important also is an increase in the d. of the stored energy, which is the product of the voltage and capacity of reversible Li insertion/extn. into/from the electrodes. It will be difficult to design a better anode than carbon, but carbon requires formation of an SEI layer, which involves an irreversible capacity loss. The design of a cathode composed of environmentally benign, low-cost materials that has its electrochem. potential μC well-matched to the HOMO of the electrolyte and allows access to two Li atoms per transition-metal cation would increase the energy d., but it is a daunting challenge. Two redox couples can be accessed where the cation redox couples are pinned at the top of the O 2p bands, but to take advantage of this possibility, it must be realized in a framework structure that can accept more than one Li atom per transition-metal cation. Moreover, such a situation represents an intrinsic voltage limit of the cathode, and matching this limit to the HOMO of the electrolyte requires the ability to tune the intrinsic voltage limit. Finally, the chem. compatibility in the battery must allow a long service life.
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    Leung, K. Two-electron reduction of ethylene carbonate: A Quantum Chemistry Re-Examination of Mechanisms. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2013, 568, 1– 8,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2012.08.022
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    Two-electron reduction of ethylene carbonate: A quantum chemistry re-examination of mechanisms
    Leung, Kevin
    Chemical Physics Letters (2013), 568-569 (), 1-8CODEN: CHPLBC; ISSN:0009-2614. (Elsevier B.V.)
    Passivating solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) films arising from electrolyte decompn. on low-voltage Li ion battery anode surfaces are crit. for battery operations. The authors discuss recent theor. literature on electrolyte decompn. and emphasize the modeling work on 2-electron redn. of ethylene carbonate (EC, a key battery org. solvent). One of the 2-electron pathways, which releases CO gas, is reexamd. using simple quantum chem. calcns. Excess electrons preferentially attack EC in the order (broken EC-) > (intact EC-) > EC. This confirms the viability of 2 electron processes and emphasizes that they need to be considered when interpreting SEI expts. A speculative est. of the crossover between 1- and 2-electron regimes under a homogeneous reaction zone approxn. is proposed.
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    Vollmer, J. M.; Curtiss, L. A.; Vissers, D. R.; Amine, K. Reduction Mechanisms of Ethylene, Propylene, and Vinylethylene Carbonates - A Quantum Chemical Study. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2004, 151, A178– A183,  DOI: 10.1149/1.1633765
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    Reduction Mechanisms of Ethylene, Propylene, and Vinylethylene Carbonates
    Vollmer, James M.; Curtiss, Larry A.; Vissers, Donald R.; Amine, Khalil
    Journal of the Electrochemical Society (2004), 151 (1), A178-A183CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
    Quantum chem. methods were used to study redn. mechanisms of ethylene carbonate (EC), propylene carbonate (PC), and vinylethylene carbonate (VEC), in electrolyte solns. The feasibility of direct 2-electron redn. of these species was assessed, and for VEC no barriers to the reactions were found for the formation of Li2CO3 and 1,4-butadiene. In contrast EC and PC have barriers to reactions of ∼0.5 eV. The ready formation of Li2CO3 when VEC is reduced may explain why it acts as a good passivating agent in Li-ion batteries.
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    Wang, Y. X.; Nakamura, S.; Ue, M.; Balbuena, P. B. Theoretical Studies to Understand Surface Chemistry on Carbon Anodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries: Reduction Mechanisms of Ethylene Carbonate. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 11708– 11718,  DOI: 10.1021/ja0164529
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    Theoretical studies to understand surface chemistry on carbon anodes for lithium-ion batteries: Reduction mechanisms of ethylene carbonate
    Wang, Yixuan; Nakamura, Shinichiro; Ue, Makoto; Balbuena, Perla B.
    Journal of the American Chemical Society (2001), 123 (47), 11708-11718CODEN: JACSAT; ISSN:0002-7863. (American Chemical Society)
    Reductive decompn. mechanisms for ethylene carbonate (EC) mol. in electrolyte solns. for lithium-ion batteries are comprehensively investigated by using d. functional theory. In gas phase the redn. of EC is thermodynamically forbidden, whereas in bulk solvent it is likely to undergo one- as well as two-electron redn. processes. The presence of Li cation considerably stabilizes the EC redn. intermediates. The adiabatic electron affinities of the supermol. Li+(EC)n (n = 1-4) successively decrease with the no. of EC mols., independently of EC or Li+ being reduced. Regarding the reductive decompn. mechanism, Li+(EC)n is initially reduced to an ion-pair intermediate that will undergo homolytic C-O bond cleavage via an approx. 11.0 kcal/mol barrier, bringing up a radical anion coordinated with Li+. Among the possible termination pathways of the radical anion, thermodynamically the most favorable is the formation of lithium butylene bicarbonate, (CH2CH2OCO2Li)2, followed by the formation of one O-Li bond compd. contg. an ester group, LiO(CH2)2CO2(CH2)2OCO2Li, then two very competitive reactions of the further redn. of the radical anion and the formation of lithium ethylene bicarbonate, (CH2OCO2Li)2, and the least favorable is the formation of a C-Li bond compd. (Li carbides), Li(CH2)2OCO2Li. The products show a weak EC concn. dependence as has also been revealed for the reactions of LiCO3- with Li+(EC)n; i.e., the formation of Li2CO3 is slightly more favorable at low EC concns., whereas (CH2OCO2Li)2 is favored at high EC concns. A two-electron redn. indeed takes place by a stepwise path. Regarding the compn. of the surface films resulting from solvent redn., for which expts. usually indicate that (CH2OCO2Li)2 is a dominant component, we conclude that they comprise two leading lithium alkyl bicarbonates, (CH2CH2OCO2Li)2 and (CH2OCO2Li)2, together with LiO(CH2)2CO2(CH2)2OCO2Li, Li(CH2)2OCO2Li and Li2CO3.
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    Leung, K. Electronic Structure Modeling of Electrochemical Reactions at Electrode/Electrolyte Interfaces in Lithium Ion Batteries. J. Phys. Chem. C 2013, 117, 1539– 1547,  DOI: 10.1021/jp308929a
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    Electronic Structure Modeling of Electrochemical Reactions at Electrode/Electrolyte Interfaces in Lithium Ion Batteries
    Leung, Kevin
    Journal of Physical Chemistry C (2013), 117 (4), 1539-1547CODEN: JPCCCK; ISSN:1932-7447. (American Chemical Society)
    A review of recent ab initio mol. dynamics studies of electrode/electrolyte interfaces in lithium-ion batteries. Our goals are to introduce experimentalists to simulation techniques applicable to models which are arguably most faithful to exptl. conditions so far, and to emphasize to theorists that the inherently interdisciplinary nature of this subject requires bridging the gap between solid and liq. state perspectives. We consider liq. ethylene carbonate decompn. on lithium intercalated graphite, lithium metal, oxide-coated graphite, and spinel manganese oxide surfaces. These calcns. are put in the context of more widely studied water-solid interfaces. Our main themes include kinetically controlled two-electron-induced reactions, the breaking of a previously much neglected chem. bond in ethylene carbonate, and electron tunneling. Future work on modeling batteries at at. length scales requires capabilities beyond state-of-the-art, which emphasizes that applied battery research can and should drive fundamental science development.
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  54. 54
    Chattopadhyay, S.; Lipson, A. L.; Karmel, H. J.; Emery, J. D.; Fister, T. T.; Fenter, P. A.; Hersam, M. C.; Bedzyk, M. J. In Situ X-ray Study of the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) Formation on Graphene as a Model Li-ion Battery Anode. Chem. Mater. 2012, 24, 3038– 3043,  DOI: 10.1021/cm301584r
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    54
    In Situ X-ray Study of the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) Formation on Graphene as a Model Li-ion Battery Anode
    Chattopadhyay, Sudeshna; Lipson, Albert L.; Karmel, Hunter J.; Emery, Jonathan D.; Fister, Timothy T.; Fenter, Paul A.; Hersam, Mark C.; Bedzyk, Michael J.
    Chemistry of Materials (2012), 24 (15), 3038-3043CODEN: CMATEX; ISSN:0897-4756. (American Chemical Society)
    The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) plays a crit. role in the performance and safety of Li-ion batteries, but the crystal structure of the materials formed have not been previously studied. The authors employ the model system of epitaxial graphene on SiC to provide a well-defined graphitic surface to study the crystallinity and texture formation in the SEI. The authors observe, via in situ synchrotron x-ray scattering, the formation and growth of LiF crystallites at the graphene surface, which increase in size with lithiation dose and are textured such that the LiF (002) planes are approx. parallel to the graphene sheets. Also, XPS reveals the compn. of the SEI formed in this system to consist of LiF and org. compds. similar to those found previously on graphite. SEI components, other than LiF, do not produce x-ray diffraction peaks and are categorized as amorphous. From high-resoln. TEM, the LiF crystallites are seen in near proximity to the graphene surface along with addnl. apparently amorphous material, which probably is other SEI components detected by XPS and/or misoriented LiF. This new understanding that LiF crystallites grow on the graphene surface with strong texturing will assist future efforts to model and engineer the SEI formed on graphitic materials.
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  55. 55
    Jiang, J. W.; Dahn, J. R. Effects of Solvents and Salts on the Thermal Stability of LiC6. Electrochim. Acta 2004, 49, 4599– 4604,  DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2004.05.014
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    Effects of solvents and salts on the thermal stability of LiC6
    Jiang, Junwei; Dahn, J. R.
    Electrochimica Acta (2004), 49 (26), 4599-4604CODEN: ELCAAV; ISSN:0013-4686. (Elsevier B.V.)
    Accelerating rate calorimetry (ARC) was used to study the thermal stability of Li0.81C6 in di-Me carbonate (DMC), di-Et carbonate (DEC), ethylene carbonate (EC), and an EC/DEC mixt., as well as in LiPF6- and LiBOB-based electrolytes. ARC results show that linear carbonates like DMC or DEC react strongly with Li0.81C6 and that robust passivating layers do not form. By contrast, the cyclic carbonate, EC, creates a robust passivating film that limits the rate of reaction between Li0.81C6 and EC as the temp. increases. X-ray diffraction shows that the addn. of LiPF6 to EC/DEC changes the surface film that forms on Li0.81C6 at elevated temp. to one dominated by LiF instead of lithium-alkyl carbonate or lithium carbonate. This increases the thermal stability of Li0.81C6 in LiPF6 electrolyte compared to pure EC/DEC solvent. By an apparently similar mechanism, the addn. of only 0.2 M LiBOB to EC/DEC greatly improves the thermal stability of Li0.81C6. ARC results for Li0.81C6 in pure and mixed salt LiPF6 and LiBOB EC/DEC electrolytes of various molarities shed light on the reasons for the beneficial effect of the salts.
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    Malmgren, S.; Ciosek, K.; Lindblad, R.; Plogmaker, S.; Kuhn, J.; Rensmo, H.; Edstrom, K.; Hahlin, M. Consequences of Air Exposure on the Lithiated Graphite SEI. Electrochim. Acta 2013, 105, 83– 91,  DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.04.118
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    56
    Consequences of air exposure on the lithiated graphite SEI
    Malmgren, Sara; Ciosek, Katarzyna; Lindblad, Rebecka; Plogmaker, Stefan; Kuhn, Julius; Rensmo, Haakan; Edstroem, Kristina; Hahlin, Maria
    Electrochimica Acta (2013), 105 (), 83-91CODEN: ELCAAV; ISSN:0013-4686. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Consequences of air exposure on the surface compn. of one of the most reactive Li-ion battery components, the lithiated graphite, was studied using 280-835 eV soft XPS (SOXPES) as well as 1486.7 eV XPS (∼2 and ∼10 nm probing depth, resp.). Different depth regions of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) of graphite cycled vs. LiFePO4 were thereby examd. Also, the air sensitivity of samples subject to four different combinations of pre-treatments (washed/unwashed and exposed to air before or after vacuum treatment) was explored. The samples showed important changes after exposure to air, which are largely dependent on sample pre-treatment. Changes after exposure of unwashed samples exposed before vacuum treatment were attributed to reactions involving volatile species. On washed, air exposed samples, as well as unwashed samples exposed after vacuum treatment, effects attributed to LiOH formation in the innermost SEI were obsd. and suggested to be assocd. with partial delithiation of the surface region of the lithiated graphite electrode. Also, effects that can be attributed to LiPF6 decompn. were obsd. However, these effects were less pronounced than those attributed to reactions involving solvent species and the lithiated graphite.
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    Gauthier, M.; Carney, T. J.; Grimaud, A.; Giordano, L.; Pour, N.; Chang, H.-H.; Fenning, D. P.; Lux, S. F.; Paschos, O.; Bauer, C.; Maglia, F.; Lupart, S.; Lamp, P.; Shao-Horn, Y. Electrode-Electrolyte Interface in Li-Ion Batteries: Current Understanding and New Insights. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2015, 6, 4653– 4672,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.5b01727
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    57
    Electrode-Electrolyte Interface in Li-Ion Batteries: Current Understanding and New Insights
    Gauthier, Magali; Carney, Thomas J.; Grimaud, Alexis; Giordano, Livia; Pour, Nir; Chang, Hao-Hsun; Fenning, David P.; Lux, Simon F.; Paschos, Odysseas; Bauer, Christoph; Maglia, Filippo; Lupart, Saskia; Lamp, Peter; Shao-Horn, Yang
    Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters (2015), 6 (22), 4653-4672CODEN: JPCLCD; ISSN:1948-7185. (American Chemical Society)
    A review. Understanding reactions at the electrode/electrolyte interface (EEI) is essential to developing strategies to enhance cycle life and safety of lithium batteries. Despite research in the past four decades, there is still limited understanding by what means different components are formed at the EEI and how they affect EEI layer properties. Findings used to establish the well-known mosaic structure model are reviewed for the EEI (often referred to as solid electrolyte interphase or SEI) on neg. electrodes including lithium, graphite, tin, and silicon. Much less understanding exists for EEI layers for pos. electrodes. High-capacity Li-rich layered oxides yLi2-xMnO3·(1-y)Li1-xMO2, which can generate highly reactive species toward the electrolyte via oxygen anion redox, highlight the crit. need to understand reactions with the electrolyte and EEI layers for advanced pos. electrodes. Recent advances in in situ characterization of well-defined electrode surfaces can provide mechanistic insights and strategies to tailor EEI layer compn. and properties.
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  58. 58
    Yu, Y.; Karayaylali, P.; Katayama, Y.; Giordano, L.; Gauthier, M.; Maglia, F.; Jung, R.; Lund, I.; Shao-Horn, Y. Coupled LiPF6 Decomposition and Carbonate Dehydrogenation Enhanced by Highly Covalent Metal Oxides in High-Energy Li-Ion Batteries. J. Phys. Chem. C 2018, 122, 27368– 27382,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.8b07848
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    Coupled LiPF6 Decomposition and Carbonate Dehydrogenation Enhanced by Highly Covalent Metal Oxides in High-Energy Li-Ion Batteries
    Yu, Yang; Karayaylali, Pinar; Katayama, Yu; Giordano, Livia; Gauthier, Magali; Maglia, Filippo; Jung, Roland; Lund, Isaac; Shao-Horn, Yang
    Journal of Physical Chemistry C (2018), 122 (48), 27368-27382CODEN: JPCCCK; ISSN:1932-7447. (American Chemical Society)
    The (electro)chem. reactions between pos. electrodes and electrolytes are not well understood. The oxidn. is examd. of a LiPF6-based electrolyte with ethylene carbonate (EC) with layered lithium nickel, manganese, and cobalt oxides (NMC). D. functional theory calcns. showed that the driving force for EC dehydrogenation on oxides, yielding surface protic species, increased with greater Ni content in NMC. Ex situ IR and Raman spectroscopy revealed exptl. evidence for EC dehydrogenation on charged NMC surfaces. Protic species on charged NMC surfaces from EC dehydrogenation could further react with LiPF6 to generate less-coordinated F species such as PF3O-like and lithium nickel oxyfluoride species on charged NMC particles and HF and PF2O2- in the electrolyte. Larger degree of salt decompn. was coupled with increasing EC dehydrogenation on charged NMC with increasing Ni or lithium deintercalation. An oxide-mediated chem. oxidn. of electrolytes was proposed, providing new insights in stabilizing high-energy pos. electrodes and improving Li-ion battery cycle life.
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    Giordano, L.; Karayaylali, P.; Yu, Y.; Katayama, Y.; Maglia, F.; Lux, S.; Shao-Horn, Y. Chemical Reactivity Descriptor for the Oxide-Electrolyte Interface in Li-Ion Batteries. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2017, 8, 3881– 3887,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.7b01655
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    Chemical Reactivity Descriptor for the Oxide-Electrolyte Interface in Li-Ion Batteries
    Giordano, Livia; Karayaylali, Pinar; Yu, Yang; Katayama, Yu; Maglia, Filippo; Lux, Simon; Shao-Horn, Yang
    Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters (2017), 8 (16), 3881-3887CODEN: JPCLCD; ISSN:1948-7185. (American Chemical Society)
    Understanding electrochem. and chem. reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interface is of fundamental importance for the safety and cycle life of Li-ion batteries. Pos. electrode materials such as layered transition metal oxides exhibit different degrees of chem. reactivity with commonly used carbonate-based electrolytes. Here we employed d. functional theory methods to compare the energetics of four different chem. reactions between ethylene carbonate (EC) and layered (LixMO2) and rocksalt (MO) oxide surfaces. EC dissocn. on layered oxides was found energetically more favorable than nucleophilic attack, electrophilic attack, and EC dissocn. with oxygen extn. from the oxide surface. In addn., EC dissocn. became energetically more favorable on the oxide surfaces with transition metal ions from left to right on the periodic table or by increasing transition metal valence in the oxides, where higher degree of EC dissocn. was found as the Fermi level was lowered into the oxide O 2p band.
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    Wandt, J.; Freiberg, A. T. S.; Ogrodnik, A.; Gasteiger, H. A. Singlet Oxygen Evolution from Layered Transition Metal Oxide Cathode Materials and Its Implications for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Mater. Today 2018, 21, 825– 833,  DOI: 10.1016/j.mattod.2018.03.037
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    Singlet oxygen evolution from layered transition metal oxide cathode materials and its implications for lithium-ion batteries
    Wandt, Johannes; Freiberg, Anna T. S.; Ogrodnik, Alexander; Gasteiger, Hubert A.
    Materials Today (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2018), 21 (8), 825-833CODEN: MTOUAN; ISSN:1369-7021. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    For achieving higher energy d. lithium-ion batteries, the improvement of cathode active materials is crucial. The most promising cathode materials are nickel-rich layered oxides LiNixCoyMnzO2 (NCM) and over lithiated NCM (often called HE-NCM). Unfortunately, the full capacity of NCM cannot be utilized due to its limited cycle-life at high state-of-charge (SOC), while HE-NCM requires high voltages. By operando emission spectroscopy, we show for the first time that highly reactive singlet oxygen is released when charging NCM and HE-NCM to an SOC beyond ≈80%. In addn., online mass-spectrometry reveals the evolution of CO and CO2 once singlet oxygen is detected, providing significant evidence for the reaction between singlet oxygen and electrolyte to be a chem. reaction. It is controlled by the SOC rather than by potential, as would be the case for a purely electrochem. electrolyte oxidn. Singlet oxygen formation therefore imposes a severe challenge to the development of high-energy batteries based on layered oxide cathodes, shifting the focus of research from electrochem. stable 5 V-electrolytes to chem. stability toward singlet oxygen.
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    Gauthier, M.; Karayaylali, P.; Giordano, L.; Feng, S. T.; Lux, S. F.; Maglia, F.; Lamp, P.; Shao-Horn, Y. Probing Surface Chemistry Changes Using LiCoO2-Only Electrodes in Li-Ion Batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2018, 165, A1377– A1387,  DOI: 10.1149/2.0431807jes
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    Probing Surface Chemistry Changes Using LiCoO2-only Electrodes in Li-Ion Batteries
    Gauthier, Magali; Karayaylali, Pinar; Giordano, Livia; Feng, Shuting; Lux, Simon F.; Maglia, Filippo; Lamp, Peter; Shao-Horn, Yang
    Journal of the Electrochemical Society (2018), 165 (7), A1377-A1387CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
    Fundamental understanding of the reactivity between electrode and electrolyte is key to design and life of Li-ion batteries. Herein XPS was used to examine the electrode/electrolyte interface (EEI) on carbon-free, binder-free LiCoO2 powder and thin-film electrodes in LP57 electrolyte as function of potential. Upon charging of LiCoO2 a marked growth of oxygenated and carbonated species was obsd. on the surface, consistent with electrolyte oxidn. at high potentials. We also demonstrated that LiCoO2 oxide surface was prone to decomp. the salt starting at 4.1 VLi, as evidenced by the increase of LiF and LixPFyOz species upon charging. By DFT calcns. we proposed a correlation between the interface compn. and the thermodn. tendency of the EC solvent for dissociative adsorption on the LixCoO2 surface, through the generation of reactive acidic OH groups on the oxide surface, which can have a role in the obsd. salt decompn. This is consistent with the evidence of HF and PF2O2- species at 4.6 VLi obsd. by soln. 19F-NMR measurements. Finally we compared EEI compn. between composite and model electrodes and discussed the changes and mechanisms induced by the electrode compn. or the use of electrolyte additives. We showed that the addn. of di-Ph carbonate (DPC) in the electrolyte has a strong impact on the formation of solvent and salt decompn. products at the EEI layer.
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    Gueguen, A.; Streich, D.; He, M. L.; Mendez, M.; Chesneau, F. F.; Novak, P.; Berg, E. J. Decomposition of LiPF6 in High Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries Studied with Online Electrochemical Mass Spectrometry. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2016, 163, A1095– A1100,  DOI: 10.1149/2.0981606jes
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    Bar-Tow, D.; Peled, E.; Burstein, L. A Study of Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite as a Model for the Graphite Anode in Li-Ion Batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1999, 146, 824– 832,  DOI: 10.1149/1.1391688
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    A study of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite as a model for the graphite anode in Li-ion batteries
    Bar-Tow, D.; Peled, E.; Burstein, L.
    Journal of the Electrochemical Society (1999), 146 (3), 824-832CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
    The mechanisms of oxidn. of the basal plane and of the cross-sectional face of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) and the formation of a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on HOPG samples that were cycled in ethylene carbonate:diethyl carbonate (EC:DEC 1:2) solns. contg. 1M LiAsF6 were studied. XPS, energy dispersive spectrometry, and scanning electron microscope techniques were used for the anal. of the surface layer formed on the basal plane and cross section of HOPG. The anal. indicates that the oxidn. mechanisms of the basal plane and the cross section are entirely different. The SEI formed in the LiAsF6 soln. is thinner on the basal plane than on the cross section and its compn. is different. The SEI formed on the cross section is rich in inorg. compds. whereas the SEI formed on the basal plane is rich in org. compds. Thus it can be concluded that on the basal plane, the greatest contribution to SEI formation is solvent redn. (EC and DEC), whereas on the cross-sectional face, it is electrolyte salt (LiAsF6) redn.
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    Eshkenazi, V.; Peled, E.; Burstein, L.; Golodnitsky, D. XPS Analysis of the SEI Formed on Carbonaceous Materials. Solid State Ionics 2004, 170, 83– 91,  DOI: 10.1016/S0167-2738(03)00107-3
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    XPS analysis of the SEI formed on carbonaceous materials
    Eshkenazi, V.; Peled, E.; Burstein, L.; Golodnitsky, D.
    Solid State Ionics (2004), 170 (1-2), 83-91CODEN: SSIOD3; ISSN:0167-2738. (Elsevier Science B.V.)
    Two carbonaceous materials were produced by chem. vapor deposition of ethylene and by pyrolysis of dehydrated sucrose. Electrochem. cells assembled from these materials and metallic Li were cycled between 0.00 and 2.00 V vs. Li/Li+ in ethylene carbonate/diethylcarbonate electrolytes contg. LiPF6 or LiAsF6. The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formed on the carbons was characterized by XPS. We suggest that the carbon matrix has a more marked effect on the compn. and thickness of the SEI than does the nature of the electrolyte. The SEI formed on graphite-like soft carbon in both electrolytes proved to be carbonate-free, its inorg. part consisting almost exclusively of LiF, while the SEI formed on hard (non-graphitizable) carbon was found to be considerably thicker and contained, in addn., phosphorus and arsenic compds. In the bulk SEI, polymer structures (i.e., solvent-polymn. products) were abundant in all cases, while carbonates were found only on hard carbon in the presence of LiAsF6.
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    Peled, E.; Bar Tow, D.; Merson, A.; Gladkich, A.; Burstein, L.; Golodnitsky, D. Composition, Depth Profiles and Lateral Distribution of Materials in the SEI Built on HOPG-TOF SIMS and XPS Studies. J. Power Sources 2001, 97-98, 52– 57,  DOI: 10.1016/S0378-7753(01)00505-5
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    Composition, depth profiles and lateral distribution of materials in the SEI built on HOPG-TOF SIMS and XPS studies
    Peled, E.; Bar Tow, D.; Merson, A.; Gladkich, A.; Burstein, L.; Golodnitsky, D.
    Journal of Power Sources (2001), 97-98 (), 52-57CODEN: JPSODZ; ISSN:0378-7753. (Elsevier Science S.A.)
    The importance to study sep. the compn. and properties of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on basal and cross-section planes of graphite particles is demonstrated. The lateral distribution of SEI forming compds. at submicron resoln. is presented for the first time. Li and F are the main constituents of the SEI cross-section. The SEI on the soln.-side surface of the basal plane contains much more org. materials than that of the cross-section one. The SEI on the HOPG can be described as non-homogeneous. The SEI cross-section is dominated by Li and F, with one to several dozen micron-sized regions where Li and F are almost absent. The distribution of C2H (and other CxHy-based fragments), O, C2H3O2 (59), and C2H3O (43), shows full coverage and is fairly homogeneous. The true lateral size of the microphases is about 1 μm. TOF SIMS measurements provide direct evidence for the existence of polymers in the basal SEI.
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    Funabiki, A.; Inaba, M.; Ogumi, Z. AC Impedance Analysis of Electrochemical Lithium Intercalation into Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite. J. Power Sources 1997, 68, 227– 231,  DOI: 10.1016/S0378-7753(96)02556-6
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    A.c. impedance analysis of electrochemical lithium intercalation into highly oriented pyrolytic graphite
    Funabiki, Atsushi; Inaba, Minoru; Ogumi, Zempachi
    Journal of Power Sources (1997), 68 (2), 227-231CODEN: JPSODZ; ISSN:0378-7753. (Elsevier Science S.A.)
    Electrochem. lithium intercalation into graphite was studied by cyclic voltammetry and a.c. impedance spectroscopy. Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite was used as a model graphite material to distinguish the difference in electrochem. behavior between the basal and the edge planes at graphite. A comparison between cyclic voltammograms of the basal plane and the whole surface of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite revealed that electrochem. lithium intercalation proceeds predominantly at the edge plane/electrolyte interface. The charge-transfer resistance changed continuously with electrode potential, and no significant change was obsd. at stage transition potentials (210, 120, and 90 mV vs. Li/Li+). From the variations of the Warburg impedance of samples of different sizes, it was concluded that lithium diffuses from the edge plane to the interior in the direction parallel to the basal plane and that its diffusivity changes with the stage structure of the bulk lithium-graphite intercalation compd.
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    Banks, C. E.; Davies, T. J.; Wildgoose, G. G.; Compton, R. G. Electrocatalysis at Graphite and Carbon Nanotube Modified Electrodes: Edge-Plane Sites and Tube Ends are the Reactive Sites. Chem. Commun. 2005, 829– 841,  DOI: 10.1039/b413177k
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    Electrocatalysis at graphite and carbon nanotube modified electrodes: edge-plane sites and tube ends are the reactive sites
    Banks, Craig E.; Davies, Trevor J.; Wildgoose, Gregory G.; Compton, Richard G.
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    A review. Carbon, and particularly graphite in its various forms, is an attractive electrode material. Two areas of particular interest are modified C electrodes and C nanotube electrodes. The authors focus on the relation between surface structure and electrochem. and chem. reactivity of electrodes based on these materials. The authors overview recent work in this area which led one to believe that much of the catalytic activity, electron transfer and chem. reactivity of graphitic C electrodes is at surface defect sites, and in particular edge-plane-like defect sites. The authors also question the claimed special catalytic properties of C nanotube modified electrodes.
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    McCreery, R. L. Advanced Carbon Electrode Materials for Molecular Electrochemistry. Chem. Rev. 2008, 108, 2646– 2687,  DOI: 10.1021/cr068076m
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    Advanced Carbon Electrode Materials for Molecular Electrochemistry
    McCreery, Richard L.
    Chemical Reviews (Washington, DC, United States) (2008), 108 (7), 2646-2687CODEN: CHREAY; ISSN:0009-2665. (American Chemical Society)
    A review. The properties of C are described and how these properties relate electrochem. properties, including electrode kinetics, adsorption and electrocatalysis. Fabrication and novel aspects are described for carbon materials, including, boron-doped diamond, carbon nanotubes, vapor deposited carbon films and various composite electrodes. Carbon electrode material for org. and biol. redox reactions are cited.
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    Okubo, M.; Yamada, A. Molecular Orbital Principles of Oxygen-Redox Battery Electrodes. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 36463– 36472,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b09835
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    Molecular Orbital Principles of Oxygen-Redox Battery Electrodes
    Okubo, Masashi; Yamada, Atsuo
    ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2017), 9 (42), 36463-36472CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)
    A review. Li-ion batteries are key energy-storage devices for a sustainable society. The most widely used pos. electrode materials are LiMO2 (M: transition metal), in which a redox reaction of M occurs in assocn. with Li+ (de)intercalation. Recent developments of Li-excess transition-metal oxides, which deliver a large capacity of >200 mA-h/g using an extra redox reaction of O, introduce new possibilities for designing higher energy d. Li-ion batteries. For better engineering using this fascinating new chem., it is necessary to achieve a full understanding of the reaction mechanism by gaining knowledge on the chem. state of O. A summary of the recent advances in O-redox battery electrodes is provided, followed by a systematic demonstration of the overall electronic structures based on MOs with a focus on the local coordination environment around O. A π-type MO plays an important role in stabilizing the oxidized O that emerges upon the charging process. MO principles are convenient for an at.-level understanding of how reversible O-redox reactions occur in bulk, providing a solid foundation toward improved O-redox pos. electrode materials for high energy-d. batteries.
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    Lee, J.; Kim, J.; Park, S.; Kim, D. Design Picture in Enabling Reversible Oxygen Capacity for O-Type Na 3d Layered Oxides. Energy Storage Materials 2023, 54, 330– 338,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ensm.2022.10.041
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    Assat, G.; Tarascon, J. M. Fundamental Understanding and Practical Challenges of Anionic Redox Activity in Li-Ion Batteries. Nat. Energy 2018, 3, 373– 386,  DOI: 10.1038/s41560-018-0097-0
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    Fundamental understanding and practical challenges of anionic redox activity in Li-ion batteries
    Assat, Gaurav; Tarascon, Jean-Marie
    Nature Energy (2018), 3 (5), 373-386CODEN: NEANFD; ISSN:2058-7546. (Nature Research)
    A review. Our increasing dependence on lithium-ion batteries for energy storage calls for continual improvements in the performance of their pos. electrodes, which have so far relied solely on cationic redox of transition-metal ions for driving the electrochem. reactions. Great hopes have recently been placed on the emergence of anionic redox-a transformational approach for designing pos. electrodes as it leads to a near-doubling of capacity. But questions have been raised about the fundamental origins of anionic redox and whether its full potential can be realized in applications. In this Review, we discuss the underlying science that triggers a reversible and stable anionic redox activity. Furthermore, we highlight its practical limitations and outline possible approaches for improving such materials and designing new ones. We also summarize their chances for market implementation in the face of the competing nickel-based layered cathodes that are prevalent today.
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    Zaanen, J.; Sawatzky, G. A.; Allen, J. W. Band-Gaps and Electronic-Structure of Transition-Metal Compounds. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1985, 55, 418– 421,  DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.55.418
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    Band gaps and electronic structure of transition-metal compounds
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    Physical Review Letters (1985), 55 (4), 418-21CODEN: PRLTAO; ISSN:0031-9007.
    A new theory is presented for describing band gaps and electronic structures of transition-metal compds. A theor. phase diagram is presented in which both the metallic sulfides and insulating oxides and halides occur in a quite natural manner.
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    Grimaud, A.; Hong, W. T.; Shao-Horn, Y.; Tarascon, J. M. Anionic Redox Processes for Electrochemical Devices. Nat. Mater. 2016, 15, 121– 126,  DOI: 10.1038/nmat4551
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    Anionic redox processes for electrochemical devices
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    Nature Materials (2016), 15 (2), 121-126CODEN: NMAACR; ISSN:1476-1122. (Nature Publishing Group)
    Understanding and controlling anionic redox processes is pivotal for the design of new Li-ion battery and water-splitting materials. Processes in insertion oxide electrodes, processes in oxygen electrocatalysts, and extension of metal-ligand reasoning are discussed.
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    Sathiya, M.; Rousse, G.; Ramesha, K.; Laisa, C. P.; Vezin, H.; Sougrati, M. T.; Doublet, M. L.; Foix, D.; Gonbeau, D.; Walker, W.; Prakash, A. S.; Ben Hassine, M.; Dupont, L.; Tarascon, J. M. Reversible Anionic Redox Chemistry in High-Capacity Layered-Oxide Electrodes. Nat. Mater. 2013, 12, 827– 835,  DOI: 10.1038/nmat3699
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    Reversible anionic redox chemistry in high-capacity layered-oxide electrodes
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    Nature Materials (2013), 12 (9), 827-835CODEN: NMAACR; ISSN:1476-1122. (Nature Publishing Group)
    Li-ion batteries have contributed to the com. success of portable electronics and may soon dominate the elec. transportation market provided that major scientific advances including new materials and concepts are developed. Classical pos. electrodes for Li-ion technol. operate mainly through an insertion-deinsertion redox process involving cationic species. However, this mechanism is insufficient to account for the high capacities exhibited by the new generation of Li-rich (Li1+xNiyCozMn(1-x-y-z)O2) layered oxides that present unusual Li reactivity. In an attempt to overcome both the inherent compn. and the structural complexity of this class of oxides, we have designed structurally related Li2Ru1-ySnyO3 materials that have a single redox cation and exhibit sustainable reversible capacities as high as 230 mA h g-1. Moreover, they present good cycling behavior with no signs of voltage decay and a small irreversible capacity. We also unambiguously show, on the basis of an arsenal of characterization techniques, that the reactivity of these high-capacity materials towards Li entails cumulative cationic (Mn+→M(n+1)+) and anionic (O2-→O22-) reversible redox processes, owing to the d-sp hybridization assocd. with a reductive coupling mechanism. Because Li2MO3 is a large family of compds., this study opens the door to the exploration of a vast no. of high-capacity materials.
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    Saubanere, M.; McCalla, E.; Tarascon, J. M.; Doublet, M. L. The Intriguing Question of Anionic Redox in High-Energy Density Cathodes for Li-Ion Batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 2016, 9, 984– 991,  DOI: 10.1039/C5EE03048J
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    The intriguing question of anionic redox in high-energy density cathodes for Li-ion batteries
    Saubanere, M.; McCalla, E.; Tarascon, J.-M.; Doublet, M.-L.
    Energy & Environmental Science (2016), 9 (3), 984-991CODEN: EESNBY; ISSN:1754-5706. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
    The energy d. delivered by a Li-ion battery is a key parameter that needs to be significantly increased to address the global question of energy storage for the next 40 years. This quantity is directly proportional to the battery voltage (V) and the battery capacity (C) which are difficult to improve simultaneously when materials exhibit classical cationic redox activity. Recently, a cumulative cationic (M4+/M5+) and anionic (2O2-/(O2)n-) redox activity has been demonstrated in the Li-rich Li2MO3 family of compds., therefore enabling doubling of the energy d. with respect to high-potential cathodes such as transition metal phosphates and sulfates. This paper aims to clarify the origin of this extra capacity by addressing some fundamental questions regarding reversible anionic redox in high-potential electrodes for Li-ion batteries. First, the ability of the system to stabilize the oxygen holes generated by Li-removal and to achieve a reversible oxo- to peroxo-like (2O2-/(O2)n-) transformation is elucidated by means of a metal-driven reductive coupling mechanism. The penchant of the system for undergoing this reversible anionic redox or releasing O2 gas is then discussed with regards to exptl. results for 3d- and 4d-based Li2MO3 phases. Finally, robust indicators are built as tools to predict which materials in the Li-rich TM-oxide family will undergo efficient and reversible anionic redox. The present finding provides insights into new directions to be explored for the development of high-energy d. materials for Li-ion batteries.
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    McCalla, E.; Abakumov, A. M.; Saubanere, M.; Foix, D.; Berg, E. J.; Rousse, G.; Doublet, M. L.; Gonbeau, D.; Novak, P.; Van Tendeloo, G.; Dominko, R.; Tarascon, J. M. Visualization of O-O Peroxo-Like Dimers in High-Capacity Layered Oxides for Li-Ion Batteries. Science 2015, 350, 1516– 1521,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aac8260
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    Visualization of O-O peroxo-like dimers in high-capacity layered oxides for Li-ion batteries
    McCalla, Eric; Abakumov, Artem M.; Saubanere, Matthieu; Foix, Dominique; Berg, Erik J.; Rousse, Gwenaelle; Doublet, Marie-Liesse; Gonbeau, Danielle; Novak, Petr; Van Tendeloo, Gustaaf; Dominko, Robert; Tarascon, Jean-Marie
    Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2015), 350 (6267), 1516-1521CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
    Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries that rely on cationic redox reactions are the primary energy source for portable electronics. One pathway toward greater energy d. is through the use of Li-rich layered oxides. The capacity of this class of materials (>270 mA hours per g) has been shown to be nested in anionic redox reactions, which are thought to form peroxo-like species. However, the oxygen-oxygen (O-O) bonding pattern has not been obsd. in previous studies, nor has there been a satisfactory explanation for the irreversible changes that occur during first delithiation. By using Li2IrO3 as a model compd., we visualize the O-O dimers via transmission electron microscopy and neutron diffraction. Our findings establish the fundamental relation between the anionic redox process and the evolution of the O-O bonding in layered oxides.
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    Pearce, P. E.; Perez, A. J.; Rousse, G.; Saubanere, M.; Batuk, D.; Foix, D.; McCalla, E.; Abakumov, A. M.; Van Tendeloo, G.; Doublet, M. L.; Tarascon, J. M. Evidence for Anionic Redox Activity in a Tridimensional-Ordered Li-Rich Positive Electrode Beta-Li2IrO3. Nat. Mater. 2017, 16, 580,  DOI: 10.1038/nmat4864
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    Evidence for anionic redox activity in a tridimensional-ordered Li-rich positive electrode β-Li2IrO3
    Pearce, Paul E.; Perez, Arnaud J.; Rousse, Gwenaelle; Saubanere, Mathieu; Batuk, Dmitry; Foix, Dominique; McCalla, Eric; Abakumov, Artem M.; Van Tendeloo, Gustaaf; Doublet, Marie-Liesse; Tarascon, Jean-Marie
    Nature Materials (2017), 16 (5), 580-586CODEN: NMAACR; ISSN:1476-1122. (Nature Publishing Group)
    Lithium-ion battery cathode materials have relied on cationic redox reactions until the recent discovery of anionic redox activity in Li-rich layered compds. which enables capacities as high as 300 mAh g-1. In the quest for new high-capacity electrodes with anionic redox, a still unanswered question was remaining regarding the importance of the structural dimensionality. The present manuscript provides an answer. We herein report on a β-Li2IrO3 phase which, in spite of having the Ir arranged in a tridimensional (3D) framework instead of the typical two-dimensional (2D) layers seen in other Li-rich oxides, can reversibly exchange 2.5 e- per Ir, the highest value ever reported for any insertion reaction involving d-metals. We show that such a large activity results from joint reversible cationic (Mn+) and anionic (O2)n- redox processes, the latter being visualized via complementary transmission electron microscopy and neutron diffraction expts., and confirmed by d. functional theory calcns. Moreover, β-Li2IrO3 presents a good cycling behavior while showing neither cationic migration nor shearing of at. layers as seen in 2D-layered Li-rich materials. Remarkably, the anionic redox process occurs jointly with the oxidn. of Ir4+ at potentials as low as 3.4 V vs. Li+/Li0, as equivalently obsd. in the layered α-Li2IrO3 polymorph. Theor. calcns. elucidate the electrochem. similarities and differences of the 3D vs. 2D polymorphs in terms of structural, electronic and mech. descriptors. Our findings free the structural dimensionality constraint and broaden the possibilities in designing high-energy-d. electrodes for the next generation of Li-ion batteries.
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    Assat, G.; Iadecola, A.; Delacourt, C.; Dedryvere, R.; Tarascon, J. M. Decoupling Cationic-Anionic Redox Processes in a Model Li-Rich Cathode via Operando X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy. Chem. Mater. 2017, 29, 9714– 9724,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b03434
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    Decoupling Cationic-Anionic Redox Processes in a Model Li-Rich Cathode via Operando X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy
    Assat, Gaurav; Iadecola, Antonella; Delacourt, Charles; Dedryvere, Remi; Tarascon, Jean-Marie
    Chemistry of Materials (2017), 29 (22), 9714-9724CODEN: CMATEX; ISSN:0897-4756. (American Chemical Society)
    The demonstration of reversible anionic redox in Li-rich layered oxides has revitalized the search for higher energy battery cathodes. To advance the fundamentals of this promising mechanism, we investigate herein the cationic-anionic redox processes in Li2Ru0.75Sn0.25O3-a model Li-rich layered cathode in which Ru (cationic) and O (anionic) are the only redox-active sites. We reveal its charge compensation mechanism and local structural evolutions by applying operando (and complementary ex situ) X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). Among other local effects, the anionic-oxidn.-driven distortion of the oxygen network around Ru atoms is thereby visualized. Oxidn. of lattice oxygen is also directly proven via hard XPS (HAXPES). Furthermore, we demonstrate a spectroscopy-driven visualization of electrochem. reaction paths, which enabled us to neatly decouple the individual cationic-anionic dQ/dV contributions during cycling. We hence establish the redox and structural origins of all dQ/dV features and demonstrate the vital role of anionic redox in hysteresis and kinetics. These fundamental insights about Li-rich systems are crucial for improving the existing anionic-redox-based cathodes and evaluating the ones being discovered rapidly.
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    Li, B. A.; Shao, R. W.; Yan, H. J.; An, L.; Zhang, B.; Wei, H.; Ma, J.; Xia, D. G.; Han, X. D. Understanding the Stability for Li-Rich Layered Oxide Li2RuO3 Cathode. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2016, 26, 1330– 1337,  DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201504836
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    Understanding the Stability for Li-Rich Layered Oxide Li2RuO3 Cathode
    Li, Biao; Shao, Ruiwen; Yan, Huijun; An, Li; Zhang, Bin; Wei, Hang; Ma, Jin; Xia, Dingguo; Han, Xiaodong
    Advanced Functional Materials (2016), 26 (9), 1330-1337CODEN: AFMDC6; ISSN:1616-301X. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
    Lithium-rich layered oxides are considered as promising cathode materials for Li-ion batteries with high energy d. due to their higher capacity as compared with the conventional LiMO2 (e.g., LiCoO2, LiNiO2, and LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2) layered oxides. However, why lithium-rich layered oxides exhibit high capacities without undergoing a structural collapse for a certain no. of cycles has attracted limited attention. Here, based on the model of Li2RuO3, it is uncovered that the mechanism responsible for the structural integrity shown by lithium-rich layered oxides is realized by the flexible local structure due to the presence of lithium atoms in the transition metal layer, which favors the formation of O22--like species, with the aid of in situ extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS), in situ energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), and d. functional theory (DFT) calcn. This finding will open new scope for the development of high-capacity layered electrodes.
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    Liu, X. X.; Tan, Y. C.; Wang, W. Y.; Li, C. H.; Seh, Z. W.; Wang, L.; Sun, Y. M. Conformal Prelithiation Nanoshell on LiCoO2 Enabling High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries. Nano Lett. 2020, 20, 4558– 4565,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c01413
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    Conformal Prelithiation Nanoshell on LiCoO2 Enabling High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries
    Liu, Xiaoxiao; Tan, Yuchen; Wang, Wenyu; Li, Chunhao; Seh, Zhi Wei; Wang, Li; Sun, Yongming
    Nano Letters (2020), 20 (6), 4558-4565CODEN: NALEFD; ISSN:1530-6984. (American Chemical Society)
    The initial lithium loss in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) reduces their energy d. (e.g., ≥ 15% for LIBs using a Si-based anode). Herein, in situ chem. formation is reported of a conformal Li2O/Co nanoshell (∼ 20 nm) on LiCoO2 particles as a high-capacity built-in prelithiation reagent to compensate this initial lithium loss. A 15 mAh g-1 increase is shown in overall charge capacity for the LiCoO2 with 1.5 wt. % Li2O/Co in comparison to the pristine LiCoO2 in virtue of the irreversible lithium extn. from the nanoshell (4Li2O + 3Co → 8Li+ + 8e- + Co3O4, 2Li2O → 4Li+ + 4e- + O2↑). Paired with a graphite-SiO anode, a full cell using such a LiCoO2 cathode demonstrates > 11% discharge capacity (2.60 mAh cm-2) than that using pristine LiCoO2 (2.34 mAh cm-2) at 0.1 C, as well as stable battery cycling. Moreover, the prelithiated LiCoO2 is compatible with the current battery fabrication process.
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    Noh, M.; Cho, J. Role of Li6CoO4 Cathode Additive in Li-Ion Cells Containing Low Coulombic Efficiency Anode Material. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2012, 159, A1329– A1334,  DOI: 10.1149/2.085208jes
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    Role of Li6CoO4 cathode additive in Li-ion cells containing low coulombic efficiency anode material
    Noh, Mijung; Cho, Jaephil
    Journal of the Electrochemical Society (2012), 159 (8), A1329-A1334CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
    Li6CoO4 with an anti-fluorite structure was proposed and studied as a cathode additive for a Li-ion battery consisting of LiCoO2 ( LCO) cathode and Si-SiOx (SiOx) anodes. In situ XRD and TEM, combined with XPS revealed that Li6CoO4 was decompd. to electrochem. inactive phases such as Li6-xCoO4 and Li2O and CoO2 during the first cycle. Due to this effect, Li6CoO4 showed the first charge and discharge capacities of 318 and 13 mAhg-1, resp. between 4.4 V and 1.0 V, showing an irreversible capacity ratio of 96%. Because of such a high irreversible capacity, the additive could effectively compensate for the irreversible capacity of the Li-ion cell consisting of LCO cathode and SiOx anode with a high irreversible capacity ratio of 57%. The first discharge capacity of a balanced full cell with LCO/SiOx without an additive was 77 mAh/g. However, when the Li6CoO4 cathode additive was optimized to 15 wt% in the LCO composite in the same cell as above, the first discharge capacity was 133 mAh/g.
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    Park, H.; Yoon, T.; Kim, Y. U.; Ryu, J. H.; Oh, S. M. Li2NiO2 as a Sacrificing Positive Additive for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Electrochim. Acta 2013, 108, 591– 595,  DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.06.117
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    Li2NiO2 as a sacrificing positive additive for lithium-ion batteries
    Park, Hosang; Yoon, Taeho; Kim, Young-Ugk; Ryu, Ji Heon; Oh, Seung M.
    Electrochimica Acta (2013), 108 (), 591-595CODEN: ELCAAV; ISSN:0013-4686. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    This work addresses the electrochem. performances of an over-lithiated Li Ni oxide (Li2NiO2) as a sacrificing pos. additive for Li-ion batteries. Li2NiO2 decomps. along with a cryst. to amorphous phase transition at 3.5 V (vs. Li/Li+) in the 1st charging period, which is far below the charging potential of common pos. electrodes (for instance, ∼4.0 V for LiCoO2). The decompd. amorphous phases then deliver a de-lithiation capacity up to >300 mAh g-1 in the 1st charging. The combined feature of easy decompn. and large 1st de-lithiation capacity demonstrates that Li2NiO2 is a promising pos. additive to provide the elec. charges/Li+ ions for the charge compensation on neg. electrodes. This over-lithiated Li Ni oxide delivers a reversible capacity amounting to 70-90 mAh g-1 in the continuing cycles, which is an extra capacity to be added to that delivered by main pos. electrodes. The capacity gain (extra capacity) is larger when Li2NiO2 is decompd. at a faster rate due to a smaller charge transfer resistance. Probably when Li2NiO2 was used as the sacrificing pos. additive, the use of higher current in the 1st charging is preferred for the capacity gain.
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    Su, X.; Lin, C. K.; Wang, X. P.; Maroni, V. A.; Ren, Y.; Johnson, C. S.; Lu, W. Q. A New Strategy to Mitigate the Initial Capacity Loss of Lithium Ion Batteries. J. Power Sources 2016, 324, 150– 157,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.05.063
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    A new strategy to mitigate the initial capacity loss of lithium ion batteries
    Su, Xin; Lin, Chikai; Wang, Xiaoping; Maroni, Victor A.; Ren, Yang; Johnson, Christopher S.; Lu, Wenquan
    Journal of Power Sources (2016), 324 (), 150-157CODEN: JPSODZ; ISSN:0378-7753. (Elsevier B.V.)
    Hard carbon (non-graphitizable) and related materials, like tin, tin oxide, silicon, and silicon oxide, have a high theor. lithium delivery capacity (>550 mAh/g depending on their structural and chem. properties) but unfortunately they also exhibit a large initial capacity loss (ICL) that overrides the true reversible capacity in a full cell. Overcoming the large ICL of hard carbon in a full-cell lithium-ion battery (LIB) necessitates a new strategy wherein a sacrificial lithium source additive, such as, Li5FeO4 (LFO), is inserted on the cathode side. Full batteries using hard carbon coupled with LFO-LiCoO2 (LCO) are currently under development at our lab. We find that the reversible capacity of a cathode contg. LFO can be increased by 14%. Furthermore, the cycle performance of full cells with LFO additive is improved from <90% to >95%. We show that the LFO additive not only can address the irreversible capacity loss of the anode, but can also provide the addnl. lithium ion source required to mitigate the lithium loss caused by side reactions. In addn., we have explored the possibility to achieve higher capacity with hard carbon, whereby the energy d. of full cells can be increased from ca. 300 Wh/kg to >400 Wh/kg.
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    Kobayashi, H.; Tsukasaki, T.; Ogasawara, Y.; Hibino, M.; Kudo, T.; Mizuno, N.; Honma, I.; Yamaguchi, K. Cation-Disorder-Assisted Reversible Topotactic Phase Transition between Antifluorite and Rocksalt Toward High-Capacity Lithium-Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 43605– 43613,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c10768
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    Cation-Disorder-Assisted Reversible Topotactic Phase Transition between Antifluorite and Rocksalt Toward High-Capacity Lithium-Ion Batteries
    Kobayashi, Hiroaki; Tsukasaki, Takashi; Ogasawara, Yoshiyuki; Hibino, Mitsuhiro; Kudo, Tetsuichi; Mizuno, Noritaka; Honma, Itaru; Yamaguchi, Kazuya
    ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2020), 12 (39), 43605-43613CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)
    Multielectron reaction electrode materials using partial oxygen redox can be potentially used as cathodes in lithium-ion batteries, as they offer numerous advantages, including high reversible capacity and energy d. and low cost. Here, a reversible three-electron reaction is demonstrated utilizing topotactic phase transition between antifluorite and rocksalt in a cation-disordered antifluorite-type cubic Li6CoO4 cathode. This cubic phase is synthesized by a simple mechanochem. treatment of conventionally prepd. tetragonal Li6CoO4. It displays a reversible capacity of 487 mAh g-1, a high value because of a reversible three-electron reaction using Co2+/Co3+, Co3+/Co4+, and O2-/O22- redox, occurring without O2 gas evolution. The mechanochem. treatment is assumed to reduce its lattice distortion by cation-disordering and facilitate a reversible topotactic phase transition between antifluorite and rocksalt structures via a dynamic cation pushing mechanism.
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    Zhan, C.; Yao, Z. P.; Lu, J.; Ma, L.; Maroni, V. A.; Li, L.; Lee, E.; Alp, E. E.; Wu, T. P.; Wen, J. G.; Ren, Y.; Johnson, C.; Thackeray, M. M.; Chan, M. K. Y.; Wolverton, C.; Amine, K. Enabling the High Capacity of Lithium-Rich Anti-Fluorite Lithium Iron Oxide by Simultaneous Anionic and Cationic Redox. Nat. Energy 2017, 2, 963– 971,  DOI: 10.1038/s41560-017-0043-6
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    85
    Enabling the high capacity of lithium-rich anti-fluorite lithium iron oxide by simultaneous anionic and cationic redox
    Zhan, Chun; Yao, Zhenpeng; Lu, Jun; Ma, Lu; Maroni, Victor A.; Li, Liang; Lee, Eungje; Alp, Esen E.; Wu, Tianpin; Wen, Jianguo; Ren, Yang; Johnson, Christopher; Thackeray, Michael M.; Chan, Maria K. Y.; Wolverton, Chris; Amine, Khalil
    Nature Energy (2017), 2 (12), 963-971CODEN: NEANFD; ISSN:2058-7546. (Nature Research)
    Anionic redox reactions in cathodes of lithium-ion batteries are allowing opportunities to double or even triple the energy d. However, it is still challenging to develop a cathode, esp. with Earth-abundant elements, that enables anionic redox activity for real-world applications, primarily due to limited strategies to intercept the oxygenates from further irreversible oxidn. to O2 gas. Here we report simultaneous iron and oxygen redox activity in a Li-rich anti-fluorite Li5FeO4 electrode. During the removal of the first two Li ions, the oxidn. potential of O2- is lowered to approx. 3.5 V vs. Li+/Li0, at which potential the cationic oxidn. occurs concurrently. These anionic and cationic redox reactions show high reversibility without any obvious O2 gas release. Moreover, this study provides an insightful guide to designing high-capacity cathodes with reversible oxygen redox activity by simply introducing oxygen ions that are exclusively coordinated by Li+.
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    Zhu, Z.; Kushima, A.; Yin, Z. Y.; Qi, L.; Amine, K.; Lu, J.; Li, J. Anion-Redox Nanolithia Cathodes for Li-Ion Batteries. Nat. Energy 2016, 1, 16111,  DOI: 10.1038/nenergy.2016.111
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    Anion-redox nanolithia cathodes for Li-ion batteries
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    Nature Energy (2016), 1 (8), 16111CODEN: NEANFD; ISSN:2058-7546. (Nature Publishing Group)
    The development of lithium-air batteries is plagued by a high potential gap (>1.2 V) between charge and discharge, and poor cyclability due to the drastic phase change of O2 (gas) and Ox- (condensed phase) at the cathode during battery operations. Here we report a cathode consisting of nanoscale amorphous lithia (nanolithia) confined in a cobalt oxide, enabling charge/discharge between solid Li2O/Li2O2/LiO2 without any gas evolution. The cathode has a theor. capacity of 1,341 Ah kg-1, a mass d. exceeding 2.2 g cm-3, and a practical discharge capacity of 587 Ah kg-1 at 2.55 V vs. Li/Li+. It also displays stable cycling performance (only 1.8% loss after 130 cycles in lithium-matched full-cell tests against Li4Ti5O12 anode), as well as a round-trip overpotential of only 0.24 V. Interestingly, the cathode is automatically protected from O2 gas release and overcharging through the shuttling of self-generated radical species sol. in the carbonate electrolyte.
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    Kulkarni, P.; Jung, H. Y. Y.; Ghosh, D.; Jalalah, M.; Alsaiari, M.; Harraz, F. A.; Balakrishna, R. G. A Comprehensive Review of Pre-Lithiation/Sodiation Additives for Li-ion and Na-ion Batteries. J. Energy Chem. 2023, 76, 479– 494,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jechem.2022.10.001
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    A comprehensive review of pre-lithiation/sodiation additives for Li-ion and Na-ion batteries
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    Journal of Energy Chemistry (2023), 76 (), 479-494CODEN: JECOFG; ISSN:2095-4956. (Science Press)
    A review. Lithium/Sodium-ion batteries (LIB/SIB) have attracted enormous attention as a promising electrochem. energy storage system due to their high energy d. and long cycle life. One of the major hurdles is the initial irreversible capacity loss during the first few cycles owing to forming the solid electrolyte interphase layer (SEI). This process consumes a profusion of lithium/sodium, which reduces the overall energy d. and cycle life. Thus, a suitable approach to compensate for the irreversible capacity loss must be developed to improve the energy d. and cycle life. Pre-lithiation/sodiation is a widely accepted process to compensate for the irreversible capacity loss during the initial cycles. Various strategies such as phys., chem., and electrochem. pre-lithiation/sodiation have been explored; however, these approaches add an extra step to the current manufg. process. Alternative to these strategies, pre-lithiation/sodiation additives have attracted enormous attention due to their easy adaptability and compatibility with the current battery manufg. process. In this review, we consolidate recent developments and emphasize the importance of using pre-lithiation/sodiation additives (anode and cathode) to overcome the irreversible capacity loss during the initial cycles in lithium/sodium-ion batteries. This review also addresses the tech. and scientific challenges of using pre-lithiation/sodiation additives and offers the insights to boost the energy d. and cycle life with their possible com. exploration. The most important prerequisites for designing effective pre-lithiation/sodiation additives have been explored and the future directions have been discussed.
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    Ding, R. Q.; Tian, S. Y.; Zhang, K. C.; Cao, J. R.; Zheng, Y.; Tian, W. C.; Wang, X. Y.; Wen, L. Z.; Wang, L.; Liang, G. C. Recent Advances in Cathode Prelithiation Additives and Their Use in Lithium-Ion Batteries. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2021, 893, 115325,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115325
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    Recent advances in cathode prelithiation additives and their use in lithium-ion batteries
    Ding, Ruqian; Tian, Shiyu; Zhang, Kaicheng; Cao, Jingrui; Zheng, Yi; Tian, Weichao; Wang, Xiaoyan; Wen, Lizhi; Wang, Li; Liang, Guangchuan
    Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry (2021), 893 (), 115325CODEN: JECHES; ISSN:1873-2569. (Elsevier B.V.)
    A review. The growing interest in elec. vehicles and energy storage systems has increased the demand for Li-ion battery technologies capable of providing high capacity and high energy d. As is known, irreversible loss of Li in the initial cycle decreases significantly the energy d. of Li-ion batteries. Anode prelithiation is a common method to overcome the problem, although it brings the problems of high chem. reactivity and instability under battery processing and ambient conditions. In comparison to anode prelithiation with high difficulty, cathode prelithiation is much simpler. To compensate the initial Li loss, many studies have aimed at finding suitable cathode additives, to improves the electrochem. performance of existing Li-ion batteries. This article introduces the mechanism and development for prelithiation of Li-ion battery, as well as requirements of cathode prelithiation additives, and summarizes the latest progress of research on cathode prelithiation additives. The challenges in the effective cathode prelithiation additives and the development direction of prelithiation technol. are also provided.
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    Cao, M. Y.; Liu, Z. P.; Zhang, X.; Yang, L.; Xu, S. W.; Weng, S. T.; Zhang, S. M.; Li, X. Y.; Li, Y. J.; Liu, T. C.; Gao, Y. R.; Wang, X. F.; Wang, Z. X.; Chen, L. Q. Feasibility of Prelithiation in LiFePO4. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2210032,  DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202210032
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    Feasibility of Prelithiation in LiFePO4
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    Advanced Functional Materials (2023), 33 (9), 2210032CODEN: AFMDC6; ISSN:1616-301X. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
    Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) is widely applied as the cathode material for the energy storage Li-ion batteries due to its low cost and high cycling stability. However, the low theor. specific capacity of LiFePO4 makes its initial capacity loss more concerning. Therefore, lithium compensation by way of prelithiation and applications of sacrificial Li-rich additives in LiFePO4 is imminent in elevating the energy d. and/or prolonging the lifetime of the LiFePO4-based Li-ion batteries (LIBs). Prelithiation in LiFePO4 is herein carried out by electrochem. and chem. methods and its feasibility is proved on the basis of the electrochem. evaluations such as the initial charge capacity and the cycling stability. In addn., the site of the pre-intercalated Li-ions is found via comprehensive phys. characterizations and the d. functional theory (DFT) calcns. These findings open a new avenue for elevating the energy d. and/or prolonging the lifetime of the high-energy-d. batteries.
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    Yue, X. Y.; Yao, Y. X.; Zhang, J.; Yang, S. Y.; Li, Z. H.; Yan, C.; Zhang, Q. Unblocked Electron Channels Enable Efficient Contact Prelithiation for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Adv. Mater. 2022, 34, 2110337,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.202110337
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    Unblocked Electron Channels Enable Efficient Contact Prelithiation for Lithium-Ion Batteries
    Yue, Xin-Yang; Yao, Yu-Xing; Zhang, Jing; Yang, Si-Yu; Li, Zeheng; Yan, Chong; Zhang, Qiang
    Advanced Materials (Weinheim, Germany) (2022), 34 (15), 2110337CODEN: ADVMEW; ISSN:0935-9648. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
    Contact prelithiation is strongly considered for compensating the initial capacity loss of lithium-ion batteries, exhibiting great potential for ultralong cycle life of working batteries and the application of large-scale energy-storage systems. However, the utilization of the sacrificial Li source for contact prelithiation is low (<65%). Herein the fundamental mechanism of contact prelithiation is described from the perspective of the Li source/anode interfaces by regulating the initial contact state, and a clear illustration of the pathogeny for capacity attenuation is successfully delivered. Specifically, creating plentiful electron channels is an access to making contact prelithiation with a higher Li utilization, as the mitigated local c.d. that reduces the etching of Li dissoln. and SEI extension on electron channels. A vacuum thermal evapn. for depositing the Li film enables the contact interface to possess an adequate electron channel construction, rendering a Li utilization of 91.0%, and the dead Li yield is significantly reduced in a working battery.
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    Xu, H.; Li, S.; Zhang, C.; Chen, X. L.; Liu, W. J.; Zheng, Y. H.; Xie, Y.; Huang, Y. H.; Li, J. Roll-to-Roll Prelithiation of Sn Foil Anode Suppresses Gassing and Enables Stable Full-Cell Cycling of Lithium Ion Batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 2019, 12, 2991– 3000,  DOI: 10.1039/C9EE01404G
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    Roll-to-roll prelithiation of Sn foil anode suppresses gassing and enables stable full-cell cycling of lithium ion batteries
    Xu, Hui; Li, Sa; Zhang, Can; Chen, Xinlong; Liu, Wenjian; Zheng, Yuheng; Xie, Yong; Huang, Yunhui; Li, Ju
    Energy & Environmental Science (2019), 12 (10), 2991-3000CODEN: EESNBY; ISSN:1754-5706. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
    Herein, we demonstrate that bare Sn catalyzes liq. electrolyte decompn. at intermediate voltages to generate gas bubbles and Leidenfrost gas films, which hinder lithium-ion transport and erode the solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer. By metallurgically pre-alloying Li to make LixSn foil, the lower initial anode potential simultaneously suppresses gassing and promotes the formation of an adherent passivating SEI. We developed a universally applicable roll-to-roll mech. prelithiation method and successfully prelithiated Sn foil, Al foil and Si/C anodes. The as-prepd. LixSn foil exhibited an increased ICE from 20% to 94% and achieved 200 stable cycles in LiFePO4//LixSn full cells at ~ 2.65 mA h cm-2. Surprisingly, the LixSn foil also exhibited excellent air-stability, and its cycling performance sustained slight loss after 12 h exposure to moist air. In addn. to LiFePO4, the LixSn foil cycled well against a lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NMC) cathode (4.3 V and ~ 4-5 mA h cm-2). The volumetric capacity of the LixSn alloy in the LFP//LixSn pouch cell was up to ~ 650 mA h cm-3, which is significantly better than that of the graphite anode on a copper collector, with a rate capability as high as 3C.
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    Sun, Y. M.; Lee, H. W.; Seh, Z. W.; Liu, N.; Sun, J.; Li, Y. Z.; Cui, Y. High-Capacity Battery Cathode Prelithiation to Offset Initial Lithium Loss. Nat. Energy 2016, 1, 15008,  DOI: 10.1038/nenergy.2015.8
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    High-capacity battery cathode prelithiation to offset initial lithium loss
    Sun, Yongming; Lee, Hyun-Wook; Seh, Zhi Wei; Liu, Nian; Sun, Jie; Li, Yuzhang; Cui, Yi
    Nature Energy (2016), 1 (1), 15008CODEN: NEANFD; ISSN:2058-7546. (Nature Publishing Group)
    Loss of lithium in the initial cycles appreciably reduces the energy d. of lithium-ion batteries. Anode prelithiation is a common approach to address the problem, although it faces the issues of high chem. reactivity and instability in ambient and battery processing conditions. Here we report a facile cathode prelithiation method that offers high prelithiation efficacy and good compatibility with existing lithium-ion battery technologies. We fabricate cathode additives consisting of nanoscale mixts. of transition metals and lithium oxide that are obtained by conversion reactions of metal oxide and lithium. These nanocomposites afford a high theor. prelithiation capacity (typically up to 800 mAh g-1, 2,700 mAh cm-3) during charging. We demonstrate that in a full-cell configuration, the LiFePO4 electrode with a 4.8% Co/Li2O additive shows 11% higher overall capacity than that of the pristine LiFePO4 electrode. The use of the cathode additives provides an effective route to compensate the large initial lithium loss of high-capacity anode materials and improves the electrochem. performance of existing lithium-ion batteries.
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  • Abstract

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    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Selected most popular research orientations in catalysis which used in secondary rechargeable batteries. Copyright 2012 Springer Nature. (36) Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society. (57) Copyright 2016 Springer Nature. (73)

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    Figure 2. (a) Schematic illustration of operating principle of Li-S batteries. Copyright 2017 Wiley-VCH. (23) (b) Free-energy profiles for the S8/LiPSs conversion on the surface of TiPc and H2Pc. Copyright 2021 Elsevier. (32) (c) Abridged general view of a nonaqueous Li-O2 battery with dominant Li2O2 product on the cathode side. Copyright 2014 American Chemical Society. (37) (d) Mechanisms of O2 reduction in Li-O2 batteries during recharge process. Copyright 2012 American Chemical Society. (41) (e) Free energy diagram of CoPt@gra-OH&NH2 system. Copyright 2021 Elsevier. (43)

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    Figure 3. (a) Schematic energy diagram of a liquid electrolyte under open-circuit state. Eg is the stable window of the electrolyte. ΦA and ΦC signify the anode and cathode work functions, respectively. Copyright 2010 American Chemical Society. (49) (b) Computed reduction and oxidation energy levels of common solvents and solvated salts used in Li-ion batteries. Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society. (57) (c) Ethylene carbonate dissociative adsorption energy on LiNi0.33Co0.33Mn0.33O2, LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2, and LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 (dashed lines) by projecting their computed O 2p band centers onto the trend established by layered oxides. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society. (58) (d) Schematic illustration of the SEI on basal (top) and edge (bottom) planes of HOPG. Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society. (57)

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    Figure 4. Molecular orbital energy diagrams of (a) an OA3M3 octahedron in layered AMO2 and (b) an OA4M2 octahedron in A-excess layered A2MO3. A and M denote alkali-metal ions and transition metal ions, respectively. Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society. (69) Taking Mott-Hubbard splitting into consideration, the Li2MO3 band structure can be classified under three cases (c–e), depending on the interaction between the d–d Coulomb repulsion term U and the charge transfer term Δ. UHB and LHB signify the upper and lower Hubbard bands, respectively. Copyright 2018 Springer Nature. (71) (f) projected DOS of the O-2p and Fe-3d orbitals of O2– ions in the Li6-O configurations and nearest Fe ions in cation-disordered Li3FeO3.5. Increased pDOS near the Fermi level for the O2– coordinated by six Li+ manifests the particular Li6-O configuration. Copyright 2017 Springer Nature. (85) (g) Schematic illustration of the role played by the Li6-O configurations during the lithiation or delithiation of Li5FeO4. Copyright 2017 Springer Nature. (85)

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    1. 1
      Zou, P. C.; Sui, Y. M.; Zhan, H. C.; Wang, C. Y.; Xin, H. L.; Cheng, H. M.; Kang, F. Y.; Yang, C. Polymorph Evolution Mechanisms and Regulation Strategies of Lithium Metal Anode under Multiphysical Fields. Chem. Rev. 2021, 121, 5986– 6056,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01100
      1
      Polymorph Evolution Mechanisms and Regulation Strategies of Lithium Metal Anode under Multiphysical Fields
      Zou, Peichao; Sui, Yiming; Zhan, Houchao; Wang, Chunyang; Xin, Huolin L.; Cheng, Hui-Ming; Kang, Feiyu; Yang, Cheng
      Chemical Reviews (Washington, DC, United States) (2021), 121 (10), 5986-6056CODEN: CHREAY; ISSN:0009-2665. (American Chemical Society)
      A review. Lithium (Li) metal, a typical alk. metal, has been hailed as the "holy grail" anode material for next generation batteries owing to its high theor. capacity and low redox reaction potential. However, the uncontrolled Li plating/stripping issue of Li metal anodes, assocd. with polymorphous Li formation, "dead Li" accumulation, poor Coulombic efficiency, inferior cyclic stability, and hazardous safety risks (such as explosion), remains as one major roadblock for their practical applications. In principle, polymorphous Li deposits on Li metal anodes includes smooth Li (film-like Li) and a group of irregularly patterned Li (e.g., whisker-like Li (Li whiskers), moss-like Li (Li mosses), tree-like Li (Li dendrites), and their combinations). The nucleation and growth of these Li polymorphs are dominantly dependent on multiphys. fields, involving the ionic concn. field, elec. field, stress field, and temp. field, etc. This review provides a clear picture and in-depth discussion on the classification and initiation/growth mechanisms of polymorphous Li from the new perspective of multiphys. fields, particularly for irregular Li patterns. Specifically, we discuss the impact of multiphys. fields' distribution and intensity on Li plating behavior as well as their connection with the electrochem. and metallurgical properties of Li metal and some other factors (e.g., electrolyte compn., solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer, and initial nuclei states). Accordingly, the studies on the progress for delaying/suppressing/redirecting irregular Li evolution to enhance the stability and safety performance of Li metal batteries are reviewed, which are also categorized based on the multiphys. fields. Finally, an overview of the existing challenges and the future development directions of metal anodes are summarized and prospected.
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    2. 2
      Wu, X. H.; Wang, X. T.; Li, Z. G.; Chen, L. B.; Zhou, S. Y.; Zhang, H. T.; Qiao, Y.; Yue, H. J.; Huang, L.; Sun, S. G. Stabilizing Li-O2 Batteries with Multifunctional Fluorinated Graphene. Nano Lett. 2022, 22, 4985– 4992,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c01713
      2
      Stabilizing Li-O2 Batteries with Multifunctional Fluorinated Graphene
      Wu, Xiaohong; Wang, Xiaotong; Li, Zhengang; Chen, Libin; Zhou, Shiyuan; Zhang, Haitang; Qiao, Yu; Yue, Hongjun; Huang, Ling; Sun, Shi-Gang
      Nano Letters (2022), 22 (12), 4985-4992CODEN: NALEFD; ISSN:1530-6984. (American Chemical Society)
      As a full cell system with attractive theor. energy d., challenges faced by Li-O2 batteries (LOBs) are not only the deficient actual capacity and superoxide-derived parasitic reactions on the cathode side but also the stability of Li-metal anode. To solve simultaneously intrinsic issues, multifunctional fluorinated graphene (CFx, x = 1, F-Gr) was introduced into the ether-based electrolyte of LOBs. F-Gr can accelerate O2- transformation and O2--participated oxygen redn. reaction (ORR) process, resulting in enhanced discharge capacity and restrained O2--derived side reactions of LOBs, resp. Moreover, F-Gr induced the F-rich and O-depleted solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) film formation, which have improved Li-metal stability. Therefore, energy storage capacity, efficiency, and cyclability of LOBs have been markedly enhanced. More importantly, the method developed in this work to disperse F-Gr into an ether-based electrolyte for improving LOBs' performances is convenient and significant from both scientific and engineering aspects.
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    3. 3
      Chen, L. Y.; Chiang, C. L.; Wu, X. H.; Tang, Y. L.; Zeng, G. F.; Zhou, S. Y.; Zhang, B. D.; Zhang, H. T.; Yan, Y. W.; Liu, T. T.; Liao, H. G.; Kuai, X. X.; Lin, Y. G.; Qiao, Y.; Sun, S. G. Prolonged Lifespan of Initial-Anode-Free Lithium-Metal Battery by Pre-Lithiation in Li-Rich Li2Ni0.5Mn1.5O4 Spinel Cathode. Chem. Sci. 2023, 14, 2183– 2191,  DOI: 10.1039/D2SC06772B
      3
      Prolonged lifespan of initial-anode-free lithium-metal battery by pre-lithiation in Li-rich Li2Ni0.5Mn1.5O4 spinel cathode
      Chen, Leiyu; Chiang, Chao-Lung; Wu, Xiaohong; Tang, Yonglin; Zeng, Guifan; Zhou, Shiyuan; Zhang, Baodan; Zhang, Haitang; Yan, Yawen; Liu, Tingting; Liao, Hong-Gang; Kuai, Xiaoxiao; Lin, Yan-Gu; Qiao, Yu; Sun, Shi-Gang
      Chemical Science (2023), 14 (8), 2183-2191CODEN: CSHCCN; ISSN:2041-6520. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      Anode-free lithium metal batteries (AF-LMBs) can deliver the max. energy d. However, achieving AF-LMBs with a long lifespan remains challenging because of the poor reversibility of Li+ plating/stripping on the anode. Here, coupled with a fluorine-contg. electrolyte, we introduce a cathode pre-lithiation strategy to extend the lifespan of AF-LMBs. The AF-LMB is constructed with Li-rich Li2Ni0.5Mn1.5O4 cathodes as a Li-ion extender; the Li2Ni0.5Mn1.5O4 can deliver a large amt. of Li+ in the initial charging process to offset the continuous Li+ consumption, which benefits the cycling performance without sacrificing energy d. Moreover, the cathode pre-lithiation design has been practically and precisely regulated using engineering methods (Li-metal contact and pre-lithiation Li-biphenyl immersion). Benefiting from the highly reversible Li metal on the Cu anode and Li2Ni0.5Mn1.5O4 cathode, the further fabricated anode-free pouch cells achieve 350 W h kg-1 energy d. and 97% capacity retention after 50 cycles.
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    4. 4
      Qiao, Y.; Deng, H.; He, P.; Zhou, H. S. A 500 Wh/kg Lithium-Metal Cell Based on Anionic Redox. Joule 2020, 4, 1445– 1458,  DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2020.05.012
      4
      A 500 Wh/kg Lithium-Metal Cell Based on Anionic Redox
      Qiao, Yu; Deng, Han; He, Ping; Zhou, Haoshen
      Joule (2020), 4 (7), 1445-1458CODEN: JOULBR; ISSN:2542-4351. (Cell Press)
      Benefiting from the high-energy-d. Li2O-based cathode and ultra-stable ether-based electrolyte system, we report a low-cost and high-energy-d. 500 Wh/kg-cell Li-metal pouch cell driven by pure anionic redox activity. The non-superoxo/O2 "safe" charge depth has been extended to 750 mAh/g∼Li2O. Fairly taking the entire cathode mass loading (including inactive components) into calcn., a specific capacity of 477.3 mAh/g can be achieved. The cost/price of cathode catalytic matrix has been efficiently controlled by the employment of low-cost Ni-based catalyst substrate. Benefitting from the electrolyte modification, highly efficient and long-term stable Li-metal cycling guarantees the employment of limited Li metal in full-cell systems, which largely boosts the pouch-cell-level energy d. Finally, by explicitly sharing and analyzing the promoting space of each cell-level parameter in the current pouch-cell system, we want to pass a straightforward message to battery researchers, directing their attention to the development of this promising low-cost and high-energy-d. cell system.
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    5. 5
      Qiao, Y.; Yang, H. J.; Chang, Z.; Deng, H.; Li, X.; Zhou, H. S. A High-Energy-Density and Long-Life Initial-Anode-Free Lithium Battery Enabled by a Li2O Sacrificial Agent. Nat. Energy 2021, 6, 653– 662,  DOI: 10.1038/s41560-021-00839-0
      5
      A high-energy-density and long-life initial-anode-free lithium battery enabled by a Li2O sacrificial agent
      Qiao, Yu; Yang, Huijun; Chang, Zhi; Deng, Han; Li, Xiang; Zhou, Haoshen
      Nature Energy (2021), 6 (6), 653-662CODEN: NEANFD; ISSN:2058-7546. (Nature Portfolio)
      Abstr.: Equipped with a fully lithiated cathode with a bare anode current collector, the anode-free lithium cell architecture presents remarkable advantages in terms of both energy d. and safety compared with conventional lithium-ion cells. However, it is challenging to realize high Li reversibility, esp. considering the limited Li reservoir (typically zero lithium excess) in the cell configuration. In this study we have introduced Li2O as a preloaded sacrificial agent on a LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 cathode, providing an addnl. Li source to offset the irreversible loss of Li during long-term cycling in an initial-anode-free cell. We show that O2- species, released through Li2O oxidn., are synergistically neutralized by a fluorinated ether additive. This leads to the construction of a LiF-based layer at the cathode/electrolyte interface, which passivates the cathode surface and restrains the detrimental oxidative decompn. of ether solvents. We have achieved a long-life 2.46 Ah initial-anode-free pouch cell with a gravimetric energy d. of 320 Wh kg-1, maintaining 80% capacity after 300 cycles.
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    6. 6
      Zhu, Y. C.; Fontaine, O. When Batteries Breathe without Air. Nat. Catal. 2019, 2, 953– 954,  DOI: 10.1038/s41929-019-0377-5
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    7. 7
      Wu, X. H.; Li, Z. A.; Song, C.; Chen, L. B.; Dai, P.; Zhang, P. F.; Qiao, Y.; Huang, L.; Sun, S. G. Regulating the Architecture of a Solid Electrolyte Interface on a Li-Metal Anode of a Li-O2 Battery by a Dithiobiuret Additive. ACS Mater. Lett. 2022, 4, 682– 691,  DOI: 10.1021/acsmaterialslett.1c00756
      7
      Regulating the Architecture of a Solid Electrolyte Interface on a Li-Metal Anode of a Li-O2 Battery by a Dithiobiuret Additive
      Wu, Xiaohong; Li, Zhengang; Song, Cun; Chen, Libin; Dai, Peng; Zhang, Pengfang; Qiao, Yu; Huang, Ling; Sun, Shi-Gang
      ACS Materials Letters (2022), 4 (4), 682-691CODEN: AMLCEF; ISSN:2639-4979. (American Chemical Society)
      Different from other typical architectures of lithium-ion cells (e.g., NCM//graphite, etc.), Li-metal is indispensable to the construction of Li-O2 batteries (LOBs), since Li-metal can be consumed as a lithium source for the initial discharge process on the cathode side. However, the unstable solid electrolyte interface (SEI) film and related hazardous dendrite growth plague the stability and further development of the Li-metal anode, which would be exacerbated by an O2 atmosphere in LOBs. Herein, the dithiobiuret (DTB, C2H5N3S2) additive was introduced into a typical ether electrolyte to regulate the Li+ solvated sheath configuration, and the solvation sheath was tailored and evolved to a solvent-depleted state. Consequently, an anion-derived SEI film architecture with F-rich and O-deficient components was formed. Systematically, studies of spectroscopy and electrochem. anal. demonstrated that such specific SEI architecture can trigger grain refinement and promote dendrite-free morphol. Benefiting from the addn. of DTB and under an O2 atmosphere, the electrochem. performance of both Li/Li sym. cells and Li-O2 cells has been significantly enhanced.
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    8. 8
      Wang, C. H.; Huang, L.; Zhong, Y.; Tong, X. L.; Gu, C. D.; Xia, X. H.; Zhang, L. J.; Wang, X. L.; Tu, J. P. Ti2Nb10O29 Anchored on Aspergillus Oryzae Spore Carbon Skeleton for Advanced Lithium Ion Storage. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 2021, 28, e00272,  DOI: 10.1016/j.susmat.2021.e00272
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    9. 9
      Hu, L.; Lin, C. F.; Wang, C. H.; Yang, C.; Li, J. B.; Chen, Y. J.; Lin, S. W. TiNb2O7 Nanorods as a Novel Anode Material for Secondary Lithium-Ion Batteries. Funct. Mater. Lett. 2016, 9, 1642004,  DOI: 10.1142/S1793604716420042
      9
      TiNb2O7 nanorods as a novel anode material for secondary lithium-ion batteries
      Hu, Lei; Lin, Chunfu; Wang, Changhao; Yang, Chao; Li, Jianbao; Chen, Yongjun; Lin, Shiwei
      Functional Materials Letters (2016), 9 (6), 1642004CODEN: FMLUCK; ISSN:1793-7213. (World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.)
      TiNb2O7 nanorods have been successfully fabricated by a sol-gel method with a sodium dodecyl surfate (SDS) surfactant. X-ray diffraction indicates that the TiNb2O7 nanorods have a Ti2Nb10O29-type crystal structure. SEM (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) results show that the nanorods have an av. diam. of ∼100nm and an av. length of ∼300nm. As a result of such nanosizing effect, this new material exhibits advanced electrochem. performances in terms of specific capacity, rate capability and cyclic stability. At 0.1C, it delivers a large first-cycle discharge/charge capacity of 337/279 mAh g-1. Its capacities remain 248, 233, 214, 182, 154 and 122mAh g-1 at 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20C, resp. After 100 cycles, its capacity at 10C remains 140mAh g-1 with large capacity retention of 91.0%.
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    10. 10
      Filippi, E.; Pizzolitto, C. The Past and the Future of Catalysis and Technology in Industry: A Perspective from Casale SA Point of View. Catal. Today 2022, 387, 9– 11,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2021.11.005
      10
      The past and the future of catalysis and technology in industry: a perspective from Casale SA point of view
      Filippi, Ermanno; Pizzolitto, Cristina
      Catalysis Today (2022), 387 (), 9-11CODEN: CATTEA; ISSN:0920-5861. (Elsevier B.V.)
      The role of catalysis in the chem. industry has always been essential. The word catalyst is derived from the Greek word katalυein, meaning "to dissolve" and in 1836 Jons Jakob Berzelius defined it as "change caused by an agent which itself remains unchanged". Most of the chem. processes such as NH3 and syngas prodn., catalytic cracking of gas oil, synthesis of sulfuric and nitric acid, are only possible thanks to catalysis. Therefore, catalysis has a huge and direct impact on the life of every human being. This work discusses what are the practical implications related to the availability of a catalyst for a company developing and selling technologies for the prodn. of some of the most important chems. It offers also a perspective on the future evolution of catalysis and technol. in chem. industries.
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      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXisFKrtLjF&md5=76ffc9ad4d9a337fd67c7aa9e31a72b6
    11. 11
      Xiao, C.; Lu, B. A.; Xue, P.; Tian, N.; Zhou, Z. Y.; Lin, X.; Lin, W. F.; Sun, S. G. High-Index-Facet and High-Surface-Energy Nanocrystals of Metals and Metal Oxides as Highly Efficient Catalysts. Joule 2020, 4, 2562– 2598,  DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2020.10.002
      11
      High-Index-Facet- and High-Surface-Energy Nanocrystals of Metals and Metal Oxides as Highly Efficient Catalysts
      Xiao, Chi; Lu, Bang-An; Xue, Peng; Tian, Na; Zhou, Zhi-You; Lin, Xiao; Lin, Wen-Feng; Sun, Shi-Gang
      Joule (2020), 4 (12), 2562-2598CODEN: JOULBR; ISSN:2542-4351. (Cell Press)
      A review. The development and applications of highly efficient and stable catalysts are of vital importance for modern industries varying from chem. prodn. and material transformation to clean energy conversion. Over the last decade, high-index-facet and high-surface-energy nanocrystals have drawn increasing interest in electrocatalysis, photocatalysis, and heterogeneous catalysis, thanks to their excellent catalytic properties. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the up-to-date progress of high-index-facet and high-surface-energy nanocrystals, ranging from a fundamental understanding of the materials and the underpinning science to synthesis and promising applications in catalysis and points out the perspectives for future research and development, in terms of exploring in situ characterization techniques and advanced modeling methodologies, broader materials consideration, including chem. compns. and particle sizes, and various scales of applications.
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      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXmvVKnuw%253D%253D&md5=26060a634369e08f3eaef367ae02ddd7
    12. 12
      Zhou, Z. Y.; Tian, N.; Li, J. T.; Broadwell, I.; Sun, S. G. Nanomaterials of High Surface Energy with Exceptional Properties in Catalysis and Energy Storage. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2011, 40, 4167– 4185,  DOI: 10.1039/c0cs00176g
      12
      Nanomaterials of high surface energy with exceptional properties in catalysis and energy storage
      Zhou, Zhi-You; Tian, Na; Li, Jun-Tao; Broadwell, Ian; Sun, Shi-Gang
      Chemical Society Reviews (2011), 40 (7), 4167-4185CODEN: CSRVBR; ISSN:0306-0012. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      A review. The properties of nanomaterials for use in catalytic and energy storage applications strongly depends on the nature of their surfaces. Nanocrystals with high surface energy have an open surface structure and possess a high d. of low-coordinated step and kink atoms. Possession of such features can lead to exceptional catalytic properties. The current barrier for widespread industrial use is found in the difficulty to synthesize nanocrystals with high-energy surfaces. In this crit. review we present a review of the progress made for producing shape-controlled synthesis of nanomaterials of high surface energy using electrochem. and wet chem. techniques. Important nanomaterials such as nanocrystal catalysts based on Pt, Pd, Au and Fe, metal oxides TiO2 and SnO2, as well as lithium Mn-rich metal oxides are covered. Emphasis of current applications in electrocatalysis, photocatalysis, gas sensor and lithium ion batteries are extensively discussed. Finally, a future synopsis about emerging applications is given (139 refs.).
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    13. 13
      Wang, T.; Zhang, Y. R.; Huang, B. T.; Cai, B.; Rao, R. R.; Giordano, L.; Sun, S. G.; Shao-Horn, Y. Enhancing Oxygen Reduction Electrocatalysis by Tuning Interfacial Hydrogen Bonds. Nat. Catal. 2021, 4, 753– 762,  DOI: 10.1038/s41929-021-00668-0
      13
      Enhancing oxygen reduction electrocatalysis by tuning interfacial hydrogen bonds
      Wang, Tao; Zhang, Yirui; Huang, Botao; Cai, Bin; Rao, Reshma R.; Giordano, Livia; Sun, Shi-Gang; Shao-Horn, Yang
      Nature Catalysis (2021), 4 (9), 753-762CODEN: NCAACP; ISSN:2520-1158. (Nature Portfolio)
      Proton activity at the electrified interface is central to the kinetics of proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) reactions for making chems. and fuels. Here we employ a library of protic ionic liqs. in an interfacial layer on platinum and gold to alter local proton activity, where the intrinsic oxygen-redn. reaction (ORR) activity is enhanced up to fivefold, exhibiting a volcano-shaped dependence on the pKa of the ionic liq. The enhanced ORR activity is attributed to strengthened hydrogen bonds between ORR products and ionic liqs. with comparable pKas, resulting in favorable PCET kinetics. This proposed mechanism is supported by in situ surface-enhanced Fourier-transform IR spectroscopy and our simulation of PCET kinetics based on computed proton vibrational wavefunctions at the hydrogen-bonding interface. These findings highlight opportunities for using non-covalent interactions between hydrogen-bonded structures and solvation environments at the electrified interface to tune the kinetics of ORR and beyond.
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    14. 14
      Li, M.; Bi, X.; Wang, R.; Li, Y.; Jiang, G.; Li, L.; Zhong, C.; Chen, Z.; Lu, J. Relating Catalysis between Fuel Cell and Metal-Air Batteries. Matter 2020, 2, 32– 49,  DOI: 10.1016/j.matt.2019.10.007
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    15. 15
      Rothenberg, G. Catalysis: Concepts and Green Applications; John Wiley & Sons: 2017; p 10.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    16. 16
      Yin, S.-H.; Yang, S.-L.; Li, G.; Li, G.; Zhang, B.-W.; Wang, C.-T.; Chen, M.-S.; Liao, H.-G.; Yang, J.; Jiang, Y.-X.; Sun, S.-G. Seizing Gaseous Fe2+ to Densify O2-Accessible Fe-N4 Sites for High-Performance Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 2022, 15, 3033– 3040,  DOI: 10.1039/D2EE00061J
      16
      Seizing gaseous Fe2+ to densify O2-accessible Fe-N4sites for high-performance proton exchange membrane fuel cells
      Yin, Shu-Hu; Yang, Shuang-Li; Li, Gen; Li, Guang; Zhang, Bin-Wei; Wang, Chong-Tai; Chen, Ming-Shu; Liao, Hong-Gang; Yang, Jian; Jiang, Yan-Xia; Sun, Shi-Gang
      Energy & Environmental Science (2022), 15 (7), 3033-3040CODEN: EESNBY; ISSN:1754-5706. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      Increasing the d. of Fe-N4 sites in Fe-N-C materials is pivotal for enhancing the kinetics of the oxygen redn. reaction (ORR) in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). Fe utilization is a vital parameter for the Fe-N-C catalyst evaluation, but it shows a tendency to decrease with increasing d. of the Fe-N4 sites. Herein, dense edge Fe-N2+2 sites are deposited in the outermost and subsurface layers of a surface-rich pyridinic-N carbon substrate (Feg-NC/Phen). We have demonstrated that the surface-rich pyridinic-N carbon substrate is more favorable to form surface Fe-N2+2 sites with superior intrinsic activity. The surface Fe-N4 sites can improve both the site d. and Fe utilization, while shortening the transport pathways of protons and O2 effectively. By means of these structural advantages, Feg-NC/Phen can exhibit a high c.d. of 0.046 A [email protected] ViR-free and a high peak power d. (Pmax) of 1.53 W cm-2 in 2 bar H2-O2 PEMFCs, and outperform almost all the reported M-N-C catalysts. This outstanding performance will inspire relevant research in the distribution of active sites. Moreover, it requires particular attention to obtain a viable soln. to performance durability in fuel cells.
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      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB38XhsVWjtLvK&md5=94c82670ad6e303946f1c904c7878427
    17. 17
      Wang, C. H.; Li, Y. H.; Gu, C. D.; Zhang, L. J.; Wang, X. L.; Tu, J. P. Active Co@CoO Core/Shell Nanowire Arrays as Efficient Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction. Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 429, 132226,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2021.132226
      17
      Active Co@CoO core/shell nanowire arrays as efficient electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction
      Wang, Changhao; Li, Yahao; Gu, Changdong; Zhang, Lingjie; Wang, Xiuli; Tu, Jiangping
      Chemical Engineering Journal (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2022), 429 (), 132226CODEN: CMEJAJ; ISSN:1385-8947. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Exploration of high-efficiency non-noble-metal-based electrocatalysts towards Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is crit. for water electrolysis. In this work, we adopt a facile hydrothermal deposition plus hydrogen redn. strategy to fabricate self-supported Co@CoO core/shell nanowire arrays as a high-performance electrocatalyst for HER. The Co@CoO nanowire arrays are firmly anchored on the nickel foam substrate, forming an integrated electrode with excellent stability. The formation mechanism of the unique Co@CoO core/shell nanowire arrays is also explored. By virtue of the superior intrinsic catalytic activity of CoO shell and excellent elec. cond. of Co core, the Co@CoO electrode exhibits significantly promoted catalytic activity for HER with an ultra-low overpotential (76 mV at 10 mA cm-2) in alk. soln., which is superior to almost all the reported CoO-based electrocatalysts. Moreover, the Co@CoO electrode also yields superior long-term durability without any significant performance degrdn. DFT calcns. further verify the underlying mechanisms. Our proposed optimization strategy sheds light on the development of high activity earth-abundant-metal-based electrocatalyst for hydrogen evolution.
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    18. 18
      Wang, C. H.; Li, Y. H.; Wang, X. L.; Tu, J. P. N-Doped NiO Nanosheet Arrays as Efficient Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction. J. Electron. Mater. 2021, 50, 5072– 5080,  DOI: 10.1007/s11664-021-09053-w
      18
      N-Doped NiO Nanosheet Arrays as Efficient Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction
      Wang, Changhao; Li, Yahao; Wang, Xiuli; Tu, Jiangping
      Journal of Electronic Materials (2021), 50 (9), 5072-5080CODEN: JECMA5; ISSN:0361-5235. (Springer)
      Exploration of cost-effective high-performance non-noble-metal-based electrocatalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) has attracted huge attention. In this work, a nitrogen doping method is adopted to construct self-supported, N-doped NiO nanosheet arrays (N-NiO) as an effective HER electrocatalyst. The N-NiO nanosheet arrays are firmly anchored on a nickel foam substrate, forming a free-standing integrated electrode with an open nanostructure. By virtue of its larger electrochem. active surface areas and better electron cond., the N-NiO electrode has admirable electrocatalytic HER performance with a low overpotential (154 mV at a c.d. of 10 mA cm-2) and a low Tafel slope of 90 mV dec-1. In addn., the N-NiO nanosheet arrays exhibit relatively stable electrocatalytic activity after a 10 h continuous test in an alk. soln. Our reported rational design principle and optimization strategy provide a powerful way to construct advanced transition-metal-based electrocatalysts for the HER.
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      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtlGlt7rK&md5=37bb609c592f823ec5d4af59d839d49e
    19. 19
      Yang, H. J.; Qiao, Y.; Chang, Z.; He, P.; Zhou, H. S. Designing Cation-Solvent Fully Coordinated Electrolyte for High-Energy-Density Lithium-Sulfur Full Cell Based on Solid-Solid Conversion. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2021, 60, 17726– 17734,  DOI: 10.1002/anie.202106788
      19
      Designing Cation-Solvent Fully Coordinated Electrolyte for High-Energy-Density Lithium-Sulfur Full Cell Based On Solid-Solid Conversion
      Yang, Huijun; Qiao, Yu; Chang, Zhi; He, Ping; Zhou, Haoshen
      Angewandte Chemie, International Edition (2021), 60 (32), 17726-17734CODEN: ACIEF5; ISSN:1433-7851. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      Sulfur chem. based on solid-liq. dissoln.-deposition route inevitably encounters shuttle of lithium polysulfides, its parasitic interaction with lithium (Li) anode and flood electrolyte environment. The sulfurized pyrolyzed poly(acrylonitrile) (S@pPAN) cathode favors solid-solid conversion mechanism in carbonate ester electrolytes but fails to pair high-capacity Li anode. Herein, we rationally design a cation-solvent fully coordinated ether electrolyte to simultaneously resolve the problems of both Li anode and S@pPAN cathode. Raman spectroscopy reveals a highly suppressed solvent activity and a cation-solvent fully coordinated structure (molar ratio 1:1). Consequently, Li electrodeposit evolves into round-edged morphol., LiF-rich interphase, and high reversibility. Moreover, S@pPAN cathode inherits a neat solid-phase redox reaction and fully eliminated the dissoln. of lithium polysulfides. Finally, we harvest a long-life Li-S@pPAN pouch cell with slight Li metal excessive (0.4 time) and ultra-lean electrolyte design (1μL mgS-1), delivering 394 Wh kg-1 energy d. based on electrodes and electrolyte mass.
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    20. 20
      Zhou, T.; Liang, J. N.; Ye, S. H.; Zhang, Q. L.; Liu, J. H. Fundamental, Application and Opportunities of Single Atom Catalysts for Li-S Batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 2023, 55, 322– 355,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ensm.2022.12.002
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    21. 21
      Sha Li, X. Gu-Lian Wang, Hui-Qun Wang, Wei-Ming Xiong, Li Zhang. Ultraviolet-Initiated In-Situ Cross-Linking of Multifunctional Binder Backbones Enables Robust Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. J. Electrochem. 2023, 29, 2217004
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    22. 22
      Zhen-Yu Wang, X.-P. G. Metals and Alloys as Catalytic Hosts of Sulfur Cathode for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. J. Electrochem. 2023, 29, 2217001
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    23. 23
      Zhang, J.; Huang, H.; Bae, J.; Chung, S. H.; Zhang, W. K.; Manthiram, A.; Yu, G. H. Nanostructured Host Materials for Trapping Sulfur in Rechargeable Li-S Batteries: Structure Design and Interfacial Chemistry. Small Methods 2018, 2, 1700279,  DOI: 10.1002/smtd.201700279
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    24. 24
      Wang, C. H.; Li, Y. H.; Cao, F.; Zhang, Y. Q.; Xia, X. H.; Zhang, L. J. Employing Ni-Embedded Porous Graphitic Carbon Fibers for High-Efficiency Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2022, 14, 10457– 10466,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c24755
      24
      Employing Ni-Embedded Porous Graphitic Carbon Fibers for High-Efficiency Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
      Wang, Changhao; Li, Yahao; Cao, Feng; Zhang, Yongqi; Xia, Xinhui; Zhang, Lingjie
      ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2022), 14 (8), 10457-10466CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)
      The rational electrode design is one of the most important ways to enhance the electrochem. properties of lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs). In this contribution, we use Ni-embedded porous graphitic carbon fiber (PGCF@Ni) as the scaffold to construct a novel cathode and anode for LSBs. With the help of elaborate surface engineering, the constructed solid electrolyte interface (SEI)@Li/PGCF@Ni anodes can effectively restrain the growth of lithium dendrites during the cycle, exhibiting an ultralow overpotential of ~ 10 mV for 2000 h at 1 mA cm-2/1 mA h cm-2. The underlying mechanism is further investigated by COMSOL Multiphysics simulations. Addnl., the PGCF@Ni/S cathode fabricated by the molten sulfurizing method manifests superior rate performance and stability. Ultimately, the assembled SEI@Li/PGCF@Ni||PGCF@Ni/S full battery exhibits prominent electrochem. property with a high capacity retention of about 77.9% after 600 cycles at 1 C. Such success at the performance improvement in LSBs may open up avenues toward other rational designs of high-quality electrodes in electrochem. energy storage.
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    25. 25
      Wang, C. H.; Li, Y. H.; Zhang, Y. Q.; Zhang, L. J.; Gu, C. D.; Wang, X. L.; Tu, J. P. Integrating a 3D Porous Carbon Fiber Network Containing Cobalt with Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interphase to Consummate Advanced Electrodes for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. Mater. Today Energy 2022, 24, 100930,  DOI: 10.1016/j.mtener.2021.100930
      25
      Integrating a 3D porous carbon fiber network containing cobalt with artificial solid electrolyte interphase to consummate advanced electrodes for lithium-sulfur batteries
      Wang, Changhao; Li, Yahao; Zhang, Yongqi; Zhang, Lingjie; Gu, Changdong; Wang, Xiuli; Tu, Jiangping
      Materials Today Energy (2022), 24 (), 100930CODEN: MTEACH; ISSN:2468-6069. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) are deemed as one of the most promising next-generation energy storage systems due to their high theor. energy d. However, their intrinsic shortcomings hindered their practical commercialization. In this work, a powerful three-dimensional (3D) filter paper porous carbon decorated with cobalt (FPPC@Co) matrix is employed to fabricate high-quality anode and cathode simultaneously. Combining with in-situ surface engineering, the rationally designed solid electrolyte interphase @Li/FPPC@Co anodes can plate/strip Li uniformly without Li dendrites, manifesting a low overpotential of about 20 mV for 1000 h at 1 mA/cm2/1 mA h/cm2. COMSOL Multiphysics simulations further testify the underlying mechanisms. Meanwhile, with the help of molten sulfurizing method, the synthesized FPPC@Co/S cathode exhibits excellent stability with high capacity retention of 73.3% after 200 cycles at 1 C. Furthermore, we paired SEI@Li/FPPC@Co anode and FPPC@Co/S cathode to assemble lithium-sulfur full cells. The SEI@Li/FPPC@Co||FPPC@Co/S full cell shows superior electrochem. performance with a long-term cycle life (a capacity retention of 88.7% after 200 cycles at 1 C). Insight gained from this work opens a new door for fabrication of high-quality electrodes for LSBs.
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    26. 26
      Wang, H. S.; Yu, Z.; Kong, X.; Kim, S. C.; Boyle, D. T.; Qin, J.; Bao, Z. N.; Cui, Y. Liquid electrolyte: The Nexus of Practical Lithium Metal Batteries. Joule 2022, 6, 588– 616,  DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2021.12.018
      26
      Liquid electrolyte: The nexus of practical lithium metal batteries
      Wang, Hansen; Yu, Zhiao; Kong, Xian; Kim, Sang Cheol; Boyle, David T.; Qin, Jian; Bao, Zhenan; Cui, Yi
      Joule (2022), 6 (3), 588-616CODEN: JOULBR; ISSN:2542-4351. (Cell Press)
      A review. The specific energy of com. lithium (Li)-ion batteries is reaching the theor. limit. Future consumer electronics and elec. vehicle markets call for the development of high energy d. Li metal batteries, which have been plagued by poor cyclability. Electrolyte engineering can afford a promising approach to address the issues assocd. with Li metal batteries and has recently resulted in much improved cycle life under practical conditions. However, gaps still exist between the performance of current Li metal batteries and those required for com. applications. Further improvements will require systematic anal. of existing electrolyte design methodologies. In this review, we first summarize recent approaches of advanced electrolytes for Li metal batteries paired with high-voltage cathodes. We then ext. common features among these advanced electrolytes and finally discuss the future rational design directions and strategies.
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    27. 27
      Wu, Q. P.; Yao, Z. G.; Zhou, X. J.; Xu, J.; Cao, F. H.; Li, C. L. Built-In Catalysis in Confined Nanoreactors for High-Loading Li-S Batteries. ACS Nano 2020, 14, 3365– 3377,  DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b09231
      27
      Built-in catalysis in confined nanoreactors for high-loading Li-S batteries
      Wu, Qingping; Yao, Zhenguo; Zhou, Xuejun; Xu, Jun; Cao, Fahai; Li, Chilin
      ACS Nano (2020), 14 (3), 3365-3377CODEN: ANCAC3; ISSN:1936-0851. (American Chemical Society)
      A cathode host with strong sulfur/polysulfide confinement and fast redox kinetics is a challenging demand for high-loading lithium-sulfur batteries. Recently, porous carbon hosts derived from metal-org. frameworks (MOFs) have attracted wide attention due to their unique spatial structure and customizable reaction sites. However, the loading and rate performance of Li-S cells are still restricted by the disordered pore distribution and surface catalysis in these hosts. Here, we propose a concept of built-in catalysis to accelerate lithium polysulfide (LiPSs) conversion in confined nanoreactors, i.e., laterally stacked ordered crevice pores encompassed by MoS2-decorated carbon thin layers. The functions of S-fixability and LiPS catalysis in these mesoporous cavity reactors benefit from the 2D interface contact between ultrathin catalytic MoS2 and conductive C pyrolyzed from Al-MOF. The integrated function of adsorption-catalysis-conversion endows the sulfur-infused C@MoS2 electrode with a high initial capacity of 1240 mAh g-1 at 0.2 C, long life cycle stability of at least 1000 cycles at 2 C, and high rate endurance up to 20 C. This electrode also exhibits com. potential in view of considerable capacity release and reversibility under high sulfur loading (6 mg cm-2 and ~ 80 wt %) and lean electrolyte (E/S ratio of 5μL mg-1). This study provides a promising design soln. of a catalysis-conduction 2D interface in a 3D skeleton for high-loading Li-S batteries.
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    28. 28
      Bi, C. X.; Zhao, M.; Hou, L. P.; Chen, Z. X.; Zhang, X. Q.; Li, B. Q.; Yuan, H.; Huang, J. Q. Anode Material Options Toward 500 Wh kg–1 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. Adv. Sci. 2022, 9, 2103910,  DOI: 10.1002/advs.202103910
      28
      Anode Material Options Toward 500 Wh kg-1 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
      Bi, Chen-Xi; Zhao, Meng; Hou, Li-Peng; Chen, Zi-Xian; Zhang, Xue-Qiang; Li, Bo-Quan; Yuan, Hong; Huang, Jia-Qi
      Advanced Science (Weinheim, Germany) (2022), 9 (2), 2103910CODEN: ASDCCF; ISSN:2198-3844. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      A review Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) battery is identified as one of the most promising next-generation energy storage systems due to its ultra-high theor. energy d. up to 2600 Wh kg-1. However, Li metal anode suffers from dramatic vol. change during cycling, continuous corrosion by polysulfide electrolyte, and dendrite formation, rendering limited cycling lifespan. Considering Li metal anode as a double-edged sword that contributes to ultrahigh energy d. as well as limited cycling lifespan, it is necessary to evaluate Li-based alloy as anode materials to substitute Li metal for high-performance Li-S batteries. In this contribution, the authors systematically evaluate the potential and feasibility of using Li metal or Li-based alloys to construct Li-S batteries with an actual energy d. of 500 Wh kg-1. A quant. anal. method is proposed by evaluating the required amt. of electrolyte for a targeted energy d. Based on a three-level (ideal material level, practical electrode level, and pouch cell level) anal., highly lithiated lithium-magnesium (Li-Mg) alloy is capable to achieve 500 Wh kg-1 Li-S batteries besides Li metal. Accordingly, research on Li-Mg and other Li-based alloys are reviewed to inspire a promising pathway to realize high-energy-d. and long-cycling Li-S batteries.
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    29. 29
      Liu, Y. R.; Zhao, M.; Hou, L. P.; Li, Z.; Bi, C. X.; Chen, Z. X.; Cheng, Q.; Zhang, X. Q.; Li, B. Q.; Kaskel, S.; Huang, J. Q. An Organodiselenide Comediator to Facilitate Sulfur Redox Kinetics in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries with Encapsulating Lithium Polysulfide Electrolyte. Angew. Chem. 2023, 135, e202303363,  DOI: 10.1002/ange.202303363
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    30. 30
      Chen, Z. X.; Zhang, Y. T.; Bi, C. X.; Zhao, M.; Zhang, R.; Li, B. Q.; Huang, J. Q. Premature Deposition of Lithium Polysulfide in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. J. Energy Chem. 2023, 82, 507– 512,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jechem.2023.03.015
      30
      Premature deposition of lithium polysulfide in lithium-sulfur batteries
      Chen, Zi-Xian; Zhang, Yu-Tong; Bi, Chen-Xi; Zhao, Meng; Zhang, Rui; Li, Bo-Quan; Huang, Jia-Qi
      Journal of Energy Chemistry (2023), 82 (), 507-512CODEN: JECOFG; ISSN:2095-4956. (Science Press)
      Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries have attracted extensive attention due to ultrahigh theor. energy d. of 2600 Wh kg-1. Liq.-solid deposition from dissolved lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) to solid lithium sulfide (Li2S) largely dets. the actual battery performances. Herein, a premature liq.-solid deposition process of LiPSs is revealed at higher thermodn. potential than Li2S deposition in Li-S batteries. The premature solid deposit exhibits higher chem. state and hemispherical morphol. in comparison with Li2S, and the premature deposition process is slower in kinetics and higher in deposition dimension. Accordingly, a supersatn. deposition mechanism is proposed to rationalize the above findings based on thermodn. simulation. This work demonstrates a unique premature liq.-solid deposition process of Li-S batteries.
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    31. 31
      Zhou, L.; Danilov, D. L.; Eichel, R. A.; Notten, P. H. L. Host Materials Anchoring Polysulfides in Li-S Batteries Reviewed. Adv. Energy Mater. 2021, 11, 2001304,  DOI: 10.1002/aenm.202001304
      31
      Host Materials Anchoring Polysulfides in Li-S Batteries Reviewed
      Zhou, Lei; Danilov, Dmitri L.; Eichel, Ruediger-A.; Notten, Peter H. L.
      Advanced Energy Materials (2021), 11 (15), 2001304CODEN: ADEMBC; ISSN:1614-6840. (Wiley-Blackwell)
      A review. Lithium-sulfur batteries (Li-S) have become a viable alternative to future energy storage devices. The electrochem. reaction based on lithium and sulfur promises an extraordinary theor. energy d., which is far higher than current commercialized Li-ion batteries. However, the principal disadvantage impeding the success of Li-S batteries lies in the severe leakage and migration of sol. lithium polysulfide intermediates out of cathodes upon cycling. The loss of active sulfur species incurs significant capacity decay and poor battery lifespans. Considerable efforts have been devoted to developing various sulfur host materials that can effectively anchor lithium polysulfides. Herein, a comprehensive review is presented of recent advances in sulfur host materials. On the basis of the electrochem. of Li-S batteries, the strategies for anchoring polysulfides are systematically categorized into phys. confinement and chem. bonding. The structural merits of various sulfur host materials are highlighted, and the interaction mechanisms with sulfur species are discussed in detail, which provides valuable insights into the rational design and engineering of advanced sulfur host materials facilitating the commercialization of Li-S batteries. Future challenges and promising research prospects for sulfur host materials are proposed at the end of the review.
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    32. 32
      Yu, B.; He, Q.; Zhao, Y. Exploring the Anchoring Effect and Catalytic Mechanism of 3d Transition Metal Phthalocyanine for S8/LiPSs: A Density Functional Theory Study. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2021, 558, 149928,  DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2021.149928
      32
      Exploring the anchoring effect and catalytic mechanism of 3d transition metal phthalocyanine for S8/LiPSs: A density functional theory study
      Yu, Bin; He, Qiu; Zhao, Yan
      Applied Surface Science (2021), 558 (), 149928CODEN: ASUSEE; ISSN:0169-4332. (Elsevier B.V.)
      The strong anchoring effects for lithium polysulfides (LiPSs), as well as fast redox kinetics, are of great significance and necessity for the com. development of lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs). Metal phthalocyanines (MPc), with special M-N4 moieties, are a class of macrocyclic compds. that have the potential to be employed as sulfur host materials in LSBs. Herein, a series of 3d transition metal phthalocyanines (M = Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn) were systematically investigated for the anchoring effects and catalytic conversion activities for S8/LiPSs. The binding energy anal. demonstrates that most of MPc (except NiPc and CuPc) have stronger binding strength for S8/LiPSs than metal-free phthalocyanine (H2Pc), mainly due to the strong interaction between transition metals and S atoms. Meanwhile, the formation of the M-S bond shows a weakening effect on the Li-S bonds of Li2S then boosts the decompn. of Li2S, and MPc also possesses a relatively lower lithium diffusion barrier than H2Pc. Moreover, MPc can also accelerate the multi-step conversions from S8 to Li2S by reducing the free energy of the rate-limiting reaction (Li2S2 to Li2S) in sulfur redn. reactions (SRR). Among these MPc, TiPc has the best performance in anchoring LiPSs, accelerating the decompn. of Li2S, and promoting SRR.
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    33. 33
      Abraham, K. M.; Jiang, Z. A Polymer Electrolyte-Based Rechargeable Lithium/Oxygen Battery. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1996, 143, 1– 5,  DOI: 10.1149/1.1836378
      33
      A polymer electrolyte-based rechargeable lithium/oxygen battery
      Abraham, K. M.; Jiang, Z.
      Journal of the Electrochemical Society (1996), 143 (1), 1-5CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
      A novel rechargeable Li/O battery is described. The battery comprises a Li+ conductive org. polymer electrolyte membrane sandwiched by a thin Li metal foil anode and a thin carbon composite electrode on which oxygen, the electroactive cathode material, accessed from the environment, is reduced during discharge to generate elec. power. It features an all solid state design in which electrode and electrolyte layers are laminated to form a 200-300 μm thick battery cell. The overall cell reaction during discharge appears to be 2Li + O2 → Li2O2. The battery has an open-circuit voltage of ∼3 V, and a load voltage that spans between 2 and 2.8 V depending on the load resistance. The cell can be recharged with good coulombic efficiency using a cobalt phthalocyanine catalyzed carbon electrode.
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    34. 34
      Ogasawara, T.; Debart, A.; Holzapfel, M.; Novak, P.; Bruce, P. G. Rechargeable Li2O2 Electrode for Lithium Batteries. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 1390– 1393,  DOI: 10.1021/ja056811q
      34
      Rechargeable Li2O2 Electrode for Lithium Batteries
      Ogasawara, Takeshi; Debart, Aurelie; Holzapfel, Michael; Novak, Petr; Bruce, Peter G.
      Journal of the American Chemical Society (2006), 128 (4), 1390-1393CODEN: JACSAT; ISSN:0002-7863. (American Chemical Society)
      Rechargeable lithium batteries represent one of the most important developments in energy storage for 100 years, with the potential to address the key problem of global warming. However, their ability to store energy is limited by the quantity of lithium that may be removed from and reinserted into the intercalation cathode, LixCoO2, 0.5 < x < 1 (corresponding to 140 mA·h/g of charge storage). Abandoning the intercalation electrode and allowing Li to react directly with O2 from the air at a porous electrode increases the theor. charge storage by a remarkable 5-10 times. Here we demonstrate two essential prerequisites for the successful operation of a rechargeable Li/O2 battery: (a) the Li2O2 formed on discharging such an O2 electrode is decompd. to Li and O2 on charging (shown here by in situ mass spectrometry), with or without a catalyst, and (b) charge/discharge cycling is sustainable for many cycles.
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    35. 35
      Feng, N. N.; He, P.; Zhou, H. S. Critical Challenges in Rechargeable Aprotic Li-O2 Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2016, 6, 1502303,  DOI: 10.1002/aenm.201502303
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    36. 36
      Bruce, P. G.; Freunberger, S. A.; Hardwick, L. J.; Tarascon, J. M. Li-O2 and Li-S Batteries with High Energy Storage. Nat. Mater. 2012, 11, 19– 29,  DOI: 10.1038/nmat3191
      36
      Li-O2 and Li-S batteries with high energy storage
      Bruce, Peter G.; Freunberger, Stefan A.; Hardwick, Laurence J.; Tarascon, Jean-Marie
      Nature Materials (2012), 11 (1), 19-29CODEN: NMAACR; ISSN:1476-1122. (Nature Publishing Group)
      Li-ion batteries have transformed portable electronics and will play a key role in the electrification of transport. However, the highest energy storage possible for Li-ion batteries is insufficient for the long-term needs of society, for example, extended-range elec. vehicles. To go beyond the horizon of Li-ion batteries is a formidable challenge; there are few options. Here Li-air (O2) and Li-S batteries are considered. The energy that can be stored in Li-air (based on aq. or non-aq. electrolytes) and Li-S cells is compared with Li-ion; the operation of the cells is discussed, as are the significant hurdles that will have to be overcome if such batteries are to succeed. Fundamental scientific advances in understanding the reactions occurring in the cells as well as new materials are key to overcoming these obstacles. The potential benefits of Li-air and Li-S justify the continued research effort that will be needed.
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    37. 37
      Luntz, A. C.; McCloskey, B. D. Nonaqueous Li-Air Batteries: A Status Report. Chem. Rev. 2014, 114, 11721– 11750,  DOI: 10.1021/cr500054y
      37
      Nonaqueous Li-Air Batteries: A Status Report
      Luntz, Alan C.; McCloskey, Bryan D.
      Chemical Reviews (Washington, DC, United States) (2014), 114 (23), 11721-11750CODEN: CHREAY; ISSN:0009-2665. (American Chemical Society)
      A review summarizing current status of research on nonaq. lithium-air batteries.
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    38. 38
      Lu, J.; Cheng, L.; Lau, K. C.; Tyo, E.; Luo, X. Y.; Wen, J. G.; Miller, D.; Assary, R. S.; Wang, H. H.; Redfern, P.; Wu, H. M.; Park, J. B.; Sun, Y. K.; Vajda, S.; Amine, K.; Curtiss, L. A. Effect of the Size-Selective Silver Clusters on Lithium Peroxide Morphology in Lithium-Oxygen Batteries. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 4895,  DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5895
      38
      Effect of the size-selective silver clusters on lithium peroxide morphology in lithium-oxygen batteries
      Lu, Jun; Cheng, Lei; Lau, Kah Chun; Tyo, Eric; Luo, Xiangyi; Wen, Jianguo; Miller, Dean; Assary, Rajeev S.; Wang, Hsien-Hau; Redfern, Paul; Wu, Huiming; Park, Jin-Bum; Sun, Yang-Kook; Vajda, Stefan; Amine, Khalil; Curtiss, Larry A.
      Nature Communications (2014), 5 (), 4895CODEN: NCAOBW; ISSN:2041-1723. (Nature Publishing Group)
      Lithium-oxygen batteries have the potential needed for long-range elec. vehicles, but the charge and discharge chemistries are complex and not well understood. The active sites on cathode surfaces and their role in electrochem. reactions in aprotic lithium-oxygen cells are difficult to ascertain because the exact nature of the sites is unknown. Here we report the deposition of subnanometre silver clusters of exact size and no. of atoms on passivated carbon to study the discharge process in lithium-oxygen cells. The results reveal dramatically different morphologies of the electrochem. grown lithium peroxide dependent on the size of the clusters. This dependence is found to be due to the influence of the cluster size on the formation mechanism, which also affects the charge process. The results of this study suggest that precise control of subnanometre surface structure on cathodes can be used as a means to improve the performance of lithium-oxygen cells.
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    39. 39
      Kraytsberg, A.; Ein-Eli, Y. Review on Li-Air Batteries-Opportunities, Limitations and Perspective. J. Power Sources 2011, 196, 886– 893,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.09.031
      39
      Review on Li-air batteries-Opportunities, limitations and perspective
      Kraytsberg, Alexander; Ein-Eli, Yair
      Journal of Power Sources (2011), 196 (3), 886-893CODEN: JPSODZ; ISSN:0378-7753. (Elsevier B.V.)
      A review. Li-air batteries are potentially viable ultrahigh energy d. chem. power sources, which could potentially offer specific energies up to ∼3000O Wh·kg-1 being rechargeable. The modern state of art and the challenges in the field of Li-air batteries are considered. Although their implementation holds the greatest promise in a no. of applications ranging from portable electronics to elec. vehicles, there are also impressive challenges in development of cathode materials and electrolyte systems of these batteries.
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    40. 40
      McCloskey, B. D.; Burke, C. M.; Nichols, J. E.; Renfrew, S. E. Mechanistic Insights for the Development of Li-O2 Battery Materials: Addressing Li2O2 Conductivity Limitations and Electrolyte and Cathode Instabilities. Chem. Commun. 2015, 51, 12701– 12715,  DOI: 10.1039/C5CC04620C
      40
      Mechanistic insights for the development of Li-O2 battery materials: addressing Li2O2 conductivity limitations and electrolyte and cathode instabilities
      McCloskey, Bryan D.; Burke, Colin M.; Nichols, Jessica E.; Renfrew, Sara E.
      Chemical Communications (Cambridge, United Kingdom) (2015), 51 (64), 12701-12715CODEN: CHCOFS; ISSN:1359-7345. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      A review of mechanistic insights for the development of the Li-O2 battery, esp. with emphasis on Li2O2 cond. and limitations on instabilities of the electrolyte and the cathode. Other topics discussed include Li2O2 formation and parasitic side reactions, galvanostatic Li-O2 battery discharge-charge cycle, measurement of rechargeability in Li-O2 batteries, heterogeneous electrocatalysts, polymer binders and binder-free electrodes, mechanism of Li2O2 deposition, high-capacity electrolytes, and use of redox mediators and solubilizing agents. Electrolyte and cathode instabilities and Li2O2 cond. limitations are then discussed, and suggestions for future materials research development to alleviate these issues are provided.
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    41. 41
      Lu, Y. C.; Shao-Horn, Y. Probing the Reaction Kinetics of the Charge Reactions of Nonaqueous Li-O2 Batteries. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2013, 4, 93– 99,  DOI: 10.1021/jz3018368
      41
      Probing the Reaction Kinetics of the Charge Reactions of Nonaqueous Li-O2 Batteries
      Lu, Yi-Chun; Shao-Horn, Yang
      Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters (2013), 4 (1), 93-99CODEN: JPCLCD; ISSN:1948-7185. (American Chemical Society)
      Understanding the reaction mechanism of nonaq. oxygen redn. reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is key to increase the low round-trip efficiency and power capability of rechargeable Li-air batteries. Here we show that the ORR kinetics are much faster than OER kinetics and OER occurs in two distinct stages upon Li-air battery charging. The first OER stage occurs at low overpotentials (<400 mV) with a slopping voltage profile, whose kinetics are relatively insensitive to charge rates and catalysts. This OER stage could be attributed to the delithiation of the outer part of Li2O2 forming lithium-deficient Li2-xO2, which is chem. disproportionate to evolve O2. The second stage takes place at high overpotentials (400-1200 mV), whose kinetics are sensitive to discharge/charge rates and catalysts, which can be attributed to the oxidn. of bulk Li2O2 particles. Our study provides insights into bridging current two schools of thought on the OER mechanism.
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    42. 42
      McCloskey, B. D.; Scheffler, R.; Speidel, A.; Bethune, D. S.; Shelby, R. M.; Luntz, A. C. On the Efficacy of Electrocatalysis in Nonaqueous Li-O2 Batteries. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 18038– 18041,  DOI: 10.1021/ja207229n
      42
      On the Efficacy of Electrocatalysis in Nonaqueous Li-O2 Batteries
      McCloskey, Bryan D.; Scheffler, Rouven; Speidel, Angela; Bethune, Donald S.; Shelby, Robert M.; Luntz, A. C.
      Journal of the American Chemical Society (2011), 133 (45), 18038-18041CODEN: JACSAT; ISSN:0002-7863. (American Chemical Society)
      Heterogeneous electrocatalysis has become a focal point in rechargeable Li-air battery research to reduce overpotentials in both the O redn. (discharge) and esp. O evolution (charge) reactions. Past reports of traditional cathode electrocatalysis in nonaq. Li-O2 batteries were indeed true, but gas evolution related to electrolyte solvent decompn. was the dominant process being catalyzed. In dimethoxyethane, where Li2O2 formation is the dominant product of the electrochem., no catalytic activity (compared to pure C) is obsd. using the same (Au, Pt, MnO2) nanoparticles. Nevertheless, the onset potential of O evolution is only slightly higher than the open circuit potential of the cell, indicating conventional O evolution electrocatalysis may be unnecessary.
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    43. 43
      Xia, H.; Xie, Q. F.; Tian, Y. H.; Chen, Q.; Wen, M.; Zhang, J. L.; Wang, Y.; Tang, Y. P.; Zhang, S. High-Efficient CoPt/Activated Functional Carbon Catalyst for Li-O2 Batteries. Nano Energy 2021, 84, 105877,  DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.105877
      43
      High-efficient CoPt/activated functional carbon catalyst for Li-O2 batteries
      Xia, Han; Xie, Qifan; Tian, Yuhui; Chen, Qiang; Wen, Ming; Zhang, Jianli; Wang, Yao; Tang, Yiping; Zhang, Shanqing
      Nano Energy (2021), 84 (), 105877CODEN: NEANCA; ISSN:2211-2855. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The rational design and synthesis of highly-efficient cathode catalysts are of importance to high-performance lithium-oxygen batteries (LOBs). In this work, We use crab shell waste as a carbon source through carbonization, activation, and sol-gel method to synthesize activated functional carbon (AFC) and fabricate CoPt/AFC catalyst for Li-O2 batteries. The as-prepd. AFC possesses abundant hydroxyl (OH-) and amino (NH2-) groups as the link bridge for enhancing the metal-support interaction. Revealed by the d. functional theory calcns., the tuned adsorption for intermediates and reduced overpotentials for both oxygen redn. and evolution reactions (ORR and OER) are achieved on such the composite structure. Exptl., CoPt nanoparticles are evenly distributed on the surface of OH- and NH2- functionalized porous carbon through the sol-gel method. The abundant pore structures in the resultant catalyst (CoPt/AFC) can provide sufficient room for depositing discharge products. Moreover, the side reactions are effectively suppressed, as evidenced by the in-situ Raman spectra. As a result, the LOBs with the CoPt/AFC cathode present excellent electrochem. performances with a high discharge specific capacity of 8.25 mAh cm-2, a low overpotential of 0.47 V, and good cycling stability of 156 cycles.
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    44. 44
      Liu, W.; Liu, P. C.; Mitlin, D. Review of Emerging Concepts in SEI Analysis and Artificial SEI Membranes for Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium Metal Battery Anodes. Adv. Energy Mater. 2020, 10, 2002297,  DOI: 10.1002/aenm.202002297
      44
      Review of emerging concepts in solid electrolyte interphase analysis and artificial solid electrolyte interphase membranes for lithium, sodium, and potassium metal battery anodes
      Liu, Wei; Liu, Pengcheng; Mitlin, David
      Advanced Energy Materials (2020), 10 (43), 2002297CODEN: ADEMBC; ISSN:1614-6840. (Wiley-Blackwell)
      A review. Anodes for lithium metal batteries, sodium metal batteries, and potassium metal batteries are susceptible to failure due to dendrite growth. This review details the structure-chem.-performance relations in membranes that stabilize the anodes solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), allowing for stable electrochem. plating/stripping. Case studies involving Li, Na, and K are presented to illustrate key concepts. "Classical" vs. "modern" understandings of the SEI are described, with an emphasis on the new structural insights obtained through novel anal. techniques, including in situ liq.-secondary ion mass spectroscopy, titrn. gas chromatog., and tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. This Review highlights diverse approaches for increasing SEI stability, either by inserting a secondary layer between the native SEI and the separator, or by combining the membrane with a native SEI to form a hybrid composite. Exciting and nonintuitive findings are discussed, such as that the metal anode roughness profoundly affects the SEI structure and stability, or that org. artificial SEI-layers may be more effective than the native inorg.-org. SEIs. Emerging multifunctional architectures are presented, which serve a dual role as metal hosts and metal surface protection layers. Throughout the Review, fruitful future research directions and the crit. areas where there is incomplete understanding are discussed.
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    45. 45
      Adenusi, H.; Chass, G. A.; Passerini, S.; Tian, K. V.; Chen, G. H. Lithium Batteries and the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI)-Progress and Outlook. Adv. Energy Mater. 2023, 13, 2203307,  DOI: 10.1002/aenm.202203307
      45
      Lithium Batteries and the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI)-Progress and Outlook
      Adenusi, Henry; Chass, Gregory A.; Passerini, Stefano; Tian, Kun V.; Chen, Guanhua
      Advanced Energy Materials (2023), 13 (10), 2203307CODEN: ADEMBC; ISSN:1614-6840. (Wiley-Blackwell)
      A review. Interfacial dynamics within chem. systems such as electron and ion transport processes have relevance in the rational optimization of electrochem. energy storage materials and devices. Evolving the understanding of fundamental electrochem. at interfaces would also help in the understanding of relevant phenomena in biol., microbial, pharmaceutical, electronic, and photonic systems. In lithium-ion batteries, the electrochem. instability of the electrolyte and its ensuing reactive decompn. proceeds at the anode surface within the Helmholtz double layer resulting in a buildup of the reductive products, forming the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). This review summarizes relevant aspects of the SEI including formation, compn., dynamic structure, and reaction mechanisms, focusing primarily on the graphite anode with insights into the lithium metal anode. Furthermore, the influence of the electrolyte and electrode materials on SEI structure and properties is discussed. An update is also presented on state-of-the-art approaches to quant. characterize the structure and changing properties of the SEI. Lastly, a framework evaluating the standing problems and future research directions including feasible computational, machine learning, and exptl. approaches are outlined.
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    46. 46
      Borodin, O.; Jow, T. R. Quantum Chemistry Studies of the Oxidative Stability of Carbonate, Sulfone and Sulfonate-Based Electrolytes Doped with BF4–, PF6– Anions. ECS Trans. 2011, 33, 77– 84,  DOI: 10.1149/1.3563092
      46
      Quantum chemistry studies of the oxidative stability of carbonate, sulfone and sulfonate-based electrolytes doped with BF4-, PF6- anions
      Borodin, Oleg; Jow, T. Richard
      ECS Transactions (2011), 33 (28, Non-Aqueous Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries), 77-84CODEN: ECSTF8; ISSN:1938-5862. (Electrochemical Society)
      Quantum chem. studies of the oxidative stability of carbonate, sulfonate and sulfone-based solvents with and without BF4-, PF6- anions were performed using M05-2X Minnesota d. functional and cc-pvTz basis set. Presence of BF4- and PF6- anions was found to significantly decrease oxidative stability of a no. of carbonate solvents such as ethylene carbonate, di-Me carbonate and propylene carbonate via HF formation. Oxidn. of the tetra-Me sulfone/BF4- and propargyl methanesulfonate/PF6- complexes resulted in the fluorine transfer to the solvent. Oxidn. of the tetra-Me sulfone/BF4- complex also resulted in a spontaneous ring opening. No water was needed to form PF5 and BF3 upon oxidn. of the solvent/BF4- and solvent/PF6- complexes. D. functional ests. of the solvent/anion oxidative stability were found in good agreement with available exptl. data for non-active electrodes after polarized continuum model was utilized to implicitly account for the surrounding solvent dielec. permittivity.
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    47. 47
      Xing, L. D.; Borodin, O.; Smith, G. D.; Li, W. S. Density Functional Theory Study of the Role of Anions on the Oxidative Decomposition Reaction of Propylene Carbonate. J. Phys. Chem. A 2011, 115, 13896– 13905,  DOI: 10.1021/jp206153n
      47
      Density Functional Theory Study of the Role of Anions on the Oxidative Decomposition Reaction of Propylene Carbonate
      Xing, Lidan; Borodin, Oleg; Smith, Grant D.; Li, Weishan
      Journal of Physical Chemistry A (2011), 115 (47), 13896-13905CODEN: JPCAFH; ISSN:1089-5639. (American Chemical Society)
      The oxidative decompn. mechanism of the lithium battery electrolyte solvent propylene carbonate (PC) with and without PF6- and ClO4- anions has been investigated using the d. functional theory at the B3LYP/6-311++G(d) level. Calcns. were performed in the gas phase (dielec. const. ε = 1) and employing the polarized continuum model with a dielec. const. ε = 20.5 to implicitly account for solvent effects. It has been found that the presence of PF6- and ClO4- anions significantly reduces PC oxidn. stability, stabilizes the PC-anion oxidn. decompn. products, and changes the order of the oxidn. decompn. paths. The primary oxidative decompn. products of PC-PF6- and PC-ClO4- were CO2 and acetone radical. Formation of HF and PF5 was obsd. upon the initial step of PC-PF6- oxidn. while HClO4 formed during initial oxidn. of PC-ClO4-. The products from the less likely reaction paths included propanal, a polymer with fluorine and fluoro-alkanols for PC-PF6- decompn., while acetic acid, carboxylic acid anhydrides, and Cl- were found among the decompn. products of PC-ClO4-. The decompn. pathways with the lowest barrier for the oxidized PC-PF6- and PC-ClO4- complexes did not result in the incorporation of the fluorine from PF6- or ClO4- into the most probable reaction products despite anions and HF being involved in the decompn. mechanism; however, the pathway with the second lowest barrier for the PC-PF6- oxidative ring opening resulted in a formation of fluoro-org. compds., suggesting that these toxic compds. could form at elevated temps. under oxidizing conditions.
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    48. 48
      Zhang, X. R.; Pugh, J. K.; Ross, P. N. Computation of Thermodynamic Oxidation Potentials of Organic Solvents Using Density Functional Theory. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2001, 148, E183– E188,  DOI: 10.1149/1.1362546
      48
      Computation of thermodynamic oxidation potentials of organic solvents using density functional theory
      Zhang, Xuerong; Pugh, James K.; Ross, Philip N.
      Journal of the Electrochemical Society (2001), 148 (5), E183-E188CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
      Ethers and org. carbonates are commonly used as solvents in lithium battery electrolyte. It is important to det. the oxidn. potentials of these org. solvents due to the high cathode potential (∼5 V) in many of these batteries. There are significant variations in the reported oxidn. potentials for electrolytes contg. these solvents. The factors contributing to the variation include the type of salt used in the electrolyte, compn. of the electrode, and a somewhat arbitrary detn. of the oxidn. potential from the anodic cutoff current. We report here the application of d. functional theory (DFT) to calc. solvent oxidn. potentials assuming oxidn. occurs via one-electron transfer to form the radical cation. No specific ion-ion, ion-solvent, or ion-electrode interactions are included. These values are then compared to the exptl. observations. Eleven solvent mols. are studied: 1,2-dimethoxyethane, THF, 1,3-dioxolane, diethylcarbonate, dimethylcarbonate, ethylmethylcarbonate, ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, butylene carbonate, vinylene carbonate, and catechol carbonate. Optimized geometries of the radical cations correlate well with the fragmentation patterns obsd. in mass spectrometry. The oxidn. potentials of satd. carbonates are calcd. to be approx. 1 V higher than the org. ethers, which is consistent with reported literature values. Quant. comparison with expt. will require more careful measurements to eliminate other oxidn. reactions and a standardized procedure for detg. the oxidn. potential.
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    49. 49
      Goodenough, J. B.; Kim, Y. Challenges for Rechargeable Li Batteries. Chem. Mater. 2010, 22, 587– 603,  DOI: 10.1021/cm901452z
      49
      Challenges for Rechargeable Li Batteries
      Goodenough, John B.; Kim, Youngsik
      Chemistry of Materials (2010), 22 (3), 587-603CODEN: CMATEX; ISSN:0897-4756. (American Chemical Society)
      A review of challenges for further development of Li rechargeable batteries for elec. vehicles. Most important is safety, which requires development of a nonflammable electrolyte with either a larger window between its LUMO and HOMO or a constituent (or additive) that can develop rapidly a solid/electrolyte interface (SEI) layer to prevent plating of Li on a carbon anode during a fast charge of the battery. A high Li+-ion cond. (σLi > 10-4 S/cm) in the electrolyte and across the electrode/electrolyte interface is needed for a power battery. Important also is an increase in the d. of the stored energy, which is the product of the voltage and capacity of reversible Li insertion/extn. into/from the electrodes. It will be difficult to design a better anode than carbon, but carbon requires formation of an SEI layer, which involves an irreversible capacity loss. The design of a cathode composed of environmentally benign, low-cost materials that has its electrochem. potential μC well-matched to the HOMO of the electrolyte and allows access to two Li atoms per transition-metal cation would increase the energy d., but it is a daunting challenge. Two redox couples can be accessed where the cation redox couples are pinned at the top of the O 2p bands, but to take advantage of this possibility, it must be realized in a framework structure that can accept more than one Li atom per transition-metal cation. Moreover, such a situation represents an intrinsic voltage limit of the cathode, and matching this limit to the HOMO of the electrolyte requires the ability to tune the intrinsic voltage limit. Finally, the chem. compatibility in the battery must allow a long service life.
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    50. 50
      Leung, K. Two-electron reduction of ethylene carbonate: A Quantum Chemistry Re-Examination of Mechanisms. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2013, 568, 1– 8,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2012.08.022
      50
      Two-electron reduction of ethylene carbonate: A quantum chemistry re-examination of mechanisms
      Leung, Kevin
      Chemical Physics Letters (2013), 568-569 (), 1-8CODEN: CHPLBC; ISSN:0009-2614. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Passivating solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) films arising from electrolyte decompn. on low-voltage Li ion battery anode surfaces are crit. for battery operations. The authors discuss recent theor. literature on electrolyte decompn. and emphasize the modeling work on 2-electron redn. of ethylene carbonate (EC, a key battery org. solvent). One of the 2-electron pathways, which releases CO gas, is reexamd. using simple quantum chem. calcns. Excess electrons preferentially attack EC in the order (broken EC-) > (intact EC-) > EC. This confirms the viability of 2 electron processes and emphasizes that they need to be considered when interpreting SEI expts. A speculative est. of the crossover between 1- and 2-electron regimes under a homogeneous reaction zone approxn. is proposed.
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    51. 51
      Vollmer, J. M.; Curtiss, L. A.; Vissers, D. R.; Amine, K. Reduction Mechanisms of Ethylene, Propylene, and Vinylethylene Carbonates - A Quantum Chemical Study. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2004, 151, A178– A183,  DOI: 10.1149/1.1633765
      51
      Reduction Mechanisms of Ethylene, Propylene, and Vinylethylene Carbonates
      Vollmer, James M.; Curtiss, Larry A.; Vissers, Donald R.; Amine, Khalil
      Journal of the Electrochemical Society (2004), 151 (1), A178-A183CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
      Quantum chem. methods were used to study redn. mechanisms of ethylene carbonate (EC), propylene carbonate (PC), and vinylethylene carbonate (VEC), in electrolyte solns. The feasibility of direct 2-electron redn. of these species was assessed, and for VEC no barriers to the reactions were found for the formation of Li2CO3 and 1,4-butadiene. In contrast EC and PC have barriers to reactions of ∼0.5 eV. The ready formation of Li2CO3 when VEC is reduced may explain why it acts as a good passivating agent in Li-ion batteries.
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    52. 52
      Wang, Y. X.; Nakamura, S.; Ue, M.; Balbuena, P. B. Theoretical Studies to Understand Surface Chemistry on Carbon Anodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries: Reduction Mechanisms of Ethylene Carbonate. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 11708– 11718,  DOI: 10.1021/ja0164529
      52
      Theoretical studies to understand surface chemistry on carbon anodes for lithium-ion batteries: Reduction mechanisms of ethylene carbonate
      Wang, Yixuan; Nakamura, Shinichiro; Ue, Makoto; Balbuena, Perla B.
      Journal of the American Chemical Society (2001), 123 (47), 11708-11718CODEN: JACSAT; ISSN:0002-7863. (American Chemical Society)
      Reductive decompn. mechanisms for ethylene carbonate (EC) mol. in electrolyte solns. for lithium-ion batteries are comprehensively investigated by using d. functional theory. In gas phase the redn. of EC is thermodynamically forbidden, whereas in bulk solvent it is likely to undergo one- as well as two-electron redn. processes. The presence of Li cation considerably stabilizes the EC redn. intermediates. The adiabatic electron affinities of the supermol. Li+(EC)n (n = 1-4) successively decrease with the no. of EC mols., independently of EC or Li+ being reduced. Regarding the reductive decompn. mechanism, Li+(EC)n is initially reduced to an ion-pair intermediate that will undergo homolytic C-O bond cleavage via an approx. 11.0 kcal/mol barrier, bringing up a radical anion coordinated with Li+. Among the possible termination pathways of the radical anion, thermodynamically the most favorable is the formation of lithium butylene bicarbonate, (CH2CH2OCO2Li)2, followed by the formation of one O-Li bond compd. contg. an ester group, LiO(CH2)2CO2(CH2)2OCO2Li, then two very competitive reactions of the further redn. of the radical anion and the formation of lithium ethylene bicarbonate, (CH2OCO2Li)2, and the least favorable is the formation of a C-Li bond compd. (Li carbides), Li(CH2)2OCO2Li. The products show a weak EC concn. dependence as has also been revealed for the reactions of LiCO3- with Li+(EC)n; i.e., the formation of Li2CO3 is slightly more favorable at low EC concns., whereas (CH2OCO2Li)2 is favored at high EC concns. A two-electron redn. indeed takes place by a stepwise path. Regarding the compn. of the surface films resulting from solvent redn., for which expts. usually indicate that (CH2OCO2Li)2 is a dominant component, we conclude that they comprise two leading lithium alkyl bicarbonates, (CH2CH2OCO2Li)2 and (CH2OCO2Li)2, together with LiO(CH2)2CO2(CH2)2OCO2Li, Li(CH2)2OCO2Li and Li2CO3.
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    53. 53
      Leung, K. Electronic Structure Modeling of Electrochemical Reactions at Electrode/Electrolyte Interfaces in Lithium Ion Batteries. J. Phys. Chem. C 2013, 117, 1539– 1547,  DOI: 10.1021/jp308929a
      53
      Electronic Structure Modeling of Electrochemical Reactions at Electrode/Electrolyte Interfaces in Lithium Ion Batteries
      Leung, Kevin
      Journal of Physical Chemistry C (2013), 117 (4), 1539-1547CODEN: JPCCCK; ISSN:1932-7447. (American Chemical Society)
      A review of recent ab initio mol. dynamics studies of electrode/electrolyte interfaces in lithium-ion batteries. Our goals are to introduce experimentalists to simulation techniques applicable to models which are arguably most faithful to exptl. conditions so far, and to emphasize to theorists that the inherently interdisciplinary nature of this subject requires bridging the gap between solid and liq. state perspectives. We consider liq. ethylene carbonate decompn. on lithium intercalated graphite, lithium metal, oxide-coated graphite, and spinel manganese oxide surfaces. These calcns. are put in the context of more widely studied water-solid interfaces. Our main themes include kinetically controlled two-electron-induced reactions, the breaking of a previously much neglected chem. bond in ethylene carbonate, and electron tunneling. Future work on modeling batteries at at. length scales requires capabilities beyond state-of-the-art, which emphasizes that applied battery research can and should drive fundamental science development.
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    54. 54
      Chattopadhyay, S.; Lipson, A. L.; Karmel, H. J.; Emery, J. D.; Fister, T. T.; Fenter, P. A.; Hersam, M. C.; Bedzyk, M. J. In Situ X-ray Study of the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) Formation on Graphene as a Model Li-ion Battery Anode. Chem. Mater. 2012, 24, 3038– 3043,  DOI: 10.1021/cm301584r
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      In Situ X-ray Study of the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) Formation on Graphene as a Model Li-ion Battery Anode
      Chattopadhyay, Sudeshna; Lipson, Albert L.; Karmel, Hunter J.; Emery, Jonathan D.; Fister, Timothy T.; Fenter, Paul A.; Hersam, Mark C.; Bedzyk, Michael J.
      Chemistry of Materials (2012), 24 (15), 3038-3043CODEN: CMATEX; ISSN:0897-4756. (American Chemical Society)
      The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) plays a crit. role in the performance and safety of Li-ion batteries, but the crystal structure of the materials formed have not been previously studied. The authors employ the model system of epitaxial graphene on SiC to provide a well-defined graphitic surface to study the crystallinity and texture formation in the SEI. The authors observe, via in situ synchrotron x-ray scattering, the formation and growth of LiF crystallites at the graphene surface, which increase in size with lithiation dose and are textured such that the LiF (002) planes are approx. parallel to the graphene sheets. Also, XPS reveals the compn. of the SEI formed in this system to consist of LiF and org. compds. similar to those found previously on graphite. SEI components, other than LiF, do not produce x-ray diffraction peaks and are categorized as amorphous. From high-resoln. TEM, the LiF crystallites are seen in near proximity to the graphene surface along with addnl. apparently amorphous material, which probably is other SEI components detected by XPS and/or misoriented LiF. This new understanding that LiF crystallites grow on the graphene surface with strong texturing will assist future efforts to model and engineer the SEI formed on graphitic materials.
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    55. 55
      Jiang, J. W.; Dahn, J. R. Effects of Solvents and Salts on the Thermal Stability of LiC6. Electrochim. Acta 2004, 49, 4599– 4604,  DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2004.05.014
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      Effects of solvents and salts on the thermal stability of LiC6
      Jiang, Junwei; Dahn, J. R.
      Electrochimica Acta (2004), 49 (26), 4599-4604CODEN: ELCAAV; ISSN:0013-4686. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Accelerating rate calorimetry (ARC) was used to study the thermal stability of Li0.81C6 in di-Me carbonate (DMC), di-Et carbonate (DEC), ethylene carbonate (EC), and an EC/DEC mixt., as well as in LiPF6- and LiBOB-based electrolytes. ARC results show that linear carbonates like DMC or DEC react strongly with Li0.81C6 and that robust passivating layers do not form. By contrast, the cyclic carbonate, EC, creates a robust passivating film that limits the rate of reaction between Li0.81C6 and EC as the temp. increases. X-ray diffraction shows that the addn. of LiPF6 to EC/DEC changes the surface film that forms on Li0.81C6 at elevated temp. to one dominated by LiF instead of lithium-alkyl carbonate or lithium carbonate. This increases the thermal stability of Li0.81C6 in LiPF6 electrolyte compared to pure EC/DEC solvent. By an apparently similar mechanism, the addn. of only 0.2 M LiBOB to EC/DEC greatly improves the thermal stability of Li0.81C6. ARC results for Li0.81C6 in pure and mixed salt LiPF6 and LiBOB EC/DEC electrolytes of various molarities shed light on the reasons for the beneficial effect of the salts.
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    56. 56
      Malmgren, S.; Ciosek, K.; Lindblad, R.; Plogmaker, S.; Kuhn, J.; Rensmo, H.; Edstrom, K.; Hahlin, M. Consequences of Air Exposure on the Lithiated Graphite SEI. Electrochim. Acta 2013, 105, 83– 91,  DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.04.118
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      Consequences of air exposure on the lithiated graphite SEI
      Malmgren, Sara; Ciosek, Katarzyna; Lindblad, Rebecka; Plogmaker, Stefan; Kuhn, Julius; Rensmo, Haakan; Edstroem, Kristina; Hahlin, Maria
      Electrochimica Acta (2013), 105 (), 83-91CODEN: ELCAAV; ISSN:0013-4686. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Consequences of air exposure on the surface compn. of one of the most reactive Li-ion battery components, the lithiated graphite, was studied using 280-835 eV soft XPS (SOXPES) as well as 1486.7 eV XPS (∼2 and ∼10 nm probing depth, resp.). Different depth regions of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) of graphite cycled vs. LiFePO4 were thereby examd. Also, the air sensitivity of samples subject to four different combinations of pre-treatments (washed/unwashed and exposed to air before or after vacuum treatment) was explored. The samples showed important changes after exposure to air, which are largely dependent on sample pre-treatment. Changes after exposure of unwashed samples exposed before vacuum treatment were attributed to reactions involving volatile species. On washed, air exposed samples, as well as unwashed samples exposed after vacuum treatment, effects attributed to LiOH formation in the innermost SEI were obsd. and suggested to be assocd. with partial delithiation of the surface region of the lithiated graphite electrode. Also, effects that can be attributed to LiPF6 decompn. were obsd. However, these effects were less pronounced than those attributed to reactions involving solvent species and the lithiated graphite.
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    57. 57
      Gauthier, M.; Carney, T. J.; Grimaud, A.; Giordano, L.; Pour, N.; Chang, H.-H.; Fenning, D. P.; Lux, S. F.; Paschos, O.; Bauer, C.; Maglia, F.; Lupart, S.; Lamp, P.; Shao-Horn, Y. Electrode-Electrolyte Interface in Li-Ion Batteries: Current Understanding and New Insights. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2015, 6, 4653– 4672,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.5b01727
      57
      Electrode-Electrolyte Interface in Li-Ion Batteries: Current Understanding and New Insights
      Gauthier, Magali; Carney, Thomas J.; Grimaud, Alexis; Giordano, Livia; Pour, Nir; Chang, Hao-Hsun; Fenning, David P.; Lux, Simon F.; Paschos, Odysseas; Bauer, Christoph; Maglia, Filippo; Lupart, Saskia; Lamp, Peter; Shao-Horn, Yang
      Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters (2015), 6 (22), 4653-4672CODEN: JPCLCD; ISSN:1948-7185. (American Chemical Society)
      A review. Understanding reactions at the electrode/electrolyte interface (EEI) is essential to developing strategies to enhance cycle life and safety of lithium batteries. Despite research in the past four decades, there is still limited understanding by what means different components are formed at the EEI and how they affect EEI layer properties. Findings used to establish the well-known mosaic structure model are reviewed for the EEI (often referred to as solid electrolyte interphase or SEI) on neg. electrodes including lithium, graphite, tin, and silicon. Much less understanding exists for EEI layers for pos. electrodes. High-capacity Li-rich layered oxides yLi2-xMnO3·(1-y)Li1-xMO2, which can generate highly reactive species toward the electrolyte via oxygen anion redox, highlight the crit. need to understand reactions with the electrolyte and EEI layers for advanced pos. electrodes. Recent advances in in situ characterization of well-defined electrode surfaces can provide mechanistic insights and strategies to tailor EEI layer compn. and properties.
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    58. 58
      Yu, Y.; Karayaylali, P.; Katayama, Y.; Giordano, L.; Gauthier, M.; Maglia, F.; Jung, R.; Lund, I.; Shao-Horn, Y. Coupled LiPF6 Decomposition and Carbonate Dehydrogenation Enhanced by Highly Covalent Metal Oxides in High-Energy Li-Ion Batteries. J. Phys. Chem. C 2018, 122, 27368– 27382,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.8b07848
      58
      Coupled LiPF6 Decomposition and Carbonate Dehydrogenation Enhanced by Highly Covalent Metal Oxides in High-Energy Li-Ion Batteries
      Yu, Yang; Karayaylali, Pinar; Katayama, Yu; Giordano, Livia; Gauthier, Magali; Maglia, Filippo; Jung, Roland; Lund, Isaac; Shao-Horn, Yang
      Journal of Physical Chemistry C (2018), 122 (48), 27368-27382CODEN: JPCCCK; ISSN:1932-7447. (American Chemical Society)
      The (electro)chem. reactions between pos. electrodes and electrolytes are not well understood. The oxidn. is examd. of a LiPF6-based electrolyte with ethylene carbonate (EC) with layered lithium nickel, manganese, and cobalt oxides (NMC). D. functional theory calcns. showed that the driving force for EC dehydrogenation on oxides, yielding surface protic species, increased with greater Ni content in NMC. Ex situ IR and Raman spectroscopy revealed exptl. evidence for EC dehydrogenation on charged NMC surfaces. Protic species on charged NMC surfaces from EC dehydrogenation could further react with LiPF6 to generate less-coordinated F species such as PF3O-like and lithium nickel oxyfluoride species on charged NMC particles and HF and PF2O2- in the electrolyte. Larger degree of salt decompn. was coupled with increasing EC dehydrogenation on charged NMC with increasing Ni or lithium deintercalation. An oxide-mediated chem. oxidn. of electrolytes was proposed, providing new insights in stabilizing high-energy pos. electrodes and improving Li-ion battery cycle life.
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    59. 59
      Giordano, L.; Karayaylali, P.; Yu, Y.; Katayama, Y.; Maglia, F.; Lux, S.; Shao-Horn, Y. Chemical Reactivity Descriptor for the Oxide-Electrolyte Interface in Li-Ion Batteries. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2017, 8, 3881– 3887,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.7b01655
      59
      Chemical Reactivity Descriptor for the Oxide-Electrolyte Interface in Li-Ion Batteries
      Giordano, Livia; Karayaylali, Pinar; Yu, Yang; Katayama, Yu; Maglia, Filippo; Lux, Simon; Shao-Horn, Yang
      Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters (2017), 8 (16), 3881-3887CODEN: JPCLCD; ISSN:1948-7185. (American Chemical Society)
      Understanding electrochem. and chem. reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interface is of fundamental importance for the safety and cycle life of Li-ion batteries. Pos. electrode materials such as layered transition metal oxides exhibit different degrees of chem. reactivity with commonly used carbonate-based electrolytes. Here we employed d. functional theory methods to compare the energetics of four different chem. reactions between ethylene carbonate (EC) and layered (LixMO2) and rocksalt (MO) oxide surfaces. EC dissocn. on layered oxides was found energetically more favorable than nucleophilic attack, electrophilic attack, and EC dissocn. with oxygen extn. from the oxide surface. In addn., EC dissocn. became energetically more favorable on the oxide surfaces with transition metal ions from left to right on the periodic table or by increasing transition metal valence in the oxides, where higher degree of EC dissocn. was found as the Fermi level was lowered into the oxide O 2p band.
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    60. 60
      Wandt, J.; Freiberg, A. T. S.; Ogrodnik, A.; Gasteiger, H. A. Singlet Oxygen Evolution from Layered Transition Metal Oxide Cathode Materials and Its Implications for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Mater. Today 2018, 21, 825– 833,  DOI: 10.1016/j.mattod.2018.03.037
      60
      Singlet oxygen evolution from layered transition metal oxide cathode materials and its implications for lithium-ion batteries
      Wandt, Johannes; Freiberg, Anna T. S.; Ogrodnik, Alexander; Gasteiger, Hubert A.
      Materials Today (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2018), 21 (8), 825-833CODEN: MTOUAN; ISSN:1369-7021. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      For achieving higher energy d. lithium-ion batteries, the improvement of cathode active materials is crucial. The most promising cathode materials are nickel-rich layered oxides LiNixCoyMnzO2 (NCM) and over lithiated NCM (often called HE-NCM). Unfortunately, the full capacity of NCM cannot be utilized due to its limited cycle-life at high state-of-charge (SOC), while HE-NCM requires high voltages. By operando emission spectroscopy, we show for the first time that highly reactive singlet oxygen is released when charging NCM and HE-NCM to an SOC beyond ≈80%. In addn., online mass-spectrometry reveals the evolution of CO and CO2 once singlet oxygen is detected, providing significant evidence for the reaction between singlet oxygen and electrolyte to be a chem. reaction. It is controlled by the SOC rather than by potential, as would be the case for a purely electrochem. electrolyte oxidn. Singlet oxygen formation therefore imposes a severe challenge to the development of high-energy batteries based on layered oxide cathodes, shifting the focus of research from electrochem. stable 5 V-electrolytes to chem. stability toward singlet oxygen.
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    61. 61
      Gauthier, M.; Karayaylali, P.; Giordano, L.; Feng, S. T.; Lux, S. F.; Maglia, F.; Lamp, P.; Shao-Horn, Y. Probing Surface Chemistry Changes Using LiCoO2-Only Electrodes in Li-Ion Batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2018, 165, A1377– A1387,  DOI: 10.1149/2.0431807jes
      61
      Probing Surface Chemistry Changes Using LiCoO2-only Electrodes in Li-Ion Batteries
      Gauthier, Magali; Karayaylali, Pinar; Giordano, Livia; Feng, Shuting; Lux, Simon F.; Maglia, Filippo; Lamp, Peter; Shao-Horn, Yang
      Journal of the Electrochemical Society (2018), 165 (7), A1377-A1387CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
      Fundamental understanding of the reactivity between electrode and electrolyte is key to design and life of Li-ion batteries. Herein XPS was used to examine the electrode/electrolyte interface (EEI) on carbon-free, binder-free LiCoO2 powder and thin-film electrodes in LP57 electrolyte as function of potential. Upon charging of LiCoO2 a marked growth of oxygenated and carbonated species was obsd. on the surface, consistent with electrolyte oxidn. at high potentials. We also demonstrated that LiCoO2 oxide surface was prone to decomp. the salt starting at 4.1 VLi, as evidenced by the increase of LiF and LixPFyOz species upon charging. By DFT calcns. we proposed a correlation between the interface compn. and the thermodn. tendency of the EC solvent for dissociative adsorption on the LixCoO2 surface, through the generation of reactive acidic OH groups on the oxide surface, which can have a role in the obsd. salt decompn. This is consistent with the evidence of HF and PF2O2- species at 4.6 VLi obsd. by soln. 19F-NMR measurements. Finally we compared EEI compn. between composite and model electrodes and discussed the changes and mechanisms induced by the electrode compn. or the use of electrolyte additives. We showed that the addn. of di-Ph carbonate (DPC) in the electrolyte has a strong impact on the formation of solvent and salt decompn. products at the EEI layer.
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    62. 62
      Gueguen, A.; Streich, D.; He, M. L.; Mendez, M.; Chesneau, F. F.; Novak, P.; Berg, E. J. Decomposition of LiPF6 in High Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries Studied with Online Electrochemical Mass Spectrometry. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2016, 163, A1095– A1100,  DOI: 10.1149/2.0981606jes
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    63. 63
      Bar-Tow, D.; Peled, E.; Burstein, L. A Study of Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite as a Model for the Graphite Anode in Li-Ion Batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1999, 146, 824– 832,  DOI: 10.1149/1.1391688
      63
      A study of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite as a model for the graphite anode in Li-ion batteries
      Bar-Tow, D.; Peled, E.; Burstein, L.
      Journal of the Electrochemical Society (1999), 146 (3), 824-832CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
      The mechanisms of oxidn. of the basal plane and of the cross-sectional face of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) and the formation of a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on HOPG samples that were cycled in ethylene carbonate:diethyl carbonate (EC:DEC 1:2) solns. contg. 1M LiAsF6 were studied. XPS, energy dispersive spectrometry, and scanning electron microscope techniques were used for the anal. of the surface layer formed on the basal plane and cross section of HOPG. The anal. indicates that the oxidn. mechanisms of the basal plane and the cross section are entirely different. The SEI formed in the LiAsF6 soln. is thinner on the basal plane than on the cross section and its compn. is different. The SEI formed on the cross section is rich in inorg. compds. whereas the SEI formed on the basal plane is rich in org. compds. Thus it can be concluded that on the basal plane, the greatest contribution to SEI formation is solvent redn. (EC and DEC), whereas on the cross-sectional face, it is electrolyte salt (LiAsF6) redn.
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    64. 64
      Eshkenazi, V.; Peled, E.; Burstein, L.; Golodnitsky, D. XPS Analysis of the SEI Formed on Carbonaceous Materials. Solid State Ionics 2004, 170, 83– 91,  DOI: 10.1016/S0167-2738(03)00107-3
      64
      XPS analysis of the SEI formed on carbonaceous materials
      Eshkenazi, V.; Peled, E.; Burstein, L.; Golodnitsky, D.
      Solid State Ionics (2004), 170 (1-2), 83-91CODEN: SSIOD3; ISSN:0167-2738. (Elsevier Science B.V.)
      Two carbonaceous materials were produced by chem. vapor deposition of ethylene and by pyrolysis of dehydrated sucrose. Electrochem. cells assembled from these materials and metallic Li were cycled between 0.00 and 2.00 V vs. Li/Li+ in ethylene carbonate/diethylcarbonate electrolytes contg. LiPF6 or LiAsF6. The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formed on the carbons was characterized by XPS. We suggest that the carbon matrix has a more marked effect on the compn. and thickness of the SEI than does the nature of the electrolyte. The SEI formed on graphite-like soft carbon in both electrolytes proved to be carbonate-free, its inorg. part consisting almost exclusively of LiF, while the SEI formed on hard (non-graphitizable) carbon was found to be considerably thicker and contained, in addn., phosphorus and arsenic compds. In the bulk SEI, polymer structures (i.e., solvent-polymn. products) were abundant in all cases, while carbonates were found only on hard carbon in the presence of LiAsF6.
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    65. 65
      Peled, E.; Bar Tow, D.; Merson, A.; Gladkich, A.; Burstein, L.; Golodnitsky, D. Composition, Depth Profiles and Lateral Distribution of Materials in the SEI Built on HOPG-TOF SIMS and XPS Studies. J. Power Sources 2001, 97-98, 52– 57,  DOI: 10.1016/S0378-7753(01)00505-5
      65
      Composition, depth profiles and lateral distribution of materials in the SEI built on HOPG-TOF SIMS and XPS studies
      Peled, E.; Bar Tow, D.; Merson, A.; Gladkich, A.; Burstein, L.; Golodnitsky, D.
      Journal of Power Sources (2001), 97-98 (), 52-57CODEN: JPSODZ; ISSN:0378-7753. (Elsevier Science S.A.)
      The importance to study sep. the compn. and properties of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on basal and cross-section planes of graphite particles is demonstrated. The lateral distribution of SEI forming compds. at submicron resoln. is presented for the first time. Li and F are the main constituents of the SEI cross-section. The SEI on the soln.-side surface of the basal plane contains much more org. materials than that of the cross-section one. The SEI on the HOPG can be described as non-homogeneous. The SEI cross-section is dominated by Li and F, with one to several dozen micron-sized regions where Li and F are almost absent. The distribution of C2H (and other CxHy-based fragments), O, C2H3O2 (59), and C2H3O (43), shows full coverage and is fairly homogeneous. The true lateral size of the microphases is about 1 μm. TOF SIMS measurements provide direct evidence for the existence of polymers in the basal SEI.
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    66. 66
      Funabiki, A.; Inaba, M.; Ogumi, Z. AC Impedance Analysis of Electrochemical Lithium Intercalation into Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite. J. Power Sources 1997, 68, 227– 231,  DOI: 10.1016/S0378-7753(96)02556-6
      66
      A.c. impedance analysis of electrochemical lithium intercalation into highly oriented pyrolytic graphite
      Funabiki, Atsushi; Inaba, Minoru; Ogumi, Zempachi
      Journal of Power Sources (1997), 68 (2), 227-231CODEN: JPSODZ; ISSN:0378-7753. (Elsevier Science S.A.)
      Electrochem. lithium intercalation into graphite was studied by cyclic voltammetry and a.c. impedance spectroscopy. Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite was used as a model graphite material to distinguish the difference in electrochem. behavior between the basal and the edge planes at graphite. A comparison between cyclic voltammograms of the basal plane and the whole surface of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite revealed that electrochem. lithium intercalation proceeds predominantly at the edge plane/electrolyte interface. The charge-transfer resistance changed continuously with electrode potential, and no significant change was obsd. at stage transition potentials (210, 120, and 90 mV vs. Li/Li+). From the variations of the Warburg impedance of samples of different sizes, it was concluded that lithium diffuses from the edge plane to the interior in the direction parallel to the basal plane and that its diffusivity changes with the stage structure of the bulk lithium-graphite intercalation compd.
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    67. 67
      Banks, C. E.; Davies, T. J.; Wildgoose, G. G.; Compton, R. G. Electrocatalysis at Graphite and Carbon Nanotube Modified Electrodes: Edge-Plane Sites and Tube Ends are the Reactive Sites. Chem. Commun. 2005, 829– 841,  DOI: 10.1039/b413177k
      67
      Electrocatalysis at graphite and carbon nanotube modified electrodes: edge-plane sites and tube ends are the reactive sites
      Banks, Craig E.; Davies, Trevor J.; Wildgoose, Gregory G.; Compton, Richard G.
      Chemical Communications (Cambridge, United Kingdom) (2005), (7), 829-841CODEN: CHCOFS; ISSN:1359-7345. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      A review. Carbon, and particularly graphite in its various forms, is an attractive electrode material. Two areas of particular interest are modified C electrodes and C nanotube electrodes. The authors focus on the relation between surface structure and electrochem. and chem. reactivity of electrodes based on these materials. The authors overview recent work in this area which led one to believe that much of the catalytic activity, electron transfer and chem. reactivity of graphitic C electrodes is at surface defect sites, and in particular edge-plane-like defect sites. The authors also question the claimed special catalytic properties of C nanotube modified electrodes.
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    68. 68
      McCreery, R. L. Advanced Carbon Electrode Materials for Molecular Electrochemistry. Chem. Rev. 2008, 108, 2646– 2687,  DOI: 10.1021/cr068076m
      68
      Advanced Carbon Electrode Materials for Molecular Electrochemistry
      McCreery, Richard L.
      Chemical Reviews (Washington, DC, United States) (2008), 108 (7), 2646-2687CODEN: CHREAY; ISSN:0009-2665. (American Chemical Society)
      A review. The properties of C are described and how these properties relate electrochem. properties, including electrode kinetics, adsorption and electrocatalysis. Fabrication and novel aspects are described for carbon materials, including, boron-doped diamond, carbon nanotubes, vapor deposited carbon films and various composite electrodes. Carbon electrode material for org. and biol. redox reactions are cited.
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    69. 69
      Okubo, M.; Yamada, A. Molecular Orbital Principles of Oxygen-Redox Battery Electrodes. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 36463– 36472,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b09835
      69
      Molecular Orbital Principles of Oxygen-Redox Battery Electrodes
      Okubo, Masashi; Yamada, Atsuo
      ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2017), 9 (42), 36463-36472CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)
      A review. Li-ion batteries are key energy-storage devices for a sustainable society. The most widely used pos. electrode materials are LiMO2 (M: transition metal), in which a redox reaction of M occurs in assocn. with Li+ (de)intercalation. Recent developments of Li-excess transition-metal oxides, which deliver a large capacity of >200 mA-h/g using an extra redox reaction of O, introduce new possibilities for designing higher energy d. Li-ion batteries. For better engineering using this fascinating new chem., it is necessary to achieve a full understanding of the reaction mechanism by gaining knowledge on the chem. state of O. A summary of the recent advances in O-redox battery electrodes is provided, followed by a systematic demonstration of the overall electronic structures based on MOs with a focus on the local coordination environment around O. A π-type MO plays an important role in stabilizing the oxidized O that emerges upon the charging process. MO principles are convenient for an at.-level understanding of how reversible O-redox reactions occur in bulk, providing a solid foundation toward improved O-redox pos. electrode materials for high energy-d. batteries.
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    70. 70
      Lee, J.; Kim, J.; Park, S.; Kim, D. Design Picture in Enabling Reversible Oxygen Capacity for O-Type Na 3d Layered Oxides. Energy Storage Materials 2023, 54, 330– 338,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ensm.2022.10.041
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    71. 71
      Assat, G.; Tarascon, J. M. Fundamental Understanding and Practical Challenges of Anionic Redox Activity in Li-Ion Batteries. Nat. Energy 2018, 3, 373– 386,  DOI: 10.1038/s41560-018-0097-0
      71
      Fundamental understanding and practical challenges of anionic redox activity in Li-ion batteries
      Assat, Gaurav; Tarascon, Jean-Marie
      Nature Energy (2018), 3 (5), 373-386CODEN: NEANFD; ISSN:2058-7546. (Nature Research)
      A review. Our increasing dependence on lithium-ion batteries for energy storage calls for continual improvements in the performance of their pos. electrodes, which have so far relied solely on cationic redox of transition-metal ions for driving the electrochem. reactions. Great hopes have recently been placed on the emergence of anionic redox-a transformational approach for designing pos. electrodes as it leads to a near-doubling of capacity. But questions have been raised about the fundamental origins of anionic redox and whether its full potential can be realized in applications. In this Review, we discuss the underlying science that triggers a reversible and stable anionic redox activity. Furthermore, we highlight its practical limitations and outline possible approaches for improving such materials and designing new ones. We also summarize their chances for market implementation in the face of the competing nickel-based layered cathodes that are prevalent today.
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    72. 72
      Zaanen, J.; Sawatzky, G. A.; Allen, J. W. Band-Gaps and Electronic-Structure of Transition-Metal Compounds. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1985, 55, 418– 421,  DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.55.418
      72
      Band gaps and electronic structure of transition-metal compounds
      Zaanen, J.; Sawatzky, G. A.; Allen, J. W.
      Physical Review Letters (1985), 55 (4), 418-21CODEN: PRLTAO; ISSN:0031-9007.
      A new theory is presented for describing band gaps and electronic structures of transition-metal compds. A theor. phase diagram is presented in which both the metallic sulfides and insulating oxides and halides occur in a quite natural manner.
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    73. 73
      Grimaud, A.; Hong, W. T.; Shao-Horn, Y.; Tarascon, J. M. Anionic Redox Processes for Electrochemical Devices. Nat. Mater. 2016, 15, 121– 126,  DOI: 10.1038/nmat4551
      73
      Anionic redox processes for electrochemical devices
      Grimaud, A.; Hong, W. T.; Shao-Horn, Y.; Tarascon, J.-M.
      Nature Materials (2016), 15 (2), 121-126CODEN: NMAACR; ISSN:1476-1122. (Nature Publishing Group)
      Understanding and controlling anionic redox processes is pivotal for the design of new Li-ion battery and water-splitting materials. Processes in insertion oxide electrodes, processes in oxygen electrocatalysts, and extension of metal-ligand reasoning are discussed.
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    74. 74
      Sathiya, M.; Rousse, G.; Ramesha, K.; Laisa, C. P.; Vezin, H.; Sougrati, M. T.; Doublet, M. L.; Foix, D.; Gonbeau, D.; Walker, W.; Prakash, A. S.; Ben Hassine, M.; Dupont, L.; Tarascon, J. M. Reversible Anionic Redox Chemistry in High-Capacity Layered-Oxide Electrodes. Nat. Mater. 2013, 12, 827– 835,  DOI: 10.1038/nmat3699
      74
      Reversible anionic redox chemistry in high-capacity layered-oxide electrodes
      Sathiya, M.; Rousse, G.; Ramesha, K.; Laisa, C. P.; Vezin, H.; Sougrati, M. T.; Doublet, M.-L.; Foix, D.; Gonbeau, D.; Walker, W.; Prakash, A. S.; Ben Hassine, M.; Dupont, L.; Tarascon, J.-M.
      Nature Materials (2013), 12 (9), 827-835CODEN: NMAACR; ISSN:1476-1122. (Nature Publishing Group)
      Li-ion batteries have contributed to the com. success of portable electronics and may soon dominate the elec. transportation market provided that major scientific advances including new materials and concepts are developed. Classical pos. electrodes for Li-ion technol. operate mainly through an insertion-deinsertion redox process involving cationic species. However, this mechanism is insufficient to account for the high capacities exhibited by the new generation of Li-rich (Li1+xNiyCozMn(1-x-y-z)O2) layered oxides that present unusual Li reactivity. In an attempt to overcome both the inherent compn. and the structural complexity of this class of oxides, we have designed structurally related Li2Ru1-ySnyO3 materials that have a single redox cation and exhibit sustainable reversible capacities as high as 230 mA h g-1. Moreover, they present good cycling behavior with no signs of voltage decay and a small irreversible capacity. We also unambiguously show, on the basis of an arsenal of characterization techniques, that the reactivity of these high-capacity materials towards Li entails cumulative cationic (Mn+→M(n+1)+) and anionic (O2-→O22-) reversible redox processes, owing to the d-sp hybridization assocd. with a reductive coupling mechanism. Because Li2MO3 is a large family of compds., this study opens the door to the exploration of a vast no. of high-capacity materials.
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    75. 75
      Saubanere, M.; McCalla, E.; Tarascon, J. M.; Doublet, M. L. The Intriguing Question of Anionic Redox in High-Energy Density Cathodes for Li-Ion Batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 2016, 9, 984– 991,  DOI: 10.1039/C5EE03048J
      75
      The intriguing question of anionic redox in high-energy density cathodes for Li-ion batteries
      Saubanere, M.; McCalla, E.; Tarascon, J.-M.; Doublet, M.-L.
      Energy & Environmental Science (2016), 9 (3), 984-991CODEN: EESNBY; ISSN:1754-5706. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      The energy d. delivered by a Li-ion battery is a key parameter that needs to be significantly increased to address the global question of energy storage for the next 40 years. This quantity is directly proportional to the battery voltage (V) and the battery capacity (C) which are difficult to improve simultaneously when materials exhibit classical cationic redox activity. Recently, a cumulative cationic (M4+/M5+) and anionic (2O2-/(O2)n-) redox activity has been demonstrated in the Li-rich Li2MO3 family of compds., therefore enabling doubling of the energy d. with respect to high-potential cathodes such as transition metal phosphates and sulfates. This paper aims to clarify the origin of this extra capacity by addressing some fundamental questions regarding reversible anionic redox in high-potential electrodes for Li-ion batteries. First, the ability of the system to stabilize the oxygen holes generated by Li-removal and to achieve a reversible oxo- to peroxo-like (2O2-/(O2)n-) transformation is elucidated by means of a metal-driven reductive coupling mechanism. The penchant of the system for undergoing this reversible anionic redox or releasing O2 gas is then discussed with regards to exptl. results for 3d- and 4d-based Li2MO3 phases. Finally, robust indicators are built as tools to predict which materials in the Li-rich TM-oxide family will undergo efficient and reversible anionic redox. The present finding provides insights into new directions to be explored for the development of high-energy d. materials for Li-ion batteries.
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    76. 76
      McCalla, E.; Abakumov, A. M.; Saubanere, M.; Foix, D.; Berg, E. J.; Rousse, G.; Doublet, M. L.; Gonbeau, D.; Novak, P.; Van Tendeloo, G.; Dominko, R.; Tarascon, J. M. Visualization of O-O Peroxo-Like Dimers in High-Capacity Layered Oxides for Li-Ion Batteries. Science 2015, 350, 1516– 1521,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aac8260
      76
      Visualization of O-O peroxo-like dimers in high-capacity layered oxides for Li-ion batteries
      McCalla, Eric; Abakumov, Artem M.; Saubanere, Matthieu; Foix, Dominique; Berg, Erik J.; Rousse, Gwenaelle; Doublet, Marie-Liesse; Gonbeau, Danielle; Novak, Petr; Van Tendeloo, Gustaaf; Dominko, Robert; Tarascon, Jean-Marie
      Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2015), 350 (6267), 1516-1521CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
      Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries that rely on cationic redox reactions are the primary energy source for portable electronics. One pathway toward greater energy d. is through the use of Li-rich layered oxides. The capacity of this class of materials (>270 mA hours per g) has been shown to be nested in anionic redox reactions, which are thought to form peroxo-like species. However, the oxygen-oxygen (O-O) bonding pattern has not been obsd. in previous studies, nor has there been a satisfactory explanation for the irreversible changes that occur during first delithiation. By using Li2IrO3 as a model compd., we visualize the O-O dimers via transmission electron microscopy and neutron diffraction. Our findings establish the fundamental relation between the anionic redox process and the evolution of the O-O bonding in layered oxides.
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    77. 77
      Pearce, P. E.; Perez, A. J.; Rousse, G.; Saubanere, M.; Batuk, D.; Foix, D.; McCalla, E.; Abakumov, A. M.; Van Tendeloo, G.; Doublet, M. L.; Tarascon, J. M. Evidence for Anionic Redox Activity in a Tridimensional-Ordered Li-Rich Positive Electrode Beta-Li2IrO3. Nat. Mater. 2017, 16, 580,  DOI: 10.1038/nmat4864
      77
      Evidence for anionic redox activity in a tridimensional-ordered Li-rich positive electrode β-Li2IrO3
      Pearce, Paul E.; Perez, Arnaud J.; Rousse, Gwenaelle; Saubanere, Mathieu; Batuk, Dmitry; Foix, Dominique; McCalla, Eric; Abakumov, Artem M.; Van Tendeloo, Gustaaf; Doublet, Marie-Liesse; Tarascon, Jean-Marie
      Nature Materials (2017), 16 (5), 580-586CODEN: NMAACR; ISSN:1476-1122. (Nature Publishing Group)
      Lithium-ion battery cathode materials have relied on cationic redox reactions until the recent discovery of anionic redox activity in Li-rich layered compds. which enables capacities as high as 300 mAh g-1. In the quest for new high-capacity electrodes with anionic redox, a still unanswered question was remaining regarding the importance of the structural dimensionality. The present manuscript provides an answer. We herein report on a β-Li2IrO3 phase which, in spite of having the Ir arranged in a tridimensional (3D) framework instead of the typical two-dimensional (2D) layers seen in other Li-rich oxides, can reversibly exchange 2.5 e- per Ir, the highest value ever reported for any insertion reaction involving d-metals. We show that such a large activity results from joint reversible cationic (Mn+) and anionic (O2)n- redox processes, the latter being visualized via complementary transmission electron microscopy and neutron diffraction expts., and confirmed by d. functional theory calcns. Moreover, β-Li2IrO3 presents a good cycling behavior while showing neither cationic migration nor shearing of at. layers as seen in 2D-layered Li-rich materials. Remarkably, the anionic redox process occurs jointly with the oxidn. of Ir4+ at potentials as low as 3.4 V vs. Li+/Li0, as equivalently obsd. in the layered α-Li2IrO3 polymorph. Theor. calcns. elucidate the electrochem. similarities and differences of the 3D vs. 2D polymorphs in terms of structural, electronic and mech. descriptors. Our findings free the structural dimensionality constraint and broaden the possibilities in designing high-energy-d. electrodes for the next generation of Li-ion batteries.
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    78. 78
      Assat, G.; Iadecola, A.; Delacourt, C.; Dedryvere, R.; Tarascon, J. M. Decoupling Cationic-Anionic Redox Processes in a Model Li-Rich Cathode via Operando X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy. Chem. Mater. 2017, 29, 9714– 9724,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b03434
      78
      Decoupling Cationic-Anionic Redox Processes in a Model Li-Rich Cathode via Operando X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy
      Assat, Gaurav; Iadecola, Antonella; Delacourt, Charles; Dedryvere, Remi; Tarascon, Jean-Marie
      Chemistry of Materials (2017), 29 (22), 9714-9724CODEN: CMATEX; ISSN:0897-4756. (American Chemical Society)
      The demonstration of reversible anionic redox in Li-rich layered oxides has revitalized the search for higher energy battery cathodes. To advance the fundamentals of this promising mechanism, we investigate herein the cationic-anionic redox processes in Li2Ru0.75Sn0.25O3-a model Li-rich layered cathode in which Ru (cationic) and O (anionic) are the only redox-active sites. We reveal its charge compensation mechanism and local structural evolutions by applying operando (and complementary ex situ) X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). Among other local effects, the anionic-oxidn.-driven distortion of the oxygen network around Ru atoms is thereby visualized. Oxidn. of lattice oxygen is also directly proven via hard XPS (HAXPES). Furthermore, we demonstrate a spectroscopy-driven visualization of electrochem. reaction paths, which enabled us to neatly decouple the individual cationic-anionic dQ/dV contributions during cycling. We hence establish the redox and structural origins of all dQ/dV features and demonstrate the vital role of anionic redox in hysteresis and kinetics. These fundamental insights about Li-rich systems are crucial for improving the existing anionic-redox-based cathodes and evaluating the ones being discovered rapidly.
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    79. 79
      Li, B. A.; Shao, R. W.; Yan, H. J.; An, L.; Zhang, B.; Wei, H.; Ma, J.; Xia, D. G.; Han, X. D. Understanding the Stability for Li-Rich Layered Oxide Li2RuO3 Cathode. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2016, 26, 1330– 1337,  DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201504836
      79
      Understanding the Stability for Li-Rich Layered Oxide Li2RuO3 Cathode
      Li, Biao; Shao, Ruiwen; Yan, Huijun; An, Li; Zhang, Bin; Wei, Hang; Ma, Jin; Xia, Dingguo; Han, Xiaodong
      Advanced Functional Materials (2016), 26 (9), 1330-1337CODEN: AFMDC6; ISSN:1616-301X. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      Lithium-rich layered oxides are considered as promising cathode materials for Li-ion batteries with high energy d. due to their higher capacity as compared with the conventional LiMO2 (e.g., LiCoO2, LiNiO2, and LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2) layered oxides. However, why lithium-rich layered oxides exhibit high capacities without undergoing a structural collapse for a certain no. of cycles has attracted limited attention. Here, based on the model of Li2RuO3, it is uncovered that the mechanism responsible for the structural integrity shown by lithium-rich layered oxides is realized by the flexible local structure due to the presence of lithium atoms in the transition metal layer, which favors the formation of O22--like species, with the aid of in situ extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS), in situ energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), and d. functional theory (DFT) calcn. This finding will open new scope for the development of high-capacity layered electrodes.
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    80. 80
      Liu, X. X.; Tan, Y. C.; Wang, W. Y.; Li, C. H.; Seh, Z. W.; Wang, L.; Sun, Y. M. Conformal Prelithiation Nanoshell on LiCoO2 Enabling High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries. Nano Lett. 2020, 20, 4558– 4565,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c01413
      80
      Conformal Prelithiation Nanoshell on LiCoO2 Enabling High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries
      Liu, Xiaoxiao; Tan, Yuchen; Wang, Wenyu; Li, Chunhao; Seh, Zhi Wei; Wang, Li; Sun, Yongming
      Nano Letters (2020), 20 (6), 4558-4565CODEN: NALEFD; ISSN:1530-6984. (American Chemical Society)
      The initial lithium loss in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) reduces their energy d. (e.g., ≥ 15% for LIBs using a Si-based anode). Herein, in situ chem. formation is reported of a conformal Li2O/Co nanoshell (∼ 20 nm) on LiCoO2 particles as a high-capacity built-in prelithiation reagent to compensate this initial lithium loss. A 15 mAh g-1 increase is shown in overall charge capacity for the LiCoO2 with 1.5 wt. % Li2O/Co in comparison to the pristine LiCoO2 in virtue of the irreversible lithium extn. from the nanoshell (4Li2O + 3Co → 8Li+ + 8e- + Co3O4, 2Li2O → 4Li+ + 4e- + O2↑). Paired with a graphite-SiO anode, a full cell using such a LiCoO2 cathode demonstrates > 11% discharge capacity (2.60 mAh cm-2) than that using pristine LiCoO2 (2.34 mAh cm-2) at 0.1 C, as well as stable battery cycling. Moreover, the prelithiated LiCoO2 is compatible with the current battery fabrication process.
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    81. 81
      Noh, M.; Cho, J. Role of Li6CoO4 Cathode Additive in Li-Ion Cells Containing Low Coulombic Efficiency Anode Material. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2012, 159, A1329– A1334,  DOI: 10.1149/2.085208jes
      81
      Role of Li6CoO4 cathode additive in Li-ion cells containing low coulombic efficiency anode material
      Noh, Mijung; Cho, Jaephil
      Journal of the Electrochemical Society (2012), 159 (8), A1329-A1334CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
      Li6CoO4 with an anti-fluorite structure was proposed and studied as a cathode additive for a Li-ion battery consisting of LiCoO2 ( LCO) cathode and Si-SiOx (SiOx) anodes. In situ XRD and TEM, combined with XPS revealed that Li6CoO4 was decompd. to electrochem. inactive phases such as Li6-xCoO4 and Li2O and CoO2 during the first cycle. Due to this effect, Li6CoO4 showed the first charge and discharge capacities of 318 and 13 mAhg-1, resp. between 4.4 V and 1.0 V, showing an irreversible capacity ratio of 96%. Because of such a high irreversible capacity, the additive could effectively compensate for the irreversible capacity of the Li-ion cell consisting of LCO cathode and SiOx anode with a high irreversible capacity ratio of 57%. The first discharge capacity of a balanced full cell with LCO/SiOx without an additive was 77 mAh/g. However, when the Li6CoO4 cathode additive was optimized to 15 wt% in the LCO composite in the same cell as above, the first discharge capacity was 133 mAh/g.
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    82. 82
      Park, H.; Yoon, T.; Kim, Y. U.; Ryu, J. H.; Oh, S. M. Li2NiO2 as a Sacrificing Positive Additive for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Electrochim. Acta 2013, 108, 591– 595,  DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.06.117
      82
      Li2NiO2 as a sacrificing positive additive for lithium-ion batteries
      Park, Hosang; Yoon, Taeho; Kim, Young-Ugk; Ryu, Ji Heon; Oh, Seung M.
      Electrochimica Acta (2013), 108 (), 591-595CODEN: ELCAAV; ISSN:0013-4686. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      This work addresses the electrochem. performances of an over-lithiated Li Ni oxide (Li2NiO2) as a sacrificing pos. additive for Li-ion batteries. Li2NiO2 decomps. along with a cryst. to amorphous phase transition at 3.5 V (vs. Li/Li+) in the 1st charging period, which is far below the charging potential of common pos. electrodes (for instance, ∼4.0 V for LiCoO2). The decompd. amorphous phases then deliver a de-lithiation capacity up to >300 mAh g-1 in the 1st charging. The combined feature of easy decompn. and large 1st de-lithiation capacity demonstrates that Li2NiO2 is a promising pos. additive to provide the elec. charges/Li+ ions for the charge compensation on neg. electrodes. This over-lithiated Li Ni oxide delivers a reversible capacity amounting to 70-90 mAh g-1 in the continuing cycles, which is an extra capacity to be added to that delivered by main pos. electrodes. The capacity gain (extra capacity) is larger when Li2NiO2 is decompd. at a faster rate due to a smaller charge transfer resistance. Probably when Li2NiO2 was used as the sacrificing pos. additive, the use of higher current in the 1st charging is preferred for the capacity gain.
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    83. 83
      Su, X.; Lin, C. K.; Wang, X. P.; Maroni, V. A.; Ren, Y.; Johnson, C. S.; Lu, W. Q. A New Strategy to Mitigate the Initial Capacity Loss of Lithium Ion Batteries. J. Power Sources 2016, 324, 150– 157,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.05.063
      83
      A new strategy to mitigate the initial capacity loss of lithium ion batteries
      Su, Xin; Lin, Chikai; Wang, Xiaoping; Maroni, Victor A.; Ren, Yang; Johnson, Christopher S.; Lu, Wenquan
      Journal of Power Sources (2016), 324 (), 150-157CODEN: JPSODZ; ISSN:0378-7753. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Hard carbon (non-graphitizable) and related materials, like tin, tin oxide, silicon, and silicon oxide, have a high theor. lithium delivery capacity (>550 mAh/g depending on their structural and chem. properties) but unfortunately they also exhibit a large initial capacity loss (ICL) that overrides the true reversible capacity in a full cell. Overcoming the large ICL of hard carbon in a full-cell lithium-ion battery (LIB) necessitates a new strategy wherein a sacrificial lithium source additive, such as, Li5FeO4 (LFO), is inserted on the cathode side. Full batteries using hard carbon coupled with LFO-LiCoO2 (LCO) are currently under development at our lab. We find that the reversible capacity of a cathode contg. LFO can be increased by 14%. Furthermore, the cycle performance of full cells with LFO additive is improved from <90% to >95%. We show that the LFO additive not only can address the irreversible capacity loss of the anode, but can also provide the addnl. lithium ion source required to mitigate the lithium loss caused by side reactions. In addn., we have explored the possibility to achieve higher capacity with hard carbon, whereby the energy d. of full cells can be increased from ca. 300 Wh/kg to >400 Wh/kg.
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    84. 84
      Kobayashi, H.; Tsukasaki, T.; Ogasawara, Y.; Hibino, M.; Kudo, T.; Mizuno, N.; Honma, I.; Yamaguchi, K. Cation-Disorder-Assisted Reversible Topotactic Phase Transition between Antifluorite and Rocksalt Toward High-Capacity Lithium-Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 43605– 43613,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c10768
      84
      Cation-Disorder-Assisted Reversible Topotactic Phase Transition between Antifluorite and Rocksalt Toward High-Capacity Lithium-Ion Batteries
      Kobayashi, Hiroaki; Tsukasaki, Takashi; Ogasawara, Yoshiyuki; Hibino, Mitsuhiro; Kudo, Tetsuichi; Mizuno, Noritaka; Honma, Itaru; Yamaguchi, Kazuya
      ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2020), 12 (39), 43605-43613CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)
      Multielectron reaction electrode materials using partial oxygen redox can be potentially used as cathodes in lithium-ion batteries, as they offer numerous advantages, including high reversible capacity and energy d. and low cost. Here, a reversible three-electron reaction is demonstrated utilizing topotactic phase transition between antifluorite and rocksalt in a cation-disordered antifluorite-type cubic Li6CoO4 cathode. This cubic phase is synthesized by a simple mechanochem. treatment of conventionally prepd. tetragonal Li6CoO4. It displays a reversible capacity of 487 mAh g-1, a high value because of a reversible three-electron reaction using Co2+/Co3+, Co3+/Co4+, and O2-/O22- redox, occurring without O2 gas evolution. The mechanochem. treatment is assumed to reduce its lattice distortion by cation-disordering and facilitate a reversible topotactic phase transition between antifluorite and rocksalt structures via a dynamic cation pushing mechanism.
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    85. 85
      Zhan, C.; Yao, Z. P.; Lu, J.; Ma, L.; Maroni, V. A.; Li, L.; Lee, E.; Alp, E. E.; Wu, T. P.; Wen, J. G.; Ren, Y.; Johnson, C.; Thackeray, M. M.; Chan, M. K. Y.; Wolverton, C.; Amine, K. Enabling the High Capacity of Lithium-Rich Anti-Fluorite Lithium Iron Oxide by Simultaneous Anionic and Cationic Redox. Nat. Energy 2017, 2, 963– 971,  DOI: 10.1038/s41560-017-0043-6
      85
      Enabling the high capacity of lithium-rich anti-fluorite lithium iron oxide by simultaneous anionic and cationic redox
      Zhan, Chun; Yao, Zhenpeng; Lu, Jun; Ma, Lu; Maroni, Victor A.; Li, Liang; Lee, Eungje; Alp, Esen E.; Wu, Tianpin; Wen, Jianguo; Ren, Yang; Johnson, Christopher; Thackeray, Michael M.; Chan, Maria K. Y.; Wolverton, Chris; Amine, Khalil
      Nature Energy (2017), 2 (12), 963-971CODEN: NEANFD; ISSN:2058-7546. (Nature Research)
      Anionic redox reactions in cathodes of lithium-ion batteries are allowing opportunities to double or even triple the energy d. However, it is still challenging to develop a cathode, esp. with Earth-abundant elements, that enables anionic redox activity for real-world applications, primarily due to limited strategies to intercept the oxygenates from further irreversible oxidn. to O2 gas. Here we report simultaneous iron and oxygen redox activity in a Li-rich anti-fluorite Li5FeO4 electrode. During the removal of the first two Li ions, the oxidn. potential of O2- is lowered to approx. 3.5 V vs. Li+/Li0, at which potential the cationic oxidn. occurs concurrently. These anionic and cationic redox reactions show high reversibility without any obvious O2 gas release. Moreover, this study provides an insightful guide to designing high-capacity cathodes with reversible oxygen redox activity by simply introducing oxygen ions that are exclusively coordinated by Li+.
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    86. 86
      Zhu, Z.; Kushima, A.; Yin, Z. Y.; Qi, L.; Amine, K.; Lu, J.; Li, J. Anion-Redox Nanolithia Cathodes for Li-Ion Batteries. Nat. Energy 2016, 1, 16111,  DOI: 10.1038/nenergy.2016.111
      86
      Anion-redox nanolithia cathodes for Li-ion batteries
      Zhu, Zhi; Kushima, Akihiro; Yin, Zongyou; Qi, Lu; Amine, Khalil; Lu, Jun; Li, Ju
      Nature Energy (2016), 1 (8), 16111CODEN: NEANFD; ISSN:2058-7546. (Nature Publishing Group)
      The development of lithium-air batteries is plagued by a high potential gap (>1.2 V) between charge and discharge, and poor cyclability due to the drastic phase change of O2 (gas) and Ox- (condensed phase) at the cathode during battery operations. Here we report a cathode consisting of nanoscale amorphous lithia (nanolithia) confined in a cobalt oxide, enabling charge/discharge between solid Li2O/Li2O2/LiO2 without any gas evolution. The cathode has a theor. capacity of 1,341 Ah kg-1, a mass d. exceeding 2.2 g cm-3, and a practical discharge capacity of 587 Ah kg-1 at 2.55 V vs. Li/Li+. It also displays stable cycling performance (only 1.8% loss after 130 cycles in lithium-matched full-cell tests against Li4Ti5O12 anode), as well as a round-trip overpotential of only 0.24 V. Interestingly, the cathode is automatically protected from O2 gas release and overcharging through the shuttling of self-generated radical species sol. in the carbonate electrolyte.
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    87. 87
      Kulkarni, P.; Jung, H. Y. Y.; Ghosh, D.; Jalalah, M.; Alsaiari, M.; Harraz, F. A.; Balakrishna, R. G. A Comprehensive Review of Pre-Lithiation/Sodiation Additives for Li-ion and Na-ion Batteries. J. Energy Chem. 2023, 76, 479– 494,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jechem.2022.10.001
      87
      A comprehensive review of pre-lithiation/sodiation additives for Li-ion and Na-ion batteries
      Kulkarni, Pranav; Jung, Hyunyoung; Ghosh, Debasis; Jalalah, Mohammed; Alsaiari, Mabkhoot; Harraz, Farid A.; Balakrishna, R. Geetha
      Journal of Energy Chemistry (2023), 76 (), 479-494CODEN: JECOFG; ISSN:2095-4956. (Science Press)
      A review. Lithium/Sodium-ion batteries (LIB/SIB) have attracted enormous attention as a promising electrochem. energy storage system due to their high energy d. and long cycle life. One of the major hurdles is the initial irreversible capacity loss during the first few cycles owing to forming the solid electrolyte interphase layer (SEI). This process consumes a profusion of lithium/sodium, which reduces the overall energy d. and cycle life. Thus, a suitable approach to compensate for the irreversible capacity loss must be developed to improve the energy d. and cycle life. Pre-lithiation/sodiation is a widely accepted process to compensate for the irreversible capacity loss during the initial cycles. Various strategies such as phys., chem., and electrochem. pre-lithiation/sodiation have been explored; however, these approaches add an extra step to the current manufg. process. Alternative to these strategies, pre-lithiation/sodiation additives have attracted enormous attention due to their easy adaptability and compatibility with the current battery manufg. process. In this review, we consolidate recent developments and emphasize the importance of using pre-lithiation/sodiation additives (anode and cathode) to overcome the irreversible capacity loss during the initial cycles in lithium/sodium-ion batteries. This review also addresses the tech. and scientific challenges of using pre-lithiation/sodiation additives and offers the insights to boost the energy d. and cycle life with their possible com. exploration. The most important prerequisites for designing effective pre-lithiation/sodiation additives have been explored and the future directions have been discussed.
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    88. 88
      Ding, R. Q.; Tian, S. Y.; Zhang, K. C.; Cao, J. R.; Zheng, Y.; Tian, W. C.; Wang, X. Y.; Wen, L. Z.; Wang, L.; Liang, G. C. Recent Advances in Cathode Prelithiation Additives and Their Use in Lithium-Ion Batteries. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2021, 893, 115325,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115325
      88
      Recent advances in cathode prelithiation additives and their use in lithium-ion batteries
      Ding, Ruqian; Tian, Shiyu; Zhang, Kaicheng; Cao, Jingrui; Zheng, Yi; Tian, Weichao; Wang, Xiaoyan; Wen, Lizhi; Wang, Li; Liang, Guangchuan
      Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry (2021), 893 (), 115325CODEN: JECHES; ISSN:1873-2569. (Elsevier B.V.)
      A review. The growing interest in elec. vehicles and energy storage systems has increased the demand for Li-ion battery technologies capable of providing high capacity and high energy d. As is known, irreversible loss of Li in the initial cycle decreases significantly the energy d. of Li-ion batteries. Anode prelithiation is a common method to overcome the problem, although it brings the problems of high chem. reactivity and instability under battery processing and ambient conditions. In comparison to anode prelithiation with high difficulty, cathode prelithiation is much simpler. To compensate the initial Li loss, many studies have aimed at finding suitable cathode additives, to improves the electrochem. performance of existing Li-ion batteries. This article introduces the mechanism and development for prelithiation of Li-ion battery, as well as requirements of cathode prelithiation additives, and summarizes the latest progress of research on cathode prelithiation additives. The challenges in the effective cathode prelithiation additives and the development direction of prelithiation technol. are also provided.
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      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtVKltb%252FO&md5=f80064b9c00d747b6f5bd1913189b513
    89. 89
      Cao, M. Y.; Liu, Z. P.; Zhang, X.; Yang, L.; Xu, S. W.; Weng, S. T.; Zhang, S. M.; Li, X. Y.; Li, Y. J.; Liu, T. C.; Gao, Y. R.; Wang, X. F.; Wang, Z. X.; Chen, L. Q. Feasibility of Prelithiation in LiFePO4. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2210032,  DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202210032
      89
      Feasibility of Prelithiation in LiFePO4
      Cao, Mengyan; Liu, Zepeng; Zhang, Xiao; Yang, Lu; Xu, Shiwei; Weng, Suting; Zhang, Simeng; Li, Xiaoyun; Li, Yejing; Liu, Tongchao; Gao, Yurui; Wang, Xuefeng; Wang, Zhaoxiang; Chen, Liquan
      Advanced Functional Materials (2023), 33 (9), 2210032CODEN: AFMDC6; ISSN:1616-301X. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) is widely applied as the cathode material for the energy storage Li-ion batteries due to its low cost and high cycling stability. However, the low theor. specific capacity of LiFePO4 makes its initial capacity loss more concerning. Therefore, lithium compensation by way of prelithiation and applications of sacrificial Li-rich additives in LiFePO4 is imminent in elevating the energy d. and/or prolonging the lifetime of the LiFePO4-based Li-ion batteries (LIBs). Prelithiation in LiFePO4 is herein carried out by electrochem. and chem. methods and its feasibility is proved on the basis of the electrochem. evaluations such as the initial charge capacity and the cycling stability. In addn., the site of the pre-intercalated Li-ions is found via comprehensive phys. characterizations and the d. functional theory (DFT) calcns. These findings open a new avenue for elevating the energy d. and/or prolonging the lifetime of the high-energy-d. batteries.
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    90. 90
      Sun, Y. M.; Li, Y. B.; Sun, J.; Li, Y. Z.; Pei, A.; Cui, Y. Stabilized Li3N for Efficient Battery Cathode Prelithiation. Energy Storage Mater. 2017, 6, 119– 124,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ensm.2016.10.004
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    91. 91
      Yue, X. Y.; Yao, Y. X.; Zhang, J.; Yang, S. Y.; Li, Z. H.; Yan, C.; Zhang, Q. Unblocked Electron Channels Enable Efficient Contact Prelithiation for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Adv. Mater. 2022, 34, 2110337,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.202110337
      91
      Unblocked Electron Channels Enable Efficient Contact Prelithiation for Lithium-Ion Batteries
      Yue, Xin-Yang; Yao, Yu-Xing; Zhang, Jing; Yang, Si-Yu; Li, Zeheng; Yan, Chong; Zhang, Qiang
      Advanced Materials (Weinheim, Germany) (2022), 34 (15), 2110337CODEN: ADVMEW; ISSN:0935-9648. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      Contact prelithiation is strongly considered for compensating the initial capacity loss of lithium-ion batteries, exhibiting great potential for ultralong cycle life of working batteries and the application of large-scale energy-storage systems. However, the utilization of the sacrificial Li source for contact prelithiation is low (<65%). Herein the fundamental mechanism of contact prelithiation is described from the perspective of the Li source/anode interfaces by regulating the initial contact state, and a clear illustration of the pathogeny for capacity attenuation is successfully delivered. Specifically, creating plentiful electron channels is an access to making contact prelithiation with a higher Li utilization, as the mitigated local c.d. that reduces the etching of Li dissoln. and SEI extension on electron channels. A vacuum thermal evapn. for depositing the Li film enables the contact interface to possess an adequate electron channel construction, rendering a Li utilization of 91.0%, and the dead Li yield is significantly reduced in a working battery.
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      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB38XlvVaqtLw%253D&md5=73d8107929b43a62b1190f5caf966858
    92. 92
      Xu, H.; Li, S.; Zhang, C.; Chen, X. L.; Liu, W. J.; Zheng, Y. H.; Xie, Y.; Huang, Y. H.; Li, J. Roll-to-Roll Prelithiation of Sn Foil Anode Suppresses Gassing and Enables Stable Full-Cell Cycling of Lithium Ion Batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 2019, 12, 2991– 3000,  DOI: 10.1039/C9EE01404G
      92
      Roll-to-roll prelithiation of Sn foil anode suppresses gassing and enables stable full-cell cycling of lithium ion batteries
      Xu, Hui; Li, Sa; Zhang, Can; Chen, Xinlong; Liu, Wenjian; Zheng, Yuheng; Xie, Yong; Huang, Yunhui; Li, Ju
      Energy & Environmental Science (2019), 12 (10), 2991-3000CODEN: EESNBY; ISSN:1754-5706. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      Herein, we demonstrate that bare Sn catalyzes liq. electrolyte decompn. at intermediate voltages to generate gas bubbles and Leidenfrost gas films, which hinder lithium-ion transport and erode the solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer. By metallurgically pre-alloying Li to make LixSn foil, the lower initial anode potential simultaneously suppresses gassing and promotes the formation of an adherent passivating SEI. We developed a universally applicable roll-to-roll mech. prelithiation method and successfully prelithiated Sn foil, Al foil and Si/C anodes. The as-prepd. LixSn foil exhibited an increased ICE from 20% to 94% and achieved 200 stable cycles in LiFePO4//LixSn full cells at ~ 2.65 mA h cm-2. Surprisingly, the LixSn foil also exhibited excellent air-stability, and its cycling performance sustained slight loss after 12 h exposure to moist air. In addn. to LiFePO4, the LixSn foil cycled well against a lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NMC) cathode (4.3 V and ~ 4-5 mA h cm-2). The volumetric capacity of the LixSn alloy in the LFP//LixSn pouch cell was up to ~ 650 mA h cm-3, which is significantly better than that of the graphite anode on a copper collector, with a rate capability as high as 3C.
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      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtFSqurzF&md5=559e42cfd707b4e1f4d8e9f2cc5702be
    93. 93
      Sun, Y. M.; Lee, H. W.; Seh, Z. W.; Liu, N.; Sun, J.; Li, Y. Z.; Cui, Y. High-Capacity Battery Cathode Prelithiation to Offset Initial Lithium Loss. Nat. Energy 2016, 1, 15008,  DOI: 10.1038/nenergy.2015.8
      93
      High-capacity battery cathode prelithiation to offset initial lithium loss
      Sun, Yongming; Lee, Hyun-Wook; Seh, Zhi Wei; Liu, Nian; Sun, Jie; Li, Yuzhang; Cui, Yi
      Nature Energy (2016), 1 (1), 15008CODEN: NEANFD; ISSN:2058-7546. (Nature Publishing Group)
      Loss of lithium in the initial cycles appreciably reduces the energy d. of lithium-ion batteries. Anode prelithiation is a common approach to address the problem, although it faces the issues of high chem. reactivity and instability in ambient and battery processing conditions. Here we report a facile cathode prelithiation method that offers high prelithiation efficacy and good compatibility with existing lithium-ion battery technologies. We fabricate cathode additives consisting of nanoscale mixts. of transition metals and lithium oxide that are obtained by conversion reactions of metal oxide and lithium. These nanocomposites afford a high theor. prelithiation capacity (typically up to 800 mAh g-1, 2,700 mAh cm-3) during charging. We demonstrate that in a full-cell configuration, the LiFePO4 electrode with a 4.8% Co/Li2O additive shows 11% higher overall capacity than that of the pristine LiFePO4 electrode. The use of the cathode additives provides an effective route to compensate the large initial lithium loss of high-capacity anode materials and improves the electrochem. performance of existing lithium-ion batteries.
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      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtVektL0%253D&md5=5623696eea191ecc7e71ddf2807c7ae8
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