RESEARCH ARTICLE
The delayed, durable effect of expressive writing on depression, anxiety and stress: A meta-analytic review of studies with long-term follow-ups
Lin Guo,
Corresponding Author
Lin Guo
Languages, Literatures and Linguistics Department, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, USA
Correspondence
Lin Guo, Languages, Literatures and Linguistics Department, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this author
Lin Guo,
Corresponding Author
Lin Guo
Languages, Literatures and Linguistics Department, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, USA
Correspondence
Lin Guo, Languages, Literatures and Linguistics Department, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Background
Expressive writing is a promising tool to heal the wounds with words.
Aims
This meta-analysis evaluated the current state of efficacy of expressive writing on depression, anxiety and stress symptoms among healthy and subclinical samples.
Materials and Methods
Thirty-one experimental studies (N = 4012) with randomized controlled trials and follow-up assessments were analysed.
Results
Results showed that expressive writing had an overall small but significant effect (Hedges' g = −0.12, 95% CI [−0.21, −0.04]) on reducing symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress. Change score analyses suggested that the intervention effect emerged after a delay, as evidenced by assessments at follow-up periods. Moderator analyses indicated that the effect sizes varied as a function of one intervention feature: interval. Studies that implemented short intervals (1–3 days) between writing sessions yielded stronger effects (Gdiff = −0.18, p = .01) relative to studies that implemented medium intervals (4–7 days) or long intervals (>7 days). The effects of expressive writing remained consistent across other intervention features including focus, instruction, number of sessions, topic repetition and delivery mode.
Discussion
Together, these findings provide evidence for the delayed, durable effect of expressive writing and underscore the importance of scheduling writing sessions at short intervals.
Conclusion
Implications for incorporating expressive writing into clinical practice and daily life are discussed.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
All authors declare no conflict of interest.
Open Research
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request
REFERENCES
- Angus, L. E., Boritz, T., Bryntwick, E., Carpenter, N., Macaulay, C., & Khattra, J. (2017). The narrative-emotion process coding system 2.0: A multi-methodological approach to identifying and assessing narrative-emotion process markers in psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Research, 27(3), 253–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2016.1238525
- *Baikie, K. A., Geerligs, L., & Wilhelm, K. (2011). Expressive writing and positive writing for participants with mood disorders: An online randomized controlled trial. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136(3), 310–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.11.032
- Banyard, V., Hamby, S., de St. Aubin, E., & Grych, J. (2019). Values narratives for personal growth: Formative evaluation of the laws of life essay program. The Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 59(2), 269–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167815618494
- Barry, L. M., & Singer, G. H. S. (2001). Reducing maternal psychological distress after the NICU experience through journal writing. Journal of Early Intervention, 24(4), 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/105381510102400404
- Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5(4), 323–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.5.4.323
10.1037/1089-2680.5.4.323 Google Scholar
- Beck, A. T. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. Guilford Press.
- Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 893–897.
- Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the BDI-II. Psychological Corporation.
- Beike, D., & Wirth-Beaumont, E. (2005). Psychological closure as a memory phenomenon. Memory, 13(6), 574–593. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210444000241
- *Beyer, J. A., Lumley, M. A., Latsch, D. V., Oberleitner, L. M. S., Carty, J. N., & Radcliffe, A. M. (2014). Computer-based written emotional disclosure: The effects of advance or real-time guidance and moderation by big 5 personality traits. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 27(5), 477–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2013.868887
- Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P., & Rothstein, H. R. (2010). A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 1(2), 97–111.
- Borenstein, M., Higgins, J. P., Hedges, L. V., & Rothstein, H. R. (2017). Basics of meta-analysis: I2 is not an absolute measure of heterogeneity. Research Synthesis Methods, 8(1), 5–18.
- Burton, C. M., & King, L. A. (2004). The health benefits of writing about intensely positive experiences. Journal of Research in Personality, 38(2), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(03)00058-8
- Burton, C. M., & King, L. A. (2008). Effects of (very) brief writing on health: The two-minute miracle. British Journal of Health Psychology, 13(1), 9–14. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910707X250910
- Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality-social, clinical, and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92(1), 111–135. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.92.1.111
- Chung, C. K., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2008). Variations in the spacing of expressive writing sessions. British Journal of Health Psychology, 13(1), 15–21. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910707X251171
- Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Routledge Academic.
10.1046/j.1526-4610.2001.111006343.x Google Scholar
- Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
- *Dean, J., Potts, H. W., & Barker, C. (2016). Direction to an internet support group compared with online expressive writing for people with depression and anxiety: A randomized trial. JMIR Mental Health, 3(2), e12. https://doi.org/10.2196/mental.5133
- Derogatis, L. R., & Melisaratos, N. (1983). The brief symptom inventory: An introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 13(3), 595–605. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700048017
- Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process (rev.). D.C. Heath and Company.
- Dimaggio, G., & Lysaker, P. H. (2015). Metacognition and mentalizing in the psychotherapy of patients with psychosis and personality disorders: Metacognition and mentalizing. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 71(2), 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22147
- Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 315(7109), 629–634. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
- Facchin, F., Margola, D., Molgora, S., & Revenson, T. A. (2014). Effects of benefit-focused versus standard expressive writing on adolescents' self-concept during the high school transition. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 24(1), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12040
- Fivush, R., Haden, C. A., & Reese, E. (2006). Elaborating on elaborations: Role of maternal reminiscing style in cognitive and socioemotional development. Child Development, 77(6), 1568–1588. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00960.x
- Foa, E. B. (1995). Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PTDS) manual. NSC Pearson.
- Frattaroli, J. (2006). Experimental disclosure and its moderators: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 823–865. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.823
- Frisina, P. G., Borod, J. C., & Lepore, S. J. (2004). A meta-analysis of the effects of written emotional disclosure on the health outcomes of clinical populations. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 192(9), 629–634. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000138317.30764.63
- Gidron, Y., Duncan, E., Lazar, A., Biderman, A., Tandeter, H., & Shvartzman, P. (2002). Effects of guided written disclosure of stressful experiences on clinic visits and symptoms in frequent clinic attenders. Family Practice, 19(2), 161–166. https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/19.2.161
- Gortner, E.-M., Rude, S. S., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2006). Benefits of expressive writing in lowering rumination and depressive symptoms. Behavior Therapy, 37(3), 292–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.01.004
- Götz, F. M., Gosling, S. D., & Rentfrow, P. J. (2022). Small effects: The indispensable foundation for a cumulative psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(1), 205–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620984483
- Guo, L. (2022). Reflect on emotional events from an observer's perspective: A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Cognition and Emotion, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2022.2134094 [ahead-of-print].
- Habermas, T. (2018). Emotion and narrative: Perspectives in autobiographical storytelling. Cambridge University Press.
10.1017/9781139424615 Google Scholar
- Habermas, T., & Bluck, S. (2000). Getting a life: The emergence of the life story in adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 126(5), 748–769. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.748
- Heber, E., Ebert, D. D., Lehr, D., Cuijpers, P., Berking, M., Nobis, S., & Riper, H. (2017). The benefit of web- and computer-based interventions for stress: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 19(2), e32. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.5774
- Hedges, L. V. (1981). Distribution theory for Glass's estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal of Educational Statistics, 6(2), 107–128. https://doi.org/10.3102/10769986006002107
10.3102/10769986006002107 Google Scholar
- Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Academic Press.
- Hedges, L. V., Tipton, E., & Johnson, M. C. (2010). Robust variance estimation in meta-regression with dependent effect size estimates. Research Synthesis Methods, 1, 39–65. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.5
- Hermans, H. J., & Kempen, H. J. (1993). The dialogical self: Meaning as movement. Academic Press.
- Higgins, J. P., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. British Medical Journal, 327, 557–560.
- *Hirai, M., Dolma, S., Vernon, L. L., & Clum, G. A. (2020). A longitudinal investigation of the efficacy of online expressive writing interventions for Hispanic students exposed to traumatic events: Competing theories of action. Psychology & Health, 35(12), 1459–1476. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2020.1758324
- *Hirai, M., Skidmore, S. T., Clum, G. A., & Dolma, S. (2012). An investigation of the efficacy of online expressive writing for trauma-related psychological distress in Hispanic individuals. Behavior Therapy, 43(4), 812–824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2012.04.006
- *Horsch, A., Tolsa, J.-F., Gilbert, L., du Chêne, L. J., Müller-Nix, C., & Graz, M. B. (2016). Improving maternal mental health following preterm birth using an expressive writing intervention: A randomized controlled trial. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 47(5), 780–791. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0611-6
- *Ironson, G., Leserman, J., Fordiani, J., O'cleirigh, C., Stuetzle, R., Fletcher, M. A., & Schneiderman, N. (2013). Gender-specific effects of an augmented written emotional disclosure intervention on posttraumatic, depressive, and HIV-disease-related outcomes: A randomized, controlled trial: Behavioral medicine and clinical health psychology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81(2), 284–298.
- *Kelly, R. E., Wood, A. M., Shearman, K., Phillips, S., & Mansell, W. (2012). Encouraging acceptance of ambivalence using the expressive writing paradigm. Psychology and Psychotherapy, 85(2), 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.2011.02023.x
- King, L. A. (2001). The health benefits of writing about life goals. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(7), 798–807. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201277003
- Klein, K., & Boals, A. (2001). Expressive writing can increase working memory capacity. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 130(3), 520–533. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.520
- Kloss, J. D., & Lisman, S. A. (2002). An exposure-based examination of the effects of written emotional disclosure. British Journal of Health Psychology, 7(1), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910702169349
- *Konig, A., Eonta, A., Dyal, S. R., & Vrana, S. R. (2014). Enhancing the benefits of written emotional disclosure through response training. Behavior Therapy, 45(3), 344–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2013.12.006
- Kross, E., & Ayduk, O. (2011). Making meaning out of negative experiences by self-distancing. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(3), 187–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411408883
- Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863
- Lambert, J. E., & Alhassoon, O. M. (2015). Trauma-focused therapy for refugees: Meta-analytic findings. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(1), 28–37. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000048
- *Lamers, S. M. A., Bohlmeijer, E. T., Korte, J., & Westerhof, G. J. (2015). The efficacy of life-review as online-guided self-help for adults: A randomized trial. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 70(1), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu030
- Lange, A., Schrieken, B., van de Ven, J.-P., Bredeweg, B., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., van der Kolk, J., Lydsdottir, L., Massaro, M., & Reuvers, A. (2000). “Interapy”: The effects of a short protocolled treatment of posttraumatic stress and pathological grief through the internet. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 28(2), 175–192. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465800001089
10.1017/S1352465800001089 Google Scholar
- Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press.
10.1111/j.1432-2277.2005.00183.x Google Scholar
- Lazarus, R. S. (1999). Hope: An emotion and a vital coping resource against despair. Social Research, 66(2), 653–678.
- Leiman, M., & Stiles, W. B. (2001). Dialogical sequence analysis and the zone of proximal development as conceptual enhancements to the assimilation model: The case of Jan revisited. Psychotherapy Research, 11(3), 311–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/713663986
- Lepore, S. J., Greenberg, M. A., Bruno, M., & Smyth, J. M. (2002). Expressive writing and health: Self-regulation of emotion-related experience, physiology, and behavior. In S. J. Lepore & J. M. Smyth (Eds.), The writing cure: How expressive writing promotes health and emotional well-being (pp. 99–117). AmericanPsychological Association.
10.1037/10451-005 Google Scholar
- Lewandowski, G. W. (2009). Promoting positive emotions following relationship dissolution through writing. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(1), 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760802068480
- *Lichtenthal, W. G., & Cruess, D. G. (2010). Effects of directed written disclosure on grief and distress symptoms among bereaved individuals. Death Studies, 34(6), 475–499. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2010.483332
- Lilgendahl, J. P., & McAdams, D. P. (2011). Constructing stories of self-growth: How individual differences in patterns of autobiographical reasoning relate to well-being in midlife. Journal of Personality, 79(2), 391–428. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00688.x
- Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Sage.
- Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales. The Psychology Foundation of Australia.
- Lysaker, P. H., & Dimaggio, G. (2014). Metacognitive capacities for reflection in schizophrenia: Implications for developing treatments. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40(3), 487–491. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbu038
- *Maestas, K. L., & Rude, S. S. (2012). The benefits of expressive writing on autobiographical memory specificity: A randomized controlled trial. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36(3), 234–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-011-9358-y
- Mar, R. A., Li, J., Nguyen, A. T. P., & Ta, C. P. (2021). Memory and comprehension of narrative versus expository texts: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 28(3), 732–749. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-020-01853-1
- McAdams, D. P. (2013). The psychological self as actor, agent, and author. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 272–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612464657
- Mclean, K. C., & Mansfield, C. D. (2012). The co-construction of adolescent narrative identity: Narrative processing as a function of adolescent age, gender, and maternal scaffolding. Developmental Psychology, 48(2), 436–447. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025563
- McLean, K. C., Syed, M., Pasupathi, M., Adler, J. M., Dunlop, W. L., Drustrup, D., Fivush, R., Graci, M. E., Lilgendahl, J. P., Lodi-Smith, J., McAdams, D. P., & McCoy, T. P. (2020). The empirical structure of narrative identity: The initial big three. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(4), 920–944. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000247
- Meads, C., & Nouwen, A. (2005). Does emotional disclosure have any effects? A systematic review of the literature with meta-analyses. International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care, 21(2), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1017/S026646230505021X
- *Meshberg-Cohen, S., Svikis, D., & McMahon, T. J. (2014). Expressive writing as a therapeutic process for drug-dependent women. Substance Abuse, 35(1), 80–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2013.805181
- Milbury, K., Spelman, A., Wood, C., Matin, S. F., Tannir, N., Jonasch, E., Pisters, L., Wei, Q., & Cohen, L. (2014). Randomized controlled trial of expressive writing for patients with renal cell carcinoma. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 32(7), 663.
- *Niles, A. N., Haltom, K. E. B., Mulvenna, C. M., Lieberman, M. D., & Stanton, A. L. (2014). Randomized controlled trial of expressive writing for psychological and physical health: The moderating role of emotional expressivity. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 27(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2013.802308
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1998). The other end of the continuum: The costs of rumination. Psychological Inquiry, 9(3), 216–219. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0903_5
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x
- North, R. J., Pai, A. V., Hixon, J. G., & Holahan, C. J. (2011). Finding happiness in negative emotions: An experimental test of a novel expressive writing paradigm. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 6(3), 192–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2011.570365
- *O'Connor, D. B., Hurling, R., Hendrickx, H., Osborne, G., Hall, J., Walklet, E., Whaley, A., & Wood, H. (2011). Effects of written emotional disclosure on implicit self-esteem and body image. British Journal of Health Psychology, 16(3), 488–501. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910710X523210
- *Pachankis, J. E., & Goldfried, M. R. (2010). Expressive writing for gay-related stress: Psychosocial benefits and mechanisms underlying improvement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(1), 98–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017580
- *Pachankis, J. E., Williams, S. L., Behari, K., Job, S., McConocha, E. M., & Chaudoir, S. R. (2020). Brief online interventions for LGBTQ young adult mental and behavioral health: A randomized controlled trial in a high-stigma, low-resource context. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 88(5), 429–444. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000497
- Park, C. L., Mills, M. A., & Edmondson, D. (2012). PTSD as meaning violation: Testing a cognitive worldview perspective. Psychological Trauma, 4(1), 66–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018792
- Pasupathi, M., Mansour, E., & Brubaker, J. R. (2007). Developing a life story: Constructing relations between self and experience in autobiographical narratives. Human Development, 50(2/3), 85–110. https://doi.org/10.1159/000100939
- Pavlacic, J. M., Buchanan, E. M., Maxwell, N. P., Hopke, T. G., & Schulenberg, S. E. (2019). A meta-analysis of expressive writing on posttraumatic stress, posttraumatic growth, and quality of life. Review of General Psychology, 23(2), 230–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/1089268019831645
- Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychological Science, 8(3), 162–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00403.x
- Pennebaker, J. W., & Beall, S. K. (1986). Confronting a traumatic event: Toward an understanding of inhibition and disease. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95(3), 274–281.
- Pennebaker, J. W., & Seagal, J. D. (1999). Forming a story: The health benefits of narrative. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55(10), 1243–1254.
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199910)55:10<1243::AID-JCLP6>3.0.CO;2-N CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar
- *Petko, D., Egger, N., & Cantieni, A. (2017). Weblogs in teacher education internships: Promoting reflection and self-efficacy while reducing stress? Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 33(2), 78–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/21532974.2017.1280434
10.1080/21532974.2017.1280434 Google Scholar
- *Poon, A., & Danoff-Burg, S. (2011). Mindfulness as a moderator in expressive writing. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(9), 881–895. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20810
- *Possemato, K., Ouimette, P., & Knowlton, P. (2011). A brief self-guided telehealth intervention for post-traumatic stress disorder in combat veterans: A pilot study. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare, 17(5), 245–250.
- *Pots, W. T. M., Fledderus, M., Meulenbeek, P. A. M., ten Klooster, P. M., Schreurs, K. M. G., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2016). Acceptance and commitment therapy as a web-based intervention for depressive symptoms: Randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry, 208(1), 69–77. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.114.146068
- R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
- *Radcliffe, A. M., Lumley, M. A., Kendall, J., Stevenson, J. K., & Beltran, J. (2007). Written emotional disclosure: Testing whether social disclosure matters. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26(3), 362–384. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2007.26.3.362
- Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
10.1177/014662167700100306 Google Scholar
- Reinhold, M., Bürkner, P., & Holling, H. (2018). Effects of expressive writing on depressive symptoms—A meta-analysis. Clinical psychology, 25(1), e12224-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12224
10.1111/cpsp.12224 Google Scholar
- Richards, D., & Richardson, T. (2012). Computer-based psychological treatments for depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(4), 329–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.02.004
- *Robertson, S. M. C., Short, S. D., Asper, A., Venezia, K., Yetman, C., Connelly, M., & Trumbull, J. (2019). The effect of expressive writing on symptoms of depression in college students: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 38(5), 427–450. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2019.38.5.427
- *Robertson, S. M. C., Short, S. D., Sawyer, L., & Sweazy, S. (2021). Randomized controlled trial assessing the efficacy of expressive writing in reducing anxiety in first-year college students: The role of linguistic features. Psychology & Health, 36(9), 1041–1065. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2020.1827146
- Rosenberg, M. S. (2005). The file-drawer problem revisited: A general weighted method for calculating fail-safe numbers in meta-analysis. Evolution, 59(2), 464–468.
- Rosenthal, R. (1979). The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 638–641. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.638
- Salvatore, G., Dimaggio, G., & Semerari, A. (2004). A model of narrative development: Implications for understanding psychopathology and guiding therapy. Psychology and Psychotherapy, 77(2), 231–254. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608304323112519
- Sheese, B. E., Brown, E. L., & Graziano, W. G. (2004). Emotional expression in cyberspace: Searching for moderators of the Pennebaker disclosure effect via e-mail. Health Psychology, 23(5), 457–464. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.23.5.457
- Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006). Achieving sustainable gains in happiness: Change your actions, not your circumstances. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7(1), 55–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-0868-8
10.1007/s10902-005-0868-8 Google Scholar
- *Slavin-Spenny, O. M., Cohen, J. L., Oberleitner, L. M., & Lumley, M. A. (2011). The effects of different methods of emotional disclosure: Differentiating post-traumatic growth from stress symptoms. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(10), 993–1007. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20750
- Sloan, D. M., & Marx, B. P. (2004). Taking pen to hand: Evaluating theories underlying the written disclosure paradigm. Clinical Psychology, 11(2), 121–137. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bph062
10.1093/clipsy.bph062 Google Scholar
- Sloan, D. M., & Marx, B. P. (2017). On the implementation of written exposure therapy (WET) with veterans diagnosed with PTSD. Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy, 13(2), 154–164. https://doi.org/10.14713/pcsp.v13i2.2005
10.14713/pcsp.v13i2.2005 Google Scholar
- Sloan, D. M., Marx, B. P., & Epstein, E. M. (2005). Further examination of the exposure model underlying the efficacy of written emotional disclosure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 549–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.549
- *Sloan, D. M., Marx, B. P., & Greenberg, E. M. (2011). A test of written emotional disclosure as an intervention for posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(4), 299–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2011.02.001
- Smorti, A., Pananti, B., & Rizzo, A. (2010). Autobiography as tool to improve lifestyle, well being, and self-narrative in patients with mental disorders. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198(8), 564–571. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181ea4e59
- Smyth, J. M. (1998). Written emotional expression: Effect sizes, outcome types, and moderating variables. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(1), 174–184. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.66.1.174
- Smyth, J. M., Hockemeyer, J. R., & Tulloch, H. (2008). Expressive writing and post-traumatic stress disorder: Effects on trauma symptoms, mood states, and cortisol reactivity. British Journal of Health Psychology, 13(1), 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910707X250866
- Smyth, J. M., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2008). Exploring the boundary conditions of expressive writing: In search of the right recipe. British Journal of Health Psychology, 13(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910707X260117
- Syed, M., & McLean, K. C. (2015). Understanding identity integration: Theoretical, methodological, and applied issues. Journal of Adolescence, 47(1), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.09.005
- Theobald, M. (2021). Self-regulated learning training programs enhance university students' academic performance, self-regulated learning strategies, and motivation: A meta-analysis. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 66, 101976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101976
- Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(2), 284–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284
- Travagin, G., Margola, D., & Revenson, T. A. (2015). How effective are expressive writing interventions for adolescents? A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 36, 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.003
- *Tsai, W., Lee, C. S., & Monte, V. (2021). Comparing the effects of emotional disclosure and peer helping writing on psychological distress among Chinese international students: The moderating role of rumination. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 77(7), 1556–1572. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23135
- *van der Houwen, K., Schut, H., van den Bout, J., Stroebe, M., & Stroebe, W. (2010). The efficacy of a brief internet-based self-help intervention for the bereaved. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(5), 359–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.009
- *Vukčević Marković, M., Bjekić, J., & Priebe, S. (2020). Effectiveness of expressive writing in the reduction of psychological distress during the covid-19 pandemic: A randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 587282. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.587282
- Wenzlaff, R. M., Rude, S. S., Taylor, C. J., Stultz, C. H., & Sweatt, R. A. (2001). Beneath the veil of thought suppression: Attentional bias and depression risk. Cognition and Emotion, 15(4), 435–452. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930125871
- White, M., & Epston, D. (1990). Narrative means to therapeutic ends ( 1st ed.). Norton.
- *Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., & Telch, M. J. (2010). Efficacy of self-administered treatments for pathological academic worry: A randomized controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(9), 840–850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2010.03.019
- *Wong, C. C. Y., & Mak, W. W. S. (2016). Writing can heal: Effects of self-compassion writing among Hong Kong Chinese college students. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 7(1), 74–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000041
- Zachariae, R., & O’Toole, M. S. (2015). The effect of expressive writing intervention on psychological and physical health outcomes in cancer patients-a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psycho-Oncology, 24(11), 1349–1359. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.3802
Articles included in the meta-analyses are marked with *.
