Did the prevalence of depressive symptoms change during the COVID-19 pandemic? A multilevel analysis on longitudinal data from healthcare workers
Abstract
Background:
Methods:
Results:
Conclusion:
Introduction
Methods
Data from a prospective cohort study
Measures
Main dependent variable: Repeatedly measured mean continuous depression scores (GDS mean scores)
Second dependent variable: Repeatedly measured continuous scores of GDS subscales
Predictor variables (independent variables)
Covariates
Statistical analyses
Step 1: Confirmation of a linear time trend in depressive symptoms and a predictive value of perceived stress
Step 2: Differences in the linear time trend in depressive symptoms by own infection and/or by workplace exposure to COVID-19 patients?
Step 3: Differences in the linear time trend in depressive modalities by presumed workplace exposure to COVID-19 patients
Results
Group: administrative staff | Group: medical staff | |
---|---|---|
% (N) | 48.35 (44) | 51.65 (47) |
Age, mean in years (SD) | 46.52 (8.4) | 44.38 (12.21) |
Female sex % (N) | 88.64 (39) | 91.49 (43) |
Profession | % (N) | % (N) |
Administrative staff | 52.27 (23) | 4.26 (2) |
Social service staff | 4.55 (2) | 0.00 (0) |
Radiology assistant | 9.09 (4) | 2.13 (1) |
Lab assistant | 20.45 (9) | 0.00 (0) |
Technical assistant | 2.27 (1) | 0.00 (0) |
Patient service staff | 2.27 (1) | 4.26 (2) |
Physical therapist | 2.27 (1) | 12.77 (6) |
Nursing staff | 6.82 (3) | 63.83 (30) |
Physician | 0 (0) | 12.77 (6) |
Depressive symptoms score | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) |
‘Time 0’ | 0.48 (0.42) | 0.56 (0.41) |
‘Time 1’ | 0.49 (0.38) | 0.45 (0.37) |
‘Time 2’ | 0.47 (0.42) | 0.44 (0.42) |
‘Time 3’ | 0.45 (0.39) | 0.46 (0.39) |
‘Time 4’ | 0.50 (0.48) | 0.65 (0.48) |
‘Time 5’ | 0.62 (0.59) | 0.77 (0.37) |
Perceived stress score | Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) |
‘Time 0–5’ | 4.92 (2.67) | 5.38 (2.43) |
Laboratory confirmed own infection | % (N) | % (N) |
‘Time 0–5’ | 9.09 (4) | 25.53 (12) |
Workplace exposure to COVID-19 patients | % (N) | % (N) p-value test statistic |
‘Time 0’ | 4.55 (2) | 12.77 (6) |
‘Time 1’ | 0.00 (0) | 6.38 (3) |
‘Time 2’ | 0.00 (0) | 2.13 (1) |
‘Time 3’ | 11.36 (5) | 25.53 (12) p = .051 |
‘Time 4’ | 25.00 (11) | 46.81 (22) p = .029 |
‘Time 5’ | 29.55 (13) | 74.47 (35) p = .014 |
Step 1: Confirmation of a predictive value of both time and stress on depressive symptoms
Group administrative staff | Group medical staff | Overall sample | |
---|---|---|---|
Subject n = 44 | Subject n = 47 | Subject n = 91 | |
Obs. n = 264 | Obs. n = 282 | Obs. n = 564 | |
Model 0 (random intercept): | |||
subject: | ICC = .67 | ICC = .58 | ICC = .62 |
AIC = 105.29 | AIC = 237.82 | AIC = 352.03 | |
Model 1 (Model 0 + linear time): | |||
time: | β = .02*(.00–.04) | β = .05***(.03–.07) | β = .03***(.02–.05) |
stress: | β = .12***(.10–.14) | β = .13***(.10–.16) | β = .12***(.10–.14) |
marginal R2: | .573 | .459 | .493 |
AIC = 41.40a | AIC = 174.72a | AIC = 228.55a | |
Model 2 (Model 1 + first-order autoregressive covariance structure) | |||
time: | β = .02*(.00–.04) | β = .04***(.02–.07) | β = .03***(.02–.05) |
stress: | β = .12***(.10–.14) | β = .14***(.11–.17) | β = .12***(.10–.14) |
marginal R2: | .574 | .460 | .495 |
AIC = 29.94a,b | AIC = 154.94a,b | AIC = 191.75a,b | |
Model 3 (Model 2 + time × own infection): | |||
time: | β = .02 (−.00–.04) | β = .03*(.00–.06) | β = .02**(.01–.04) |
time × infection: | β = .07~ (−.00–.14) | β = .05 (−.01–.10) | β = .06*(.01–.10) |
stress: | β = .12***(.10–.14) | β = .13***(.10–.16) | β = .12***(.10–.14) |
marginal R2: | .586 | .470 | .502 |
AIC = 29.12a,b | AIC = 155.54a,b | AIC = 187.13a,b,c |
Step 2: Differences in the linear time trend in repeatedly measured depressive symptoms by own COVID-19 infection among HCW and/or by workplace exposure to COVID-19 patients
Step 3: Differences in the linear time trend in repeatedly measured modalities by workplace exposure to COVID-19 patients
Group administrative staff | Group medical staff | |
---|---|---|
Subject n = 37 | Subject n = 34 | |
Obs. n = 222 | Obs. n = 204 | |
AR1 – Model 4: emotional symptoms | ||
time | β = .31***(.14–.49) | β = .42**(.14–.70) |
stress | β = .92***(.70–1.13) | β = .91***(.64–1.19) |
marginal R2 | .490 | .363 |
AR1 – Model 5: motivational symptoms | ||
time | β = .06~(.00–.13) | β = .05 (−.03–.14) |
stress | β = .32***(.24–.41) | β = .32***(.23–.41) |
marginal R2 | .420 | .346 |
AR1 – Model 6: cognitive symptoms | ||
time | β = .11 (−.02–.24) | β = .06 (−.12–.24) |
stress | β = .72***(.50–.94) | β = .90***(.68–1.12) |
marginal R2 | .461 | .457 |
AR1 – Model 7: somatic symptoms | ||
time | β = .03 (−.04–.11) | β = .25***(.13–.38) |
stress | β = .33***(.23–.43) | β = .35***(.23–.46) |
marginal R2 | .352 | .302 |
AR1 – Model 8: interactional symptoms | ||
time | β = .10~(.00–.12) | β = .02 (−.04–.10) |
stress | β = .26***(.15–.38) | β = .22**(.08–.35) |
marginal R2 | .177 | .134 |
Discussion
RQ1: Temporal increase in mean values of depressive symptoms and predictive value of perceived stress during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic
RQ 2: Own infection exacerbates temporal increase in mean depressive symptoms, regardless of workplace exposure to COVID-19 patients
RQ 3: Workplace exposure to COVID-19 patients affects temporal increase in somatic depressive symptoms
Strength and limitations
Conclusion
Ethical approval
Conflict of interest
Funding
ORCID iDs
References
Supplementary Material
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This article was published in International Journal of Social Psychiatry.
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