This article is intended as a thought experiment on the meaning of the Russian concept narod, generally translated “people,” during the Time of Troubles (Smutnoe vremia) of the early seventeenth century. The topic is significant, since in this period the Muscovite politico-religious elite propounded a notion of vox populi as a legitimizing and even decisive force in determining the right course of action for the entire realm. Two closely related concepts, the so-called zemskii sobor (Assembly of the Land) and the idea of Holy Russia or Rus’, have been much debated in historiography. I argue that these historiographic discussions could benefit from more emphasis on the fundamental linguistic concepts of the time, as distinct from the later conceptualizations of historians. The present reconsideration of the meaning of narod, or who was included within notions of “the people,” suggests that language as much as anything else played a role in the dramatic historical shifts that have shaped Russian culture to this day. Keywords: Time of Troubles – Russian Orthodox Christianity – zemskii sobor – vox populi – people – narod – Holy Russia

Review (2015) of my book, Russian Idea (2013)

Two significant developments during the later Mediterranean Iron Age (roughly eighth to sixth centuries BCE) are the proliferation of long-distance trade networks and the growth of urban settlements around the Mediterranean. In the paper I argue two main points: 1) that overseas communities geared largely (but not solely) towards trade were vital in facilitating and intensifying commercial and social relations between culturally diverse societies and 2) that common religious identifications within these settlements formed fundamental institutional structures to mediate transactions between foreigners. I thus examine, first of all, some recent scholarship surrounding the concept of the emporion in the ancient world, particularly in terms of its social and urban functions. I then turn to a specific case study involving the cultic activity unearthed at an emporion on the Tiber River in Italy dating to the sixth century BCE, on the site of what would later be known as the Forum Boarium, or cattle market, of Rome. The religious identities as illustrated through the archaeology and literature surrounding gods such as Herakles, Mater Matuta, and Fortuna were crucial in reaching across cultural boundaries, and speak to the diverse groups of people engaging in social and economic transactions within this emporion. I end with a consideration of how both a theory of institutions and comparative evidence from later periods can help us divulge the explanatory power of these cults in terms of the larger processes of urbanization and economic growth in the ancient world. Keywords: emporion, religion, sanctuaries, syncretism, cross-cultural interaction, institutions, long-distance trade, economy, Iron Age

Despite investing significant resources, the practice of development has struggled to secure positive, long-term outcomes for the people of Timor-Leste. More than a decade on from formal independence, much of the nation’s population remains deeply impoverished and many human development challenges persist. This article attempts to answer two questions: First, why has development in Timor-Leste been unable to deliver more observable benefits and outcomes for the population at large? And second, how might development be reconfigured to be more effective? Drawing from statistical information, interviews, and case study material, this article argues that part of the ‘problem’ lies with development orthodoxy and its incapacity to recognize and adapt to settings where customary systems of local authority, practice, and belief remain important to social cohesion. Indeed, much may be gained by recasting the way development theory and practice views and interprets such practices, moving away from the idea of a series of cultural obstacles to acknowledging them as deeply embedded systems of meaning which continue to guide various aspects of East Timorese life.

Fuel in the ancient Mediterranean has to date received little detailed analysis. Humans in the Mediterranean consumed fuel in socio-culturally conditioned ways (i.e. history ‘in’ the Mediterranean); but that they could consume fuel at all, and which fuels were available in which areas, is very much a ‘history of’ topic. Quantitative and qualitative studies of the economy have focused on production and trade of goods and slave labor, but the fuel economy has been difficult to trace in the historical sources, mentions being more incidental than material. The most important archaeological evidence, i.e. that of the archaeological charcoal, is not yet routinely collected by all excavators. This is an omission that begs attention, as ancient settlements could not function without fuel. The gathering of wood for fuel occasionally resulted in dramatic changes in the environment when over-exploitation occurred (for example, on islands), while in other places, more sustainable practices appear to have occurred. (Wood was not the only fuel in many parts of the Mediterranean: animal dung and agricultural waste such as chaff and olive lees were also consumed.) Geology, topography, and climate determine which trees may grow in a particular location; but politics, land ownership, cultural mores and agricultural practice moderated the physical factors. This contribution provides a framework for examining ancient Mediterranean cities’ fuel supplies. Archaeological charcoal is at the heart of this approach but aspects of the historic sources are also considered and a case study of Pompeii’s fuel economy c. third c. BC to AD 79 is briefly overviewed in line with the methodology suggested. New scientific techniques beyond simple charcoal identification as to wood type have started to appear and are discussed here in terms of their usefulness for examining forest management and consumption. Further aims of this contribution are to encourage researchers to collect charcoal, and to show the detailed ways in which it can now be used to examine a city’s fuel supply. In time, with sufficient further research, it may be possible to synthesize regional patterns of supply and consumption for the Mediterranean (and the ancient world as a whole). Indeed the relevance of studying ancient wood fuel remains appears to have become greater today as we consider modern problems of climate change, and the potential of pelletized wood (at perhaps 70% of the calorific value of coal) as a part of our fuel future.