Alexandru Popovici

The present volume contains, in part or in whole, three semestrial lectures of the Theory of relativity, held at the University of Bucharest, Faculty of Mathematics or Faculty of Philosophy, where the author was professor, since 1948 until his death in 1964. The drafting dates for the first and last lectures are not spelled out in the preserved manuscripts and were established only approximately, by examining and comparing their actual content. Unfortunately, the introductions to the first two lectures also contain some politicized parts, more ideological than philosophical (imposed by the respective Stalinist conditions).

This book, written in 1938-40, is an exhaustive mathematical and conceptual approach of the Marxist economics, as it was developed in the classical works, especially of Marx, Hilferding and Bukharin. The basic and detail classical statements are demonstrated, and new results are obtained, using 440 equations of elementary algebra and differential or difference calculus. His author was professor, since 1948 until his death in 1964, at the University of Bucharest, Faculty of mathematics and mechanics, teaching the Theory of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics.
One of its most valuable original features is the modelling of productive forces (including human labour) as mass-energy systems, a description which lies at the basis of the work and is developed until the top, giving a new foundation to the classical labour theory of value and surplus value. This approach allows for quantitative comparisons between labours or products of different qualities, and their aggregation. It  is valuable even outside the Marxist economics, and was effectively employed in other contexts by several authors, starting from the seventies and using more sophisticated mathematical tools, but here even new important results are obtained with simpler methods.
In contrast to other works on the Marxist economics, which deal only to some of its aspects or levels (micro- or macro-economic), here the modelling uses a multi-level conceptual approach, starting from the abstract technological systems (of the production relations), through the commodity producing systems (of market relations), up to the capitalist production system (of the capitalist production, circulation and distribution relations), with its historical phases of free competition and of monopoly. On each level, the modelling begins with the simplest unit (the labourer and his tool/machine and materials) and, by successive aggregations, it reaches plant, branch and country, studying the relationships and reciprocal influences between the different levels.
The analysis is both deterministic and statistical, and is done using both static and dynamic variables. The study covers the results of their variation and tendencies on short terms (turnover and year increase or decrease), medium terms (economic cycle), and long terms (historical evolution of systems).

The conception of the founder of the Austrian School in his book on the philosophy of social sciences has been described by the supporters of this school as a total methodological individualism, upholding the absolute specificity of these sciences to those of nature, and as rejecting the use of mathematics in economics.
On the contrary, we shall see that for Carl Menger the human individual was only the fundamental element of socio-economic structures, not reducible to it. Economic theory was to be inspired by the ‘atomism’ of natural sciences and determine the causes, effects, and laws of the studied phenomena, with the aim of predicting and controlling them. Empirical study had to unite with conceptual abstraction and mathematics in the degree determined by the simplicity or complexity of the field of research.
These characteristics of C. Manger’s conception, like others, make us assume an important (but unconfessed) influence of A. Comte's positivism. However, in order to prove it, we will try to restore his true philosophy of science, warped by the neo-positivism of the energeticist scientists and of the Vienna Circle.
I believe that the real meaning of ideas can only be understood by placing them in their most complete contexts. So, I sought to give a concentrated but faithfully structured picture of the systems of philosophy of science.

The book 'Probabilities, statistics and econometrics assisted by the Excel program' exposes the main concepts and results of probability theory and mathematical statistics, as well as the computational algorithms underlying their application in economics and technology, but especially in the econometric approach, through regressions and time series.
The theory is accompanied by problems and examples of calculation, solved manually (with the help of tables with statistical distribution values, listed in 14 annexes) or automatically (assisted by Excel) with over 120 spreadsheets created by the author, many of them substantially complementing the additional programs from the Analysis ToolPack library, delivered by Microsoft with Excel). They have been developed, tested and improved in lectures and seminars held by the author over many years. The Excel templates and spreadsheets developed with them, together with data files and instructions for use, can be downloaded from the website of the Romanian Econometrics Society (www.res.ase.ro).

The book ‘Information Systems with relational and object databases' is based on the theory of decentralized (distributed) multilevel systems. The object technologies were widely treated, which gained a new momentum at the beginning of the millennium, after the appearance of the UML language, for object modeling.
The first part deals with the classification and modeling of information systems. The second part deals with the theory and practice of relational and object databases and of corresponding management systems (especially MS Access 2010).
Part three systematically develops the theory of database design, through the classification of methodologies and the description of SSADM 4.0 (intended for relational databases) and the Unified Process (oriented to object technologies).
The fourth, last part, describes the practice of using decision support systems (Excel 2010 and AIMMS 3.10) for solving linear and nonlinear optimization problems, or for deterministic and stochastic simulation.
Everywhere, the conceptual approach is supplemented with a formal one, using more precise and concise mathematical notations, but they are accompanied by a wide range of concrete examples, centered on a fictitious enterprise.

The book 'Elements of econometrics, assisted by the Excel software' is a theoretical and practical introduction to econometrics. In addition to the necessary concepts from probability theory and mathematical statistics, the computational concepts of using MS Excel and the nearly 40 associated spreadsheets are also exposed. The presentation seeks to combine mathematical rigor and intuitiveness, being accompanied by computation examples and proposed problems.

The book 'Fundamentals of distributed information processing' presents, in an intuitive manner, the basics of computer science, the Windows operating system and the MS Office software package, highlighting the methods and processes of distributed processing and storage of information, required by the exponential development of data volume, as well as computations speed and complexity.

The book 'Reliability of complex systems' contains an interdisciplinary approach to the technical field of systems reliability, with the help, on the one hand, of algebraic and probabilistic mathematical methods, and on the other – by using the modern tools of the computer science – object-oriented and event-driven programming, as well as relational database management. Everything is viewed from the integrative perspective of the general theory of hierarchical systems and their computer-aided design.

The book 'Information systems and relational data bases' aims (from the point of view of the management of economic enterprises) to substantiate the modeling of information systems on the theory of multilevel systems and the use of prefabricated information tools both in the realization and in the design of the information systems of the enterprise. The English SSADM methodology for analysis and structural design of information systems is presented in detail.

In this book, H. Sanielevici accomplished his purpose – an adequate development of a scientific classification of the men’s races, relying on essential traits and on their actual kinship, from the perspective of the whole evolution of the living world. Together with this, he could develop Lamarck’s theory, by completing its principles and laws: first, with those of Cuvier, then with those of the genetics and, to a lower degree, with those of Darwin. In this construction, he used geology, physical geography and ecosystem geography, climatology, anatomy and paleontology, botanics, zoology and ethology of the higher organisms. However, the explanations and laws he reaches are rather synthetic and descriptive, at the macroscopic level, without giving details of the corresponding physiological and cytological mechanisms, maybe to the advantage of the overall view.
Despite his limits, one could say that Sanielevici made, together with Vladimir Vernadsky (but without knowing about each other), a new theoretical synthesis of the Lamarckism with its contemporary biology.

Cartea prezintă ultima versiune a compilatorului QuickBASIC pentru calculatoare IBM-PC, lansată de firma Microsoft în 1990. Lucrarea este scrisă într-o formă accesibilă şi prezintă toate aspectele legate de utilizarea limbajului QuickBASIC, atît cele introductive, utile începătorilor, cît şi cele avansate, necesare studenţilor şi programatorilor profesionişti sau semi-profesionişti. Ea conţine peste 170 de exemple de programe mici şi mijlocii, pentru fiecare instrucţiune a limbajului, precum şi 8 programe mai mari, cu aplicaţii în domeniile analizei numerice, cercetării operaţionale şi graficii.

Starting from an overview of the main concepts of critical realism, the paper places the philosophy of Roy Bhaskar into the context of contemporary ontology and theory of layered [multilevel] reality. Its developments in the field of economics, especially by Tony Lawson, are related to the methods proposed by critical realism for social sciences. Both the merits and the actual limits of these approaches are marked, together with some proposals for surpassing the latter.

The contents of the three papers which form this cycle, published in “Oeconomica”, nos. 1-4/2014, are shortly described, together the conferences of which lie as their bases. The critics (verbal or written) of the referees are exposed, accompanied by the comments and responses of the author.

I consider it an honor for the science on whose territory I consume my energy that a mathematician, with real inclination to philosophize, enters this area and qualifiedly ransacks its intimacies. I am referring to Professor Alexandru Popovici, Ph.D., and to the economic science to which, on rigorous pillars of epistemology, he seeks to reveal meanings and depths greater than suspected. With respect to what Professor Popovici wrote and published in this direction, I had the chance to take part to a collegial discussion hosted by the Bucharest University of Economic Studies, the Romanian-American University and the Romanian Society of Econometrics on “Austrian, neo-Keynesian and neo-Marxist Schools”. I am trying here a deliberately more organized development of some thoughts expressed at that time.

In the first part (§§1-3), an overview of the philosophy of the multilevel reality was undertaken. In the second part (§§4-5), some applications of this approach in economics are exposed. In microeconomics, both the mathematical statement of the multilevel decision processes, and the object modeling of the organizations are described. The problem of the aggregation of the economic data is approached within the micro-, meso- and macroeconomic levels framework, and a solution is sketched, for utilities (use values) and exchange values. At last, the relationships of Juglar and Kondratieff cycles with the levels of production branches and primary energy technologies are analysed and explained, using the economical and technological levels of the production processes and the mathematical models of M. Kalecki and A. Popovici. The possibility of a flexible and distributed macroeconomic planning is also explored.

In the first part (§§1-3), based on the ontological and epistemological problems and solutions and on the analysis of the philosophical grounds of three main schools of economics, exposed in the previous papers, a short overview of the philosophy of the multilevel reality is undertaken. It is shown that the hierarchy of the sciences is not only formal, but corresponds to a true organization of the reality into levels with specific components and properties. There is an interaction between the components of a level and the respective level itself (as a structural unit). Moreover, a lower level is conditioning its upper level, while the last one is acting on the first one (that is, they interact, too). The degree of freedom and plasticity grows from the microphysical level to the human one. Individual cognition is a process of reciprocal action and accommodation between subject and object, between different subjects, of their ensemble and the whole world. The evolution of scientific and philosophic methodologies of Descartes, Newton, Hegel and Marx is analysed, in relation to their ontologies and hierarchies of sciences, showing the continuities and discontinuities of this evolution. The possibilities and the limits of applying dialectics in natural and social sciences are explored through the views of A. Popovici, G. Gurvitch, J. Piaget and J.-P. Sartre. In the second part (§§4-5), which will be published latter, the applications of this philosophy in micro- and macroeconomics will be described.

Based on the ontological and epistemological problems and solutions exposed in the previous paper ("Problems of the philosophy of natural and social sciences", 2014), we engage in an analysis of the philosophical grounds of three main schools of economics. A careful and unprejudiced examination of the original writings shows that the common ideas and labels (reductionism vs. holism, individualism vs. institutionalism, positivism vs. dialectics, apriorism vs. inductionism etc.) on these schools are misleading. They are not opposing one another as solid blocks of incompatible ideas and theories, but each school contains different approaches and trends, which maintain their internal life and sustain the dialogue between them.

In the view of analyzing the differences and resemblances of the natural and social sciences (with the economics between them), some of their ontological and epistemological problems and solutions are presented. The options for the interactionist, evolutionist and probabilistic-determinist ontological solutions, for the union of explanation and understanding, of iterative analytic and synthetic methods, as for a humanist naturalism (or substantialist) philosophy, are sustained by using both the structural and historical approaches. All these options succeed to preserve the basic unity and autonomy of the natural and human ontological domains and, alike, of their corresponding sciences.

Marx was praised or attacked first of all as revolutionary political ideologist, but in
his work economics has the greatest weight, to which he dedicated all his years of maturity. The discussions about it did not cease, and they keep going on even in our times, this time using the increasingly evolved methods of the mathematical economics, which confirm its coherence and adequacy; now recognized even by some of the greatest non-Marxian economists. These methods are necessary (as we will see), given the complexity of the Marxian approach to economy, as a system with both static and dynamic equilibriums and imbalances, stationary, or growing, studied at the level of microeconomics and macroeconomics, on the short-term (annually), on medium-term (of economic cycle) or on the long term (as historic trend), using determinist and stochastic methods.

The paper describes the variety of religious phenomena, several definitions (which tried to catch their essence), the evolution of the great religious currents, both spiritual and demographic (with their resemblances and differences), in order to understand their reality and impact on globalization.

Laic cultural globalization is conceived as a material and spiritual process, deeply rooted in the evolution of humanity. Its delocating and moral disengaging features, the cultural monopoly (language, printed publications, media, music), are examined, and some counterbalancing phenomena are revealed. The interaction between different cultures through human migrations during the last two hundred years, and through mass tourism, leading to a new self-awareness of the humanity, is explored.

The interdisciplinary study of globalization needs a method to coordinate their cooperation. On the other side, different works that approached globalization from various scientific perspectives use the concept of multilevel system for sciences and reality, which appears as a possible common basis for interdisciplinarity.
It is shown that the hierarchy of the sciences is not only formal, but corresponds to a true organization of the reality into levels with specific components and properties. There is an interaction between the components of a level and the respective level itself (as a structural unit). Moreover, a lower level is conditioning its upper level, while the last one is acting on the first one (that is, they interact, too). The degree of freedom and plasticity grows from the microphysical level to the human one. Individual and social cognition is a process of reciprocal action and accommodation between subject and object, between different subjects, of their ensemble and the whole world.
A complete study of globalization can be achieved only by cooperation between social and natural sciences; by their interaction they modify themselves, so that an ensemble with new properties results.

Mises’s work of ‘Human action’ is analyzed in relation to the methodological conceptions of his predecessor C. Menger and of his successor F. von Hayek. Also, it is placed in the continuation of one of his previous works and in contrast to one that followed it. Some of his ideas can be better understood in such a way, while others show themselves as contradictory. It results that his attempt to combine apriorism with scientific realism explains some of major difficulties of Mises’s argumentation.

Starting from an overview of the main concepts of critical realism, the paper places the philosophy of Roy Bhaskar into the context of  contemporary ontology and theory of layered reality. Its developments in the field of economics, especially by Tony Lawson, are related to the methods proposed by critical realism for social sciences. Both the merits and the actual limits of these approaches are marked, together with some proposals for surpassing the latter.