Reinforcement, Reward, and Intrinsic Motivation: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
This article reviews research on the effects of reinforcement/reward on intrinsic motivation. The main meta-analysis included 96 experimental studies that used between-groups designs to compare rewarded subjects to nonrewarded controls on four measures of intrinsic motivation. Results indicate that, overall, reward does not decrease intrinsic motivation. When interaction effects are examined, findings show that verbal praise produces an increase in intrinsic motivation. The only negative effect appears when expected tangible rewards are given to individuals simply for doing a task. Under this condition, there is a minimal negative effect on intrinsic motivation as measured by time spent on task following the removal of reward. A second analysis was conducted on five studies that used within-subject designs to evaluate the effects of reinforcement on intrinsic motivation; results suggest that reinforcement does not harm an individual’s intrinsic motivation.
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Gamifying behaviour that leads to learning
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The Use of Incentives in Nonprofit Organizations
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Using Extrinsic Motivation to Influence Student Attitude and Behavior ...
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LunchTime: a slow-casual game for long-term dietary behavior change
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Analyzing Teachers' Feedback Practices in Response to Students' Work i...
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Measuring the effects of social networking features on player motivati...
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Teaching software design with social engagement
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Effectiveness of a Program Using a Vehicle Tracking System, Incentives...
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Severe Speech Sound Disorders: An Integrated Multimodal Intervention
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Detrimental Effects of Performance-Related Pay in the Public Sector? O...
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Creating an Optimal Learning Environment for Struggling Readers
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Classroom-Level Positive Behavior Supports in Schools Implementing SW-...
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Extrinsic Rewards, Intrinsic Motivation and Voting
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Designing Effective Classwide Motivation Systems for Students With Emo...
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Creating Consistent Hitters: A Growth Hitting System to Promote a Mast...
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Are Top Executives Paid Enough? An Evidence-Based Review
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Understanding Children’s Private Speech and Self-Regulation Learning i...
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Identification of Lead User Characteristics Driving the Quality of Ser...
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Motivation, Goals, Thinking, and Problem Solving
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Computer praise, attributional orientations, and games: A reexaminatio...
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The joint effect of tangible and non-tangible rewards on healthy food ...
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The counterintuitive effects of thank-you gifts on charitable giving
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Financial incentives, professional values and performance: A study of ...
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Cooperative Learning and Achievement: Theory and Research
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Motivation and Classroom Learning
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Exploring intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation among very good a...
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Paying to Learn: The Effect of Financial Incentives on Elementary Scho...
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Are Performance-Dependent Rewards a Viable Tool to Assure Managers’ Co...
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The roles of intrinsic motivators and extrinsic motivators in promotin...
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Users' motivation to participate in online crowdsourcing platforms
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Burrhus F. Skinner: The Shaper of Behavior
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Self-efficacy, job satisfaction, motivation and commitment: exploring ...
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Does pay for performance diminish intrinsic interest?
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Development of A Learning Model for Improvement of Biology Learning Mo...
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In pursuit of excellence in teaching: An ESL educator’s narrative
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The use of a virtual learning centre in the context of a university le...
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The Emotive Roots of Creativity
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Effects of Cooperative Versus Individual Study on Learning and Motivat...
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Engagement in Classroom Learning: Creating Temporal Participation Ince...
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Motivational Behaviour of Tourism Employees in Relation to Career Orie...
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Designing for Participation in Educational Video Games
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Issues and Methods in the Measurement of Student Engagement: Advancing...
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School Identification
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Increasing food acceptance in the home setting: a randomized controlle...
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The Behavioral Economics of Education: New Directions for Research
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The effects of performance appraisal in the Norwegian municipal health...
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Financial Incentives and Student Achievement: Evidence from Randomized...
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Increasing Teachers' Use of a 1:1 Praise-to-Behavior Correction Ratio ...
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Seven Rules Of Engagement: What's Most Important to Know About Motivat...
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Evaluating the Quality of Rewards Systems
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Children’s theories of motivation
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Changing commuters’ behavior using rewards: A study of rush-hour avoid...
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Student Motivation: Perspectives from Mathematics Teachers
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How motivational constructs interact to predict elementary students' r...
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Team‐based rewards in computer‐mediated groups
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Facilitating and Rewarding Creativity during New Product Development
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Knowledge hoarding and user acceptance of online discussion board syst...
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Using Parent–Child Interaction Therapy to develop a pre-parent educati...
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Extrinsic and intrinsic motivations to innovate: tracing the motivatio...
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THE ROLE OF NONCOGNITIVE CONSTRUCTS AND OTHER BACKGROUND VARIABLES IN ...
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Informal formative assessment: The role of instructional dialogues in ...
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Open Collaboration Innovation Methodology (OCIM) : A Methodology for N...
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A Comparison of the Instructional Context for Students with Behavioral...
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The Interface Of Interim Assessment And Feedback: An Opinion Paper
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Extrinsically Motivated Behavior
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Field Experiments in Labor Economics
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Extrinsic or Intrinsic Motivation of E-Negotiation Experiments' Partic...
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Der Schul(miss)erfolg der Jungen
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Classroom behaviour management: educational psychologists' views on ef...
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A Pedagogical Understanding of the Self-Determination Theory in Physic...
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The Relations of Self-Development Motivation to Innovation Behavior an...
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Pizza Parties, Pep Rallies, and Practice Tests: Strategies Used by Hig...
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The relationship between future goals and achievement goal orientation...
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An investigation of early parental motivational strategies on mathemat...
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Bridging the Gap Between Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation in the Cog...
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The Creativity-Motivation Connection
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Does monetary punishment crowd out pro-social motivation? A natural ex...
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Motivation modulates the P300 amplitude during brain–computer interfac...
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Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity in the Classroom: Have We Come Ful...
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The interplay between motivation, self‐efficacy, and approaches to stu...
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Motivation through incentives: A cross-disciplinary review of the evid...
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Exploring talent management in India: The neglected role of intrinsic ...
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Classroom academic and social context: relationships among emergent li...
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Pay for Performance in the Public Sector--Benefits and (Hidden) Costs
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Motivational Influences on Cognitive Control: A Cognitive Neuroscience...
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Development of the Competitive Work Environment Scale: A Multidimensio...
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Can financial incentives enhance educational outcomes? Evidence from i...
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Praise Types Perceived by Preservice Secondary Teachers
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“I really need feedback to learn:” students’ perspectives on the effec...
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The Assessment of a Tutoring Program to Meet CAS Standards Using a SWO...
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A review of controlling motivational strategies from a self-determinat...
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Testing theories of reciprocity: Do motivations matter?
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Elementary teachers' use and perception of rewards in the classroom
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An evaluation of the overjustification effect across multiple continge...
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Investigating the role of student motivation in computer science educa...
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Early Childhood Teachers' use of Specific Praise Statements with Young...
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Can high stakes testing leverage educational improvement? Prospects fr...
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Culture and the Interaction of Student Ethnicity with Reward Structure...
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Assessing Teacher Use of Opportunities to Respond and Effective Classr...
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“I Will Never Teach the Old Way Again”: Classroom Management and Exter...
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The Effects of Task Engagement and Interpersonal Rapport on ...
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The paradoxical effects of feedback and reward on decision performance
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Managing White‐Collar Work: An Operations‐Oriented Survey
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A test of hypotheses derived from self‐determination theory among publ...
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Effects of feedback types on self-efficacy and Academic Achievement in...
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ELM � Eye Light Monitor: Assessment in a World of Hybrid Values
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Sieben Arten der Lernmotivation
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Project-based learning in an internship program: A qualitative study o...
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Assessment of Teaching Effectiveness in U.S. Dental Schools and the Va...
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Characterizing the motivational orientation of students in higher educ...
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RESPONSE TO ASSESSMENT FEEDBACK: THE EFFECTS OF GRADES, PRAISE, AND SO...
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Retention and intentions to quit among Australian male apprentices
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The Cambridge Handbook of Psychology and Economic Behaviour
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Environmental morale and motivation
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Relative rewards within team-based compensation
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Positive and negative modulation of word learning by reward anticipati...
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Leistungsorientierte Vergütung im öffentlichen Sektor. Ein Test der Mo...
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Intrinsic Motivation and Rewards: What Sustains Young Children's Engag...
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Balancing Cognitive and Motivational Scaffolding in Tutorial Dialogue
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Performance Budgeting
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Preserve the Child in Every Learner
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Heart rate and reinforcement sensitivity in ADHD
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REPETITION AND FINANCIAL INCENTIVES IN ECONOMICS EXPERIMENTS
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Strategies for Developing Positive Behaviour Management. Teacher Behav...
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Development of Achievement Motivation
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Linking intrinsic motivation, risk taking, and employee creativity in ...
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Different relationships between perceptions of developmental performan...
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Teacher self-assessment: A mechanism for facilitating professional gro...
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Parental Nurturance Promotes Reading Acquisition in Low Socioeconomic ...
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‘But now I feel I want to give it a try’: formative assessment, self‐e...
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Social influence and creativity in organizations: A multi-level lens f...
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Crowding-Out of Intrinsic Motivation - Opening the Black Box
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The Effects of Performance Feedback and Social Reinforcement on Up-Sel...
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Giving and Receiving Awards
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Students' Perceptions of Rewards for Academic Performance by Parents a...
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Creative Thinking and Reasoning: Can You Have One Without the Other?
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Work performance, affective commitment, and work motivation: the roles...
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Four Classification Schemes of Adult Motivation: Current Views and Mea...
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High-Stakes Testing: Can Rapid Assessment Reduce the Pressure?
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Performance appraisal satisfaction and employee outcomes: mediating an...
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Exploring the Role of Risk in Employee Creativity
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Building and sustaining communities that prevent mental disorders: Les...
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Interest: A unique motivational variable
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Developing a model of tolerance in client–agency relationships in adve...
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STUDENT TEACHERS’ ACCEPTANCE OF A WEB-BASED INFORMATION SYSTEM
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Educational Psychology – Theory, Research, and Teaching: A 25‐year ret...
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On the interaction between humans and Knowledge Management Systems: a ...
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Flow experiences at work: for high need achievers alone?
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Motivating performance in innovative manufacturing plants
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Engaged Participation: A Sociocultural Model of Motivation With Implic...
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Pour une meilleure reconnaissance des contributions au travail
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Yes, Managers Should Be Paid Like Bureaucrats
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Dialogue‐Based Evaluation as a Creative Climate Indicator: Evidence fr...
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The Motivational Orientation of Army Aviators
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Use of Delayed Praise as a Directive and Its Effectiveness on On-Task ...
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The Relationship Between Classroom Motivation and Academic Achievement...
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Extrinsic Reinforcement in the Classroom: Bribery or Best Practice
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The Hidden Costs and Returns of Incentives—Trust and Trustworthiness a...
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Science in the Schoolhouse: An Uninvited Guest
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Early Childhood Education
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Classroom motivation strategies for prospective teachers
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Social Presence and Children: Praise, Intrinsic Motivation, and Learni...
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Does the love of money moderate and mediate the income‐pay satisfactio...
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Positive psychology and externalizing students in a sea of negativity
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One Hundred Years of Social Psychology Quantitatively Described
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Conceptualizing the Role and Influence of Student-Teacher Relationship...
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Examining the Unique Effects of Multiple Motivational Sources on Task ...
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Personality, cognition, and university students' examination performan...
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Positive Effects of Rewards and Performance Standards on Intrinsic Mot...
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Leadership to Overcome Resistance to Change
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Helping Behaviorally At-Risk Middle School Students With the No Bad Ac...
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Corporal punishment in schools
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Cooperative Learning and Achievement: Theory and Research
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Using Rewards to Teach Students with Disabilities...
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Ten Faulty Notions About Teaching and Learning That Hinder the Effecti...
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Creativity and Reinforced Variability
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The Generic Features of Effective Childrearing
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The Enigma of Creative Problem Solving: A Biocomputing Perspective
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Motivation in Tobacco Use Cessation Research
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Relation of Test-Specific Motivation and Anxiety to Test Performance
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Operant variability: Evidence, functions, and theory
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Intrinsic-Extrinsic Factors in Sport Motivation
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Pricing road use: politico-economic and fairness considerations
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RECOGNIZING GOOD ATTENDANCE: A LONGITUDINAL, QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL FIELD ...
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Retaining and motivating employees
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Psychological foundations of incentives
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The effects of monetary incentives on effort and task performance: the...
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Influences on Student Cognitions About Evaluation
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Student Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning in the College Classroo...
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Dissecting the Golden Goose: Components of Studying Creative Writers
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INTRINSIC-EXTRINSIC FACTORS IN SPORT MOTIVATION
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RELATION OF TEST-SPECIFIC MOTIVATION AND ANXIETY TO TEST PERFORMANCE
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When Do Rewards Have Enhancement Effects? An Availability Valence Appr...
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A call for a more informed approach: Motivating creative students to d...
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Orientations to Enrolment of Part-time Students: A classification syst...
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Performance and Motivation in Dance Education
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Advocacy by environmental nonprofit organisations ‐ An optimal strateg...
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Student Goal Orientation and Interest: Effects on Students' Use of Sel...
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Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myt...
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Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered ...
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Negative Effects of Reward on Intrinsic Motivation—A Limited Phenomeno...
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The Pervasive Negative Effects of Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation: Res...
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Consultant or entrepreneur? Demystifying the “war for talent”
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Rewarded by Punishment: Reflections on the Disuse of Positive Reinforc...
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The effect of extrinsic motivation on user behavior in a collaborative...
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Motivational Orientations Toward Work: An Evaluation of the Work Prefe...
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Understanding actively caring
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Grading Policies that Work Against Standards...and How to Fix ...
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Management Approaches Employed by Teachers to Deal with Children's Beh...
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Motivation, Knowledge Transfer, and Organizational Forms
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The Risk and Reward of a Double-Edgedsword: Effects of a Merit Payprog...
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Reinforcement in Developmentally Appropriate Early Childhood Classroom...
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Developing Motivation to Write
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Rewards characteristics and intrinsic motivation: An exploratory study...
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Effect of Varying Rates of Behavior-Specific Praise on the On-Task Beh...
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Selbstorganisiertes und Lebenslanges Lernen
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Rent Leaving
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Looking beyond rewards
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When rewards compete with nature
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Rewards and creativity
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Multiple pathways to learning and achievement
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Turning “play” into “work” and “work” into “play”
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An interest researcher's perspective
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Motivation, Knowledge Transfer, and Organizational Forms
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A Review of the Effects of Financial Incentives on Performance in Labo...
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The psychology of motivation and its relevance to educational practice
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Morality and Rationality in Environmental Policy
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A Method to Obtain a Randomized Control Group where it Seems Impossibl...
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Emotional and Behavioral Disorders in the New Millennium: The Future i...
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Old Friends, New Faces: Motivation Research in the 1990s
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COMPUTERIZED SELF-ASSESSMENT OF READING COMPREHENSION WITH THE ACCELER...
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Effects of Extrinsic Reinforcement for Reading During Childhood on Rep...
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The differential impact of extrinsic and mastery goal orientations on ...
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Effects of Verbal Corrections on Student Attitude and Performance
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Monetary reinforcement and Wisconsin Card Sorting performance in schiz...
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HOW DO CLASSROOM CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCE INTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS FOR L...
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Continuities between Motivation Research and Whole Language Philosophy...
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The real and imagined harmful effects of rewards
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Punished by Misunderstanding: A Critical Evaluation of Kohn’s Punished...
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CORPORAL PUNISHMENT
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Can feedback improve teaching? A review of the social science literatu...
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School Discipline in the United States: Prevention, Correction, and Lo...
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Assessment and Classroom Learning
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Undermining the Undermining Effect of Reward on Sustained Interest ...
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The Influence of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-concept on Academic Ach...
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Television News in the Classroom: What Are Adolescents Learning?
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Chapter 3: The Development of Children’s Motivation in School Contexts
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Should behavior therapists stop using reinforcement? A reexamination o...
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School discipline in the United States: prevention, correction and lon...
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Debunking the myth of the “highly significant” result: E...
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The discipline encounter: Contemporary issues
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Motivation and contemporary socio-constructivist instructional perspec...
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Does Your School Have a Peaceful Environment? Using an Audit to Create...
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Intrinsic motivations, literacy, and assessment practices: `That's my ...
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Intrinsic Motivation and Academic Achievement...
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Sex Differences in the Human Corpus Callosum: Myth or Reality?
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Bridging the Motivation Gap in Total Quality
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Reconsidering the Overjustification Effect: A Guide to Critical Resour...
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Research to Practice Issues
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The Differential Effects of Tangible Rewards and Praise on Intrinsic M...
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What's wrong with behavior analysis?
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The transfiguration of behavior analysis: Strategies for survival
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A Meta-Analysis on the Effects of Music as Reinforcement for Education...
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Programs in Practice: Activities for Improving Student Motivation and ...
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Win‐Win approaches to classroom conflict
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By All Available Means: Cameron and Pierce’s Defense of Extrinsic Moti...
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Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Rewards: A Commentary on Cameron an...
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When Paradigms Clash: Comments on Cameron and Pierce’s Claim That Rewa...
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The Debate About Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation: Protests and Accusa...
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Theory by the numbers? Some concerns about meta‐analysis as a theoreti...
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Learning from wise Mother Nature or Big Brother Instructor: The wrong ...
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Student Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning in the College Classroo...
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Conducting Integrative Reviews of Special Education Research: Overview...
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Establishing a climate for diversity: The inhibition of prejudiced rea...
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APPLYING SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY TO ORGANIZATIONAL RESEARCH
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THE EFFECTS OF INCENTIVE STRUCTURE AND GOAL DIFFICULTY ON TIME PLANNIN...
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Board 43: Designing Boosters and Recognition to Promote a Growth Mind-...
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Impacts of Summer Reading Camp Programs in Community Libraries in Ghan...
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