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Free AccessResearch Article

Pericardial Fat, Visceral Abdominal Fat, Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors, and Vascular Calcification in a Community-Based Sample

The Framingham Heart Study

Guido A. Rosito

Guido A. Rosito

From the Cardiac MR CT PET Program, Department of Radiology (G.A.R., U.H., A.A.M.), and the Cardiology Division (C.J.O.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; Federal Foundation School of Medical Sciences of Porto Alegre (G.A.R.), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Boston University Department of Mathematics (J.M.M.), Boston, Mass; Department of Cardiology, Boston Medical Center (F.L.R., R.S.V.), Boston, Mass; Framingham Heart Study of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (C.J.O., C.S.F.), Framingham, Mass; and Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine (C.S.F.), Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Mass.

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Joseph M. Massaro

Joseph M. Massaro

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Udo Hoffmann

Udo Hoffmann

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Frederick L. Ruberg

Frederick L. Ruberg

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Amir A. Mahabadi

Amir A. Mahabadi

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Ramachandran S. Vasan

Ramachandran S. Vasan

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Christopher J. O’Donnell

Christopher J. O’Donnell

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and

Caroline S. Fox

Caroline S. Fox

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Originally published22 Jan 2008https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.743062Circulation. 2008;117:605–613

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Abstract

Background— Pericardial fat may be an important mediator of metabolic risk. Correlations with cardiovascular disease risk factors and vascular calcification in a community-based sample are lacking. We sought to examine associations between pericardial fat, metabolic risk factors, and vascular calcification.

Methods and Results— Participants free of cardiovascular disease from the Framingham Heart Study (n=1155, mean age 63 years, 54.8% women) who were part of a multidetector computed tomography study underwent quantification of intrathoracic fat, pericardial fat, visceral abdominal fat (VAT), coronary artery calcification, and aortic artery calcification. Intrathoracic and pericardial fat volumes were examined in relation to body mass index, waist circumference, VAT, metabolic risk factors, coronary artery calcification, and abdominal aortic calcification. Intrathoracic and pericardial fat were directly correlated with body mass index (r=0.41 to 0.51, P<0.001), waist circumference (r=0.43 to 0.53, P<0.001), and VAT (r=0.62 to 0.76, P<0.001). Both intrathoracic and pericardial fat were associated with higher triglycerides (P<0.0001), lower high-density lipoprotein (P<0.0001), hypertension (P<0.0001 to 0.01), impaired fasting glucose (P<0.0001 to 0.001), diabetes mellitus (P=0.0005 to 0.009), and metabolic syndrome (P<0.0001) after multivariable adjustment. Associations generally persisted after additional adjustment for body mass index and waist circumference but not after adjustment for VAT (all P>0.05). Pericardial fat, but not intrathoracic fat, was associated with coronary artery calcification after multivariable and VAT adjustment (odds ratio 1.21, 95% confidence interval 1.005 to 1.46, P=0.04), whereas intrathoracic fat, but not pericardial fat, was associated with abdominal aortic calcification (odds ratio 1.32, 95% confidence interval 1.03 to 1.67, P=0.03).

Conclusions— Pericardial fat is correlated with multiple measures of adiposity and cardiovascular disease risk factors, but VAT is a stronger correlate of most metabolic risk factors. However, intrathoracic and pericardial fat are associated with vascular calcification, which suggests that these fat depots may exert local toxic effects on the vasculature.

Different fat depots may be associated with variable metabolic risk. Visceral abdominal tissue (VAT) is associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) and its risk factors, including diabetes mellitus,^1–3 insulin resistance,^1,4,5 hypertension,^6–8 and dyslipidemia.^9–13 In the Framingham Heart Study, the volume of VAT determined by computed tomography (CT) was associated with multiple metabolic risk factors, as well as the metabolic syndrome (MetS).¹⁴

Clinical Perspective p 613

Ectopic fat depots may mediate obesity-related vascular disease.¹⁵ Pericardial fat, an ectopic fat depot, is correlated with body mass index (BMI),^16–19 VAT,^20,21 metabolic risk factors,^16,22 insulin resistance,²³ and coronary artery disease.^19,22 However, it is not known whether pericardial fat is a marker of overall adiposity or an independent pathogenic fat depot, because the role of pericardial fat above and beyond that of VAT has not been assessed. In addition, the current understanding of the relationship between pericardial fat and metabolic risk factors may be obscured by methodological issues, including small, selected patient-based samples and measures of pericardial fat thickness instead of actual pericardial fat volume. Thus, the purpose of the present study is to examine the relations of CT measures of pericardial fat volume with multiple measures of adiposity including VAT, as well as CVD risk factors; to assess whether pericardial fat is significantly correlated with metabolic risk factors above and beyond BMI, waist circumference (WC), and VAT; and to assess correlations with atherosclerotic burden measured by coronary and abdominal aortic calcium.

Methods

Study Sample

The original cohort of the Framingham Heart Study was enrolled in 1948 and included 5209 women and men aged 28 to 62 years. In 1971, the offspring and spouses of the original cohort’s offspring were enrolled into the Offspring Study; the study design has been described previously.^24,25 The present study includes Offspring Study participants from the multidetector CT (MDCT) substudy.

Overall, 3539 participants attended the seventh examination. Of these, 1418 (40.1%) underwent CT scanning and assessment for coronary and aortic calcium with MDCT between June 2002 and April 2005; inclusion criteria have been described previously.¹⁴ Of the 1418 participants imaged, 1372 had interpretable pericardial fat measures, and 1212 were free of CVD; of these, 1189 attended the seventh examination cycle [1998–2001]), 1188 had at least 1 outcome of interest measured, 1160 had an available measure of VAT, and 1155 had a complete covariate profile.

The study protocol was approved by the institutional review boards of the Boston University Medical Center and Massachusetts General Hospital. All subjects provided written informed consent.

MDCT Scan Protocol

Participants underwent radiographic assessment in a supine position with 8-slice MDCT (LightSpeed Ultra, General Electric, Milwaukee, Wis). An average of 48 contiguous 2.5-mm slices of the heart were taken with a prospectively ECG-triggered CT scanning protocol with the image acquisition initiated at 70% of the cardiac cycle to obtain nearly motion-free images of the coronary arteries (120 kVp, 400 mA, temporal resolution 330 ms), and 25 slices 5 mm thick (120 kVp, 400 mA, gantry rotation time 500 ms, table feed 3:1) were obtained that covered a 125-mm segment of the abdomen with the upper edge of S1 used as an anatomic landmark on the topogram. Participants underwent a second thoracic scan after being briefly repositioned on the table.

Intrathoracic and Pericardial Fat Volumes Data Analysis

Intrathoracic and pericardial fat tissue volumes were measured with a dedicated offline workstation (Aquarius 3D Workstation, TeraRecon Inc, San Mateo, Calif). Absolute Hounsfield unit (HU) values of pixels correspond directly to tissue property. Therefore, a predefined image display setting was used to determine the intrathoracic and pericardial fat tissue volumes (window width −195 to −45 HU; window center −120 HU) to identify pixels that corresponded to adipose tissue. Intrathoracic and pericardial fat were measured across total available imaging volume in cubic centimeters.

Intrathoracic and pericardial fat volumes were measured by a semiautomatic segmentation technique with the above display settings. The reader was required to manually trace the pericardium. Intrathoracic fat volume was defined as any adipose tissue located both within the pericardium and within the thorax from the level of the right pulmonary artery to the diaphragm and from the chest wall to the descending aorta. Pericardial fat volume was defined as any adipose tissue located within the pericardial sac. Segmentation of the overall volume was automatically interpolated with the manually defined tracings. When necessary, the reader made manual adjustments through the scan volumes to account for interpolating errors. On a random sample of 100 participants, intrareader reproducibility was excellent for intrathoracic fat (intraclass correlation 0.99) and for pericardial fat (intraclass correlation 0.97). Interreader reproducibility was also excellent (intrathoracic fat intraclass correlation 0.98, pericardial fat 0.95).

Abdominal Adipose Tissue Measurements

VAT volumes were assessed as described previously²⁶ with the same image display windows as above (Aquarius 3D Workstation, TeraRecon Inc). Intraclass correlations for interreader comparisons were 0.99 for VAT.²⁶

Coronary Artery Calcium and Abdominal Aortic Calcium Measurements

MDCT scans were read by an experienced reader for the presence and quantity of coronary artery calcium (CAC) and abdominal aortic calcium (AAC); a dedicated offline workstation was used for this purpose (Aquarius, TeraRecon). A calcified lesion was defined as an area of at least 3 connected pixels with MDCT attenuation >130 HU (applying 3D connectivity criteria [6 points]). The Agatston score was computed by multiplying each lesion (area) by a weighted MDCT attenuation score (in HU) within the lesion. The mean Agatston score from both chest scans was used to calculate CAC, and CAC scores were highly reproducible.²⁷ The presence of CAC or AAC was based on age- and sex-specific 90th percentile cut points derived from a healthy referent sample.

Risk Factor and Covariate Assessment

Risk factors and covariates were measured at the seventh Framingham Offspring examination (1998–2001). BMI was defined as weight (in kilograms) divided by the square of height (in meters). WC was measured at the umbilicus. Serum triglycerides, total and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and fasting plasma glucose were measured on fasting morning samples. To define diabetes mellitus, fasting plasma glucose ≥126 mg/dL or treatment with a hypoglycemic agent or insulin was used; impaired fasting glucose was defined as fasting plasma glucose 100 to 125 mg/dL in the absence of treatment for diabetes mellitus. Current smoking status was defined as smoking at least 1 cigarette per day in the past year. Using physician-administered questionnaires, alcohol use was assessed and categorized as more or less than >14 drinks/week (men) or 7 drinks/week (women). If periods stopped for 1 year or more, women were considered postmenopausal. Systolic blood pressure ≥140 mm Hg, diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mm Hg, or antihypertensive treatment was used to define hypertension. Modified National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria were used to define the MetS.²⁸

Statistical Analysis

Intrathoracic and pericardial fat were normally distributed. Age-adjusted Pearson correlations between intrathoracic and pericardial fat were performed with metabolic risk factors and adiposity traits. Multivariable linear and logistic regression was used to assess the significance of covariate-adjusted cross-sectional relations between continuous and dichotomous metabolic risk factors and intrathoracic and pericardial fat. The covariate-adjusted risk factor per 1-SD increase of adipose tissue was estimated for continuous variables; for dichotomous risk factors, the odds ratio of the risk factor prevalence per 1-SD increase in adipose tissue was estimated. Sex interactions were tested. Covariates included age, smoking (current/former/never smoker), alcohol use (>14 drinks/week [men] or >7 drinks/week [women]), menopausal status, and hormone replacement therapy. Lipid treatment, hypertension treatment, and diabetes treatment were included as covariates in models for HDL cholesterol, log triglycerides, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and fasting plasma glucose, respectively. We tested the significance of intrathoracic and pericardial fat in multivariate regression models with the inclusion of (1) BMI and WC or (2) VAT. Tertiles of intrathoracic fat were examined within tertiles of VAT; prevalence values of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, impaired fasting glucose, and MetS were age adjusted, and age-adjusted probability values for trend of intrathoracic fat within VAT tertiles were computed.

The association of intrathoracic and pericardial fat with CAC and AAC was assessed. The presence of either CAC or AAC was based on age- and sex-adjusted 90th percentile cut points from a healthy referent sample. Logistic regression was used to estimate the odds ratio (OR) of CAC or AAC per 1 SD of either intrathoracic or pericardial fat. We tested the following models: (1) age and sex adjusted; (2) age, sex, and VAT adjusted; (3) adjusted for age, sex, systolic blood pressure, hypertension treatment, diabetes mellitus, total/HDL cholesterol, lipid treatment, smoking, alcohol, menopausal status, and hormone replacement therapy; (4) model 3 plus adjustment for VAT; and (5) model 3 plus adjustment for VAT, BMI, and WC. SAS version 8.0 was used to perform all computations. A 2-tailed probability value <0.05 was considered significant.²⁹

The authors had full access to and take full responsibility for the integrity of the data. All authors have read and agree to the manuscript as written.

Results

The mean age of the study sample was 63 years, and 54.8% were women (Table 1). Mean intrathoracic and pericardial fat volumes were 194 and 110 cm³ in women and 285 and 137 cm³ in men, respectively. Both intrathoracic and pericardial fat volumes were significantly larger in men than women (P<0.0001).

**Table 1. Study Sample Characteristics**
	Women (n=633)	Men (n=522)
Data are presented as mean (SD) or as percentage having that characteristic.
*Median with 25th–75th percentiles.
†Defined as fasting plasma glucose 100 to 125 mg/dL; percentage based on those without diabetes.
‡Defined as >14 drinks per week (men) or >7 drinks per week (women).
Age, y	63 (9)	63 (9)
Body mass index, kg/m²	27.7 (5.5)	28.8 (4.3)
WC, cm	96 (15)	103 (11)
Triglycerides, mg/dL^*	111 (77–162)	116 (78–171)
HDL cholesterol, mg/dL	61 (15)	45 (12)
Total cholesterol, mg/dL	208 (36)	195 (33)
Systolic blood pressure, mm Hg	124 (19)	127 (16)
Diastolic blood pressure, mm Hg	73 (9)	77 (9)
Hypertension, %	36.2	39.7
Fasting plasma glucose, mg/dL	98 (17)	104 (23)
Impaired fasting glucose, %^†	26.0	46.6
Diabetes mellitus, %	7.6	10.7
MetS, %	37.6	42.9
Smoking, %
Current	10.4	9.6
Former	50.2	52.5
Never	39.3	37.9
Postmenopausal, %	81.8
Hormone replacement therapy, %	36.5
Alcohol use, %^‡	16.1	16.7
Intrathoracic fat, cm³	194 (76)	285 (107)
Pericardial fat, cm³	110 (41)	137 (53)
VAT, cm³	1631 (876)	2548 (1036)

Intrathoracic and pericardial fat were highly correlated in women (r=0.90, P<0.0001) and in men (r=0.90, P<0.0001). Both intrathoracic and pericardial fat increased with age (P<0.001) and were associated with BMI and WC in women and men (Table 2). Intrathoracic fat was more closely correlated with VAT than was pericardial fat in women (r=0.76 versus 0.62) and men (r=0.76 versus 0.63). Intrathoracic and pericardial fat were associated with most of the cardiovascular risk factors with the exception of total cholesterol.

**Table 2. Age-Adjusted Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between Metabolic Risk Factors and Intrathoracic and Pericardial Fat Volumes**
	Women		Men
	Intrathoracic Fat	Pericardial Fat	Intrathoracic Fat	Pericardial Fat
*P<0.05;
†P<0.01;
‡P<0.001.
Age	0.28^‡	0.25^‡	0.25^‡	0.23^‡
BMI	0.49^‡	0.41^‡	0.51^‡	0.46^‡
WC	0.53^‡	0.43^‡	0.54^‡	0.49^‡
VAT	0.76^‡	0.62^‡	0.76^‡	0.63^‡
Log triglycerides	0.34^‡	0.31^‡	0.26^‡	0.22^‡
HDL cholesterol	−0.25^‡	−0.24^‡	−0.21^‡	−0.14^‡
Total cholesterol	0.06	0.05	0.01	0.04
Systolic blood pressure	0.19^‡	0.15^‡	0.12^*	0.10^*
Diastolic blood pressure	0.17^‡	0.12^†	0.10^*	0.08
Blood glucose	0.30^‡	0.27^‡	0.13^†	0.10^*
Physical activity index	−0.09^*	−0.06	−0.05	−0.04

Both intrathoracic and pericardial fat were associated with systolic blood pressure in women but not men (Table 3; P for sex interaction=0.0002 for intrathoracic fat and 0.003 for pericardial fat). Among women, associated mean systolic blood pressure was 3.1 mm Hg higher per 1-SD increase in intrathoracic fat (P<0.0001) and 2.5 mm Hg higher per 1-SD increase in pericardial fat (P=0.0005). After additional adjustment for BMI and WC, these relations were no longer significant. Among women, VAT but not intrathoracic fat was associated with systolic blood pressure when both adiposity variables were considered in the model together (Table 4); similar results were obtained for pericardial fat (data not shown). Similar results were observed for diastolic blood pressure.

**Table 3. Sex-Specific Multivariable-Adjusted**^***Regressions for Intrathoracic and Pericardial Fat With Continuous Metabolic Risk Factors and Dichotomous Risk Factors**
	Women			Men			P for Sex Interaction^*
	MV-Adjusted Residual Effect Size	P for Either Intrathoracic or Pericardial Fat^†	P for Intrathoracic or Pericardial Fat After BMI/WC Adjustment	MV-Adjusted Residual Effect Size	P for Either Intrathoracic or Pericardial Fat^†	P for Intrathoracic or Pericardial Fat After BMI/WC Adjustment	P for Sex Interaction^*
Data presented include effect size (risk factor±SE) per 1 SD of adipose tissue for continuous data, and the odds ratio of the condition per 1 SD of adipose tissue with 95% CIs for dichotomous data. MV indicates multivariable; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; FPG, fasting plasma glucose; TG, triglycerides; HTN, hypertension; IFG, impaired fasting glucose; and DM, diabetes mellitus.
*Adjusted for age, smoking, alcohol use, menopausal status (women only), and hormone replacement therapy (women only). For blood pressure, FPG, HDL cholesterol, and log triglycerides, an additional covariate of treatment for hypertension, diabetes, or lipid disorders, respectively, was included.
†P for intrathoracic or pericardial fat in the model.
‡MetS additionally adjusted for only BMI.
SBP, mm Hg
Intrathoracic	3.1±0.7	<0.0001	0.08	1.0±0.7	0.18	0.97	0.0002
Pericardial	2.5±0.7	0.0005	0.18	0.7±0.7	0.29	0.84	0.003
DBP, mm Hg
Intrathoracic	1.5±0.4	0.0001	0.13	0.6±0.4	0.15	0.50	0.007
Pericardial	1.1±0.4	0.004	0.38	0.4±0.4	0.34	0.33	0.04
FPG, mg/dL
Intrathoracic	4.5±0.6	<0.0001	0.0003	1.5±0.9	0.12	0.81	0.0008
Pericardial	3.9±0.6	<0.0001	0.001	0.4±0.9	0.70	0.33	0.0008
Log TG, mg/dL
Intrathoracic	0.17±0.02	<0.0001	<0.0001	0.14±0.03	<0.0001	0.0001	0.0009
Pericardial	0.15±0.02	<0.0001	<0.0001	0.12±0.03	<0.0001	0.003	0.007
HDL, mg/dL
Intrathoracic	−3.7±0.6	<0.0001	0.01	−3.1±0.5	<0.0001	0.006	0.01
Pericardial	−3.3±0.6	<0.0001	0.01	−2.3±0.5	<0.0001	0.12	0.03
HTN
Intrathoracic	1.72 (1.41–2.09)	<0.0001	0.04	1.35 (1.10–1.65)	0.004	0.11	0.006
Pericardial	1.48 (1.23–1.78)	<0.0001	0.22	1.29 (1.05–1.57)	0.01	0.21	0.09
IFG
Intrathoracic	2.00 (1.62–2.46)	<0.0001	0.0001	1.47 (1.19–1.81)	0.0004	0.11	0.002
Pericardial	1.59 (1.31–1.94)	<0.0001	0.02	1.41 (1.14–1.73)	0.001	0.17	0.15
DM
Intrathoracic	1.59 (1.21–2.08)	0.0007	0.25	1.61 (1.23–2.10)	0.0005	0.34	0.41
Pericardial	1.56 (1.20–2.03)	0.0009	0.21	1.40 (1.09–1.81)	0.009	0.86	0.25
MetS
Intrathoracic	2.87 (2.28–3.60)	<0.0001	<0.0001	2.24 (1.79–2.81)	<0.0001	0.0006	0.0009
Pericardial	2.13 (1.74–2.61)	<0.0001	0.0002	1.85 (1.49–2.29)	<0.0001	0.045	0.04

**Table 4. Sex-Specific Multivariable-Adjusted**^***Regressions for Intrathoracic Fat and VAT With Metabolic Risk Factors to Assess Whether Intrathoracic Fat Is Significant in the Presence of VAT**
	Women		Men
	P for Intrathoracic Fat in Model With VAT	P for VAT in Model With Intrathoracic Fat	P for Intrathoracic Fat in Model With VAT	P for VAT in Model With Intrathoracic Fat
*Adjusted for age, smoking, alcohol use, and menopausal status (women only), hormone replacement therapy (women only); for blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose, HDL cholesterol, and log triglycerides, an additional covariate of treatment for hypertension, diabetes mellitus, or lipid disorders, respectively, was included.
Systolic blood pressure	0.74	0.0009	0.67	0.07
Diastolic blood pressure	0.94	0.001	0.15	0.001
Fasting plasma glucose	0.68	<0.0001	0.37	0.009
Log triglycerides	0.56	<0.0001	0.23	0.0007
HDL cholesterol	0.54	<0.0001	0.81	<0.0001
Hypertension	0.83	<0.0001	0.56	0.07
Impaired fasting glucose	0.18	<0.0001	0.42	<0.0001
Diabetes	0.12	<0.0001	0.05	0.62
MetS	0.30	<0.0001	0.57	<0.0001

Fasting plasma glucose was associated with both intrathoracic and pericardial fat in women but not men (Table 3); these associations persisted after additional adjustment for BMI and WC. When VAT was added to the model, VAT but not intrathoracic fat was associated with fasting plasma glucose (Table 4). Similar results were obtained for pericardial fat (data not shown).

For every 1-SD increase in intrathoracic fat, HDL was 3.7 mg/dL lower in women (P<0.0001) and 3.1 mg/dL lower in men (P<0.0001; Table 3); relations remained significant after BMI and WC were added to the model for intrathoracic and pericardial fat in women but only for intrathoracic fat in men. However, when both VAT and intrathoracic fat appeared in the model together, only VAT was significant (Table 4). Similar results were obtained for pericardial fat (data not shown) and for log triglycerides.

Similar patterns were noted for dichotomous traits (Tables 3 and 4 ). For every 1-SD increase in intrathoracic fat, the OR of MetS increased 2.87-fold in women and 2.24-fold in men. These relations remained significant after adjustment for BMI; however, when VAT and intrathoracic fat appeared in the same model, only VAT was significant. Similar results were obtained for pericardial fat (data not shown).

Sex Interaction

For nearly every trait examined, we observed a significant sex interaction (Table 3), which suggests that intrathoracic and pericardial fat are associated with more adverse risk factor profiles in women than men.

Combination of Intrathoracic Fat and VAT

The prevalence of metabolic risk factors is shown in the Figure by tertiles of VAT and additionally by tertiles of intrathoracic fat. In women and men separately, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and MetS each increased in a stepwise manner across increasing tertiles of VAT, and within each tertile of VAT, each risk factor increased by increasing tertiles of intrathoracic fat. The probability value for trend of intrathoracic fat tertiles was statistically significant within the upper tertile of VAT for the risk factors of hypertension (P=0.02) and impaired fasting glucose (P=0.009) in women and for MetS (P=0.02) in men, after adjustment for age.

**Figure.** Age-adjusted prevalence of diabetes mellitus, impaired fasting glucose (IFG), hypertension (HTN), and MetS by tertiles of intrathoracic fat within tertiles of VAT. Results are shown for women (top) and men (bottom). The probability value for trend of intrathoracic fat tertiles was significant within the upper tertile of VAT in women for hypertension (P=0.02) and IFG (P=0.009 and in men for MetS (P=0.02).

Relations With Coronary and Abdominal Aortic Calcium

Overall, 23.6% of the sample had CAC. In minimally adjusted models, significant associations were found for both intrathoracic and pericardial fat with CAC; no evidence was present for sex interactions. The OR for having CAC was similar for intrathoracic and pericardial fat in age- and sex-adjusted models (OR 1.29 and 1.28 per 1-SD increase in intrathoracic [P=0.001] and pericardial [P=0.0004] fat, respectively; Table 5). Associations were unchanged after additional adjustment for VAT, and associations with pericardial fat but not intrathoracic fat persisted after additional adjustment for CVD risk factors, BMI, and WC (OR 1.21, P=0.04).

**Table 5. Multivariable-Adjusted Regressions for Intrathoracic Fat and Pericardial Fat With the Presence or Absence of CAC or AAC, With and Without Adjustment for Metabolic Risk Factors and VAT**
Model Adjustments	CAC		AAC
Model Adjustments	OR (95% CI)	P for Either Intrathoracic or Pericardial Fat	OR (95% CI)	P for Either Intrathoracic or Pericardial Fat
Data are ORs with 95% CIs. MV indicates multivariable.
*Systolic blood pressure, hypertension treatment, diabetes mellitus, total/HDL cholesterol, lipid treatment, smoking, alcohol, menopausal status, and hormone replacement therapy.
Age, sex
Intrathoracic	1.29 (1.11–1.50)	0.001	1.40 (1.21–1.62)	<0.0001
Pericardial	1.28 (1.12–1.48)	0.0004	1.30 (1.14–1.49)	0.0001
Age, sex, and VAT
Intrathoracic	1.31 (1.04–1.65)	0.02	1.47 (1.17–1.83)	0.0007
Pericardial	1.27 (1.06–1.52)	0.009	1.24 (1.05–1.47)	0.01
Age, sex, and MV^*
Intrathoracic	1.10 (0.93–1.30)	0.28	1.06 (0.90–1.26)	0.46
Pericardial	1.13 (0.97–1.31)	0.11	1.02 (0.88–1.19)	0.77
Age, sex, MV,^* and VAT
Intrathoracic	1.23 (0.97–1.57)	0.09	1.32 (1.03–1.67)	0.03
Pericardial	1.21 (1.01–1.46)	0.04	1.12 (0.93–1.34)	0.25
Age, sex, MV,^* and VAT, BMI, WC
Intrathoracic	1.24 (0.97–1.58)	0.08	1.32 (1.03–1.67)	0.03
Pericardial	1.21 (1.005–1.46)	0.04	1.12 (0.93–1.34)	0.25

Overall, 29.7% of the sample had AAC. Significant sex interactions were not observed. Both intrathoracic and pericardial fat were associated with AAC after adjustment for age, sex, and VAT. After additional adjustment for CVD risk factors, BMI, and WC, only intrathoracic fat (OR 1.32, P=0.03), not pericardial fat (OR 1.12, P=0.25), was associated with AAC.

When intrathoracic fat was redefined with the exclusion of the pericardial fat compartment, the association with CAC was further attenuated (OR 1.10, 95% CI 0.86 to 1.41, P=0.44 in the fully adjusted model). Similarly, the association with AAC was strengthened (OR 1.37, 95% CI 1.07 to 1.75, P=0.01).

Discussion

Among individuals free of clinical CVD, pericardial fat was correlated with multiple measures of metabolic risk in a community-based setting, and correlations remained significant after adjustment for BMI and WC. However, associations with pericardial fat were attenuated when considered simultaneously with VAT with regard to metabolic risk, suggesting that pericardial fat may be an overall marker of visceral fat accumulation. Lastly, pericardial fat was associated with CAC and AAC even after metabolic risk factors and VAT were accounted for.

We tested 2 different protocols for pericardial fat ascertainment. For metabolic risk factors, effect sizes were consistently higher in magnitude for intrathoracic fat than for pericardial fat. However, for relations with CAC and AAC, we observed differential effects of intrathoracic fat and pericardial fat. Because pericardial fat represents the pericardial fat that is in direct proximity to the coronary vasculature, we hypothesized that associations between pericardial fat and CAC would be stronger than intrathoracic fat and CAC. Conversely, because the intrathoracic fat quantification includes adipose tissue surrounding the aorta, observed associations between intrathoracic fat and AAC may in part be driven by periaortic fat. However, relations between pericardial fat and CAC and AAC were consistently stronger once VAT entered the model, which suggests potential complex interactions between different fat depots and vascular calcification that require further investigation.

In the Context of the Current Literature

Several small studies have reported correlations between pericardial fat, BMI,^16–19 metabolic risk factors,^16,22 and VAT.^20,21 In a sample of 72 consecutive subjects, Iacobellis et al¹⁶ demonstrated an association between pericardial fat thickness and multiple CVD risk factors, including blood pressure, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, glucose, and HDL cholesterol, in unadjusted analyses. We extend these findings by demonstrating strong correlations between pericardial fat volume and metabolic risk factors even after accounting for many potential confounders, including age, smoking, alcohol use, and physical activity.

Despite nonsignificant associations with CVD risk factors for pericardial compared with visceral fat when both were considered in the same model, pericardial fat was associated with CAC and AAC even after we accounted for concomitant CVD risk factors. The present findings are consistent with prior findings in selected subjects in studies that have demonstrated unadjusted associations between epicardial fat and coronary artery disease by angiography in primarily patient-based samples. Among 203 patients who underwent cardiac catheterization, epicardial fat thickness was correlated with the severity of angiographic coronary disease.¹⁹ Among individuals with human immunodeficiency virus, subepicardial adipose tissue thickness was associated with carotid intima-media thickness, a subclinical measure of atherosclerosis.³⁰ Lastly, among 251 Japanese men who underwent chest-abdominal CT scanning, pericardial fat volume was associated with coronary artery disease by angiography.²² We extend these findings by relating pericardial fat volume among individuals free of clinical CVD and performing adjustment for multiple potential covariates in a large community-based sample of both women and men.

Potential Mechanisms

Epicardial fat is associated with increased expression of inflammatory markers, including monocyte chemotactic protein-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α.³¹ CD45 expression is higher in epicardial fat than in subcutaneous or omental fat depots, and adiponectin expression is lower in epicardial fat depots.³² Thus, epicardial fat, located in close proximity to the coronary arteries, may have a locally toxic effect on the vasculature, as hypothesized by Yudkin et al.³³ Perivascular fat might contribute directly to perivascular inflammation³⁴ and smooth muscle cell proliferation.³⁵ Perivascular fat has also been shown to decrease vascular contractility in rats,^36,37 another mechanism by which epicardial fat may exert locally toxic influences on the coronary arteries. Furthermore, epicardial fat has been shown to be associated with insulin resistance,²³ and myocardial fat depots are associated with serum free fatty acid levels.³⁸ Therefore, the present finding that only intrapericardial fat is associated with CAC supports the notion that epicardial fat is an ectopic fat depot located in close proximity to the coronary arteries, which may exert deleterious perivascular effects.

Strengths and Limitations

Strengths of the present study include the community-based sample with participants not enriched for adiposity-related traits. Furthermore, we developed protocols and report reproducibility data for both intrathoracic and pericardial fat. Pericardial fat and VAT were quantified by volumes instead of a measure of thickness. We had a simultaneous measure of VAT, which allowed us to compare the effects of pericardial fat with visceral fat. Among the study limitations, the Framingham Offspring study is primarily a sample of whites, and therefore, generalization to other ethnic groups is uncertain. Furthermore, the present study design was cross-sectional, and we cannot infer causality. The CT measurements were collected on average 4 years after the clinical data were collected. This gap could result in misclassification of risk factors and therefore lead to an underestimation of the magnitude of our reported associations; however, this should not impact the relative association of pericardial fat compared with visceral fat.

Implications

VAT has been shown to be a stronger correlate of cardiovascular risk than systemic adiposity indexes, WC, or subcutaneous abdominal fat.¹⁴ Here, we demonstrate that pericardial fat volumes are well correlated with cardiovascular risk factors and that the associations with pericardial fat are independent of BMI, WC, age, smoking, and alcohol consumption. Pericardial fat can be quantified during chest CT without incurring excess abdominal radiation. Therefore, pericardial fat may yield additional information on metabolic risk, which may be particularly useful when abdominal imaging with VAT quantification is not feasible. Our finding that pericardial fat is associated with CAC suggests that further research relating perivascular fat depots to target end-organ damage should be pursued to identify potential mechanisms of obesity-related atherosclerosis.

Conclusions

Pericardial fat is correlated with multiple measures of adiposity and CVD risk factors, but VAT is a stronger correlate of most metabolic risk factors. However, pericardial fat is associated with vascular calcification, which suggests that pericardial fat may exert local vascular effects.

Sources of Funding

This work was supported by the Framingham Heart Study of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (grant N01-HC-25195). Dr Rosito is supported by a grant from CAPES/Brazil.

Disclosures

None.

Footnotes

Correspondence to Caroline S. Fox, MD, MPH, NHLBI’s Framingham Heart Study, 73 Mt Wayte Ave, Suite 2, Framingham, MA 01702. E-mail [email protected]

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circulationaha

Circulation

0009-7322 1524-4539 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

CLINICAL PERSPECTIVE

05 02 2008

Pericardial fat may be an important mediator of metabolic risk. Correlations with cardiovascular disease risk factors and vascular calcification in a community-based sample are lacking. We sought to examine associations between pericardial fat, metabolic risk factors, and vascular calcification. Participants from the Framingham Heart Study underwent quantification of intrathoracic fat, pericardial fat, visceral abdominal fat, and coronary artery and aortic artery calcification. Intrathoracic and pericardial fat were directly correlated with body mass index and visceral abdominal fat. Both intrathoracic and pericardial fat were associated with higher triglycerides, lower high-density lipoprotein, hypertension, impaired fasting glucose, diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome after multivariable adjustment. Associations generally persisted after additional adjustment for body mass index and waist circumference but not after adjustment for visceral abdominal fat. Pericardial fat, but not intrathoracic fat, was associated with coronary artery calcification, whereas intrathoracic fat, but not pericardial fat, was associated with aortic artery calcification. Pericardial fat is correlated with multiple measures of adiposity and cardiovascular disease risk factors, but visceral abdominal fat is a stronger correlate of most metabolic risk factors. However, intrathoracic and pericardial fat are associated with vascular calcification, which suggests that these fat depots may exert local toxic effects on the vasculature.

Guest Editor for this article was Russell V. Luepker, MD, MS.

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Eholié S, Lacombe K, Krain A, Diallo Z, Ouiminga M, Campa P, Bouchaud O, Bissagnene E and Girard P (2015) Metabolic Disorders and Cardiovascular Risk in Treatment-Naive HIV-Infected Patients of Sub-Saharan Origin Starting Antiretrovirals: Impact of Westernized Lifestyle, AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 10.1089/aid.2014.0164, 31:4, (384-392), Online publication date: 1-Apr-2015.

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Khawaja T, Greer C, Thadani S, Kato T, Bhatia K, Shimbo D, Konkak A, Bokhari S, Einstein A and Schulze P (2015) Increased Regional Epicardial Fat Volume Associated with Reversible Myocardial Ischemia in Patients with Suspected Coronary Artery Disease, Journal of Nuclear Cardiology, 10.1007/s12350-014-0004-4, 22:2, (325-333), Online publication date: 1-Apr-2015.

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Tanami Y, Jinzaki M, Kishi S, Matheson M, Vavere A, Rochitte C, Dewey M, Chen M, Clouse M, Cox C, Kuribayashi S, Lima J and Arbab-Zadeh A (2015) Lack of Association Between Epicardial Fat Volume and Extent of Coronary Artery Calcification, Severity of Coronary Artery Disease, or Presence of Myocardial Perfusion Abnormalities in a Diverse, Symptomatic Patient Population, Circulation: Cardiovascular Imaging, 8:3, (e002676), Online publication date: 1-Mar-2015.

El Khoudary S, Shin C, Masaki K, Miura K, Budoff M, Edmundowicz D, Kadowaki S, Barinas-Mitchell E, El-Saed A, Fujiyoshi A, Evans R, Hisamatsu T, Ohkubo T, Willcox B, Kuller L, Ueshima H and Sekikawa A (2014) Ectopic cardiovascular fat in middle-aged men: effects of race/ethnicity, overall and central adiposity. The ERA JUMP study, International Journal of Obesity, 10.1038/ijo.2014.154, 39:3, (488-494), Online publication date: 1-Mar-2015.

Yorgun H, Canpolat U, Aytemir K, Hazırolan T, Şahiner L, Kaya E, Kabakci G, Tokgözoğlu L, Özer N and Oto A (2014) Association of epicardial and peri-atrial adiposity with the presence and severity of non-valvular atrial fibrillation, The International Journal of Cardiovascular Imaging, 10.1007/s10554-014-0579-5, 31:3, (649-657), Online publication date: 1-Mar-2015.

Zencirci E, Zencirci A, Değirmencioğlu A, Karakuş G, Uğurlucan M, Özden K, Erdem A, Güllü A, Ekmekçi A, Velibey Y, Erer H, Çelik S and Akyol A (2014) The relationship between epicardial adipose tissue and ST-segment resolution in patients with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention, Heart and Vessels, 10.1007/s00380-013-0459-2, 30:2, (147-153), Online publication date: 1-Mar-2015.

Xia Y, Xia Y, Xu K, Ma Y, Pan D, Xu T, Lu L and Li D (2014) Predictive value of the novel risk score BETTER (BiomarkErs and compuTed Tomography scorE on Risk stratification) for patients with unstable angina Prädiktiver Wert des neuen Risikoscores BETTER (BiomarkErs and compuTed Tomography scorE on Risk stratification) bei instabiler Angina pectoris, Herz, 10.1007/s00059-014-4141-y, 40:S1, (43-50), Online publication date: 1-Mar-2015.

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Wong E, Tanamas S, Wolfe R, Backholer K, Stevenson C, Abdullah A and Peeters A (2014) The role of obesity duration on the association between obesity and risk of physical disability, Obesity, 10.1002/oby.20936, 23:2, (443-447), Online publication date: 1-Feb-2015.

Gurses K, Tokgozoglu L, Yalcin M, Kocyigit D, Evranos B, Yorgun H, Sahiner L, Kaya E, Kabakci G, Gurlek A, Ozer N and Aytemir K (2015) Epicardial Fat Thickness is Increased in Vitamin D Deficient Premenopausal Women and does not Decrease after Short-term Replacement, Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis, 10.5551/jat.28381, 22:6, (582-589), .

Belen E, Değirmencioğlu A, Zencirci E, Tipi F, Altun Ö, Karakuş G, Helvacı A, Zencirci A and Kalaycıoğlu E (2015) The Association between Subclinical Hypothyroidism and Epicardial Adipose Tissue Thickness, Korean Circulation Journal, 10.4070/kcj.2015.45.3.210, 45:3, (210), .

Ndisang J and Tiwari S (2014) Featured Article: Induction of heme oxygenase with hemin improves pericardial adipocyte morphology and function in obese Zucker rats by enhancing proteins of regeneration, Experimental Biology and Medicine, 10.1177/1535370214544268, 240:1, (45-57), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2015.

Shim I, Cho K, Kim H, Heo J and Cha T (2015) Impact of Gender on the Association of Epicardial Fat Thickness, Obesity, and Circadian Blood Pressure Pattern in Hypertensive Patients, Journal of Diabetes Research, 10.1155/2015/924539, 2015, (1-10), .

Oikawa M, Owada T, Yamauchi H, Misaka T, Machii H, Yamaki T, Sugimoto K, Kunii H, Nakazato K, Suzuki H, Saitoh S and Takeishi Y (2015) Epicardial Adipose Tissue Reflects the Presence of Coronary Artery Disease: Comparison with Abdominal Visceral Adipose Tissue, BioMed Research International, 10.1155/2015/483982, 2015, (1-7), .

Chen O, Sharma A, Ahmad I, Bourji N, Nestoiter K, Hua P, Hua B, Ivanov A, Yossef J, Klem I, Briggs W, Sacchi T and Heitner J (2014) Correlation between pericardial, mediastinal, and intrathoracic fat volumes with the presence and severity of coronary artery disease, metabolic syndrome, and cardiac risk factors, European Heart Journal - Cardiovascular Imaging, 10.1093/ehjci/jeu145, 16:1, (37-46), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2015., Online publication date: 1-Jan-2015.

Cosyns B, Plein S, Nihoyanopoulos P, Smiseth O, Achenbach S, Andrade M, Pepi M, Ristic A, Imazio M, Paelinck B and Lancellotti P (2014) European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI) position paper: multimodality imaging in pericardial disease, European Heart Journal - Cardiovascular Imaging, 10.1093/ehjci/jeu128, 16:1, (12-31), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2015.

Yamada H and Sata M (2015) The role of pericardial fat: The good, the bad and the ugly, Journal of Cardiology, 10.1016/j.jjcc.2014.07.004, 65:1, (2-4), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2015.

Touyz R and Montezano A (2015) Hypertensive Vasculopathy PanVascular Medicine, 10.1007/978-3-642-37078-6_51, (1595-1618), .

Larsen B, Martin L and Strong D (2014) Sedentary behavior and prevalent diabetes in Non-Latino Whites, Non-Latino Blacks and Latinos: findings from the National Health Interview Survey, Journal of Public Health, 10.1093/pubmed/fdu103, (fdu103)

El-Masry S, Hassan N, El-Banna R and El Hussieny M (2014) The Relation between Visceral and Subcutaneous Fat to Bone Mass among Egyptian Children and Adolescents, Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 10.3889/oamjms.2014.103, 2:4, (573-578)

Harada P, Canziani M, Lima L, Kamimura M, Rochitte C, Lemos M, Cuppari L, Filho R, Draibe S, Santos R and Kuo H (2014) Pericardial Fat Is Associated with Coronary Artery Calcification in Non-Dialysis Dependent Chronic Kidney Disease Patients, PLoS ONE, 10.1371/journal.pone.0114358, 9:12, (e114358)

Nar G, Inci S, Aksan G, Unal O, Nar R and Soylu K (2014) The relationship between epicardial fat thickness and gestational diabetes mellitus, Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome, 10.1186/1758-5996-6-120, 6:1, Online publication date: 1-Dec-2014.

Sangaleti C, Trincaus M, Baratieri T, Zarowy K, Ladika M, Menon M, Miyahara R, Raimondo M, Silveira J, Bortolotto L, Lopes H and Consolim-Colombo F (2014) Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors among truck drivers in the South of Brazil, BMC Public Health, 10.1186/1471-2458-14-1063, 14:1, Online publication date: 1-Dec-2014.

Wu F, Chou K, Huang Y and Wu M (2014) The relation of location-specific epicardial adipose tissue thickness and obstructive coronary artery disease: systemic review and meta-analysis of observational studies, BMC Cardiovascular Disorders, 10.1186/1471-2261-14-62, 14:1, Online publication date: 1-Dec-2014.

Drossos G, Koutsogiannidis C, Ananiadou O, Kapsas G, Ampatzidou F, Madesis A, Bismpa K, Palladas P and Karagounis L (2014) Pericardial fat is strongly associated with atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass graft surgery†, European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, 10.1093/ejcts/ezu043, 46:6, (1014-1020), Online publication date: 1-Dec-2014., Online publication date: 1-Dec-2014.

Fontes-Carvalho R, Fontes-Oliveira M, Sampaio F, Mancio J, Bettencourt N, Teixeira M, Rocha Gonçalves F, Gama V and Leite-Moreira A (2014) Influence of Epicardial and Visceral Fat on Left Ventricular Diastolic and Systolic Functions in Patients After Myocardial Infarction, The American Journal of Cardiology, 10.1016/j.amjcard.2014.08.037, 114:11, (1663-1669), Online publication date: 1-Dec-2014.

Singer J, Peterson E, Snyder M, Katz P, Golden J, D’Ovidio F, Bacchetta M, Sonett J, Kukreja J, Shah L, Robbins H, Van Horn K, Shah R, Diamond J, Wickersham N, Sun L, Hays S, Arcasoy S, Palmer S, Ware L, Christie J and Lederer D (2014) Body Composition and Mortality after Adult Lung Transplantation in the United States, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 10.1164/rccm.201405-0973OC, 190:9, (1012-1021), Online publication date: 1-Nov-2014.

Wang T, Liu Q, Liu C, Sun L, Li D, Liu A and Jia R (2014) Correlation of Echocardiographic Epicardial Fat Thickness with Severity of Coronary Artery Disease in Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction, Echocardiography, 10.1111/echo.12545, 31:10, (1177-1181), Online publication date: 1-Nov-2014.

van Schinkel L, Sleddering M, Lips M, Jonker J, de Roos A, Lamb H, Jazet I, Pijl H and Smit J (2014) Effects of bariatric surgery on pericardial ectopic fat depositions and cardiovascular function, Clinical Endocrinology, 10.1111/cen.12402, 81:5, (689-695), Online publication date: 1-Nov-2014.

Spasojevic A, Stojanov O, Turukalo T and Sveljo O (2014) Estimation of subcutaneous and visceral fat tissue volume on abdominal MR images 2014 12th Symposium on Neural Network Applications in Electrical Engineering (NEUREL 2014), 10.1109/NEUREL.2014.7011511, 978-1-4799-5888-7, (217-220)

Brinkley T, Leng X, Chughtai H, Nicklas B, Kritchevsky S, Ding J, Kitzman D and Hundley W (2014) Periaortic fat and cardiovascular risk: a comparison of high-risk older adults and age-matched healthy controls, International Journal of Obesity, 10.1038/ijo.2014.29, 38:11, (1397-1402), Online publication date: 1-Nov-2014.

Nakanishi K, Fukuda S, Tanaka A, Otsuka K, Jissho S, Taguchi H, Yoshikawa J and Shimada K (2014) Persistent epicardial adipose tissue accumulation is associated with coronary plaque vulnerability and future acute coronary syndrome in non-obese subjects with coronary artery disease, Atherosclerosis, 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.09.015, 237:1, (353-360), Online publication date: 1-Nov-2014.

Picard F, Gueret P, Laissy J, Champagne S, Leclercq F, Carrié D, Juliard J, Henry P, Niarra R, Chatellier G, Steg P and Devaney J (2014) Epicardial Adipose Tissue Thickness Correlates with the Presence and Severity of Angiographic Coronary Artery Disease in Stable Patients with Chest Pain, PLoS ONE, 10.1371/journal.pone.0110005, 9:10, (e110005)

Treeprasertsuk S, Romero-Corral A, Somers V, Sierra-Johnson J, Lindor K, Angulo P and Lopez-Jimenez F (2017) Association of adiposity, measures of metabolic dysregulation, and elevated alanine aminotransferase in subjects with normal body mass index, Asian Biomedicine, 10.5372/1905-7415.0805.331, 8:5, (585-596), Online publication date: 1-Oct-2014.

Monti M, Monti A, Murdolo G, Di Renzi P, Pirro M, Borgognoni F and Vincentelli G (2014) Correlation between epicardial fat and cigarette smoking: CT imaging in patients with metabolic syndrome, Scandinavian Cardiovascular Journal, 10.3109/14017431.2014.942872, 48:5, (317-322), Online publication date: 1-Oct-2014.

Wang H, Chen Y and Eitzman D (2014) Imaging Body Fat, Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 34:10, (2217-2223), Online publication date: 1-Oct-2014.

Strissel K, Denis G and Nikolajczyk B (2014) Immune regulators of inflammation in obesity-associated type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease, Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes & Obesity, 10.1097/MED.0000000000000085, 21:5, (330-338), Online publication date: 1-Oct-2014.

Wohlfahrt P, Redfield M, Lopez-Jimenez F, Melenovsky V, Kane G, Rodeheffer R and Borlaug B (2014) Impact of General and Central Adiposity on Ventricular-Arterial Aging in Women and Men, JACC: Heart Failure, 10.1016/j.jchf.2014.03.014, 2:5, (489-499), Online publication date: 1-Oct-2014.

Kim T, Park J, Park J, Uhm J, Joung B, Lee M and Pak H (2014) Pericardial fat volume is associated with clinical recurrence after catheter ablation for persistent atrial fibrillation, but not paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: An analysis of over 600-patients, International Journal of Cardiology, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2014.08.008, 176:3, (841-846), Online publication date: 1-Oct-2014.

Ong K, McClelland R, Rye K, Cheung B, Post W, Vaidya D, Criqui M, Cushman M, Barter P and Allison M (2014) The relationship between insulin resistance and vascular calcification in coronary arteries, and the thoracic and abdominal aorta: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis, Atherosclerosis, 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.07.015, 236:2, (257-262), Online publication date: 1-Oct-2014.

Harada K, Harada K, Uetani T, Kataoka T, Takeshita M, Kunimura A, Takayama Y, Shinoda N, Kato B, Kato M, Marui N, Ishii H, Matsubara T, Amano T and Murohara T (2014) The different association of epicardial fat with coronary plaque in patients with acute coronary syndrome and patients with stable angina pectoris: Analysis using integrated backscatter intravascular ultrasound, Atherosclerosis, 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.07.007, 236:2, (301-306), Online publication date: 1-Oct-2014.

Patil H, Patil N, King S, O’Keefe E, Chhabra R, Ansari S, Kennedy K, Dey D, O’Keefe J, Helzberg J and Thompson R (2014) Increased intrathoracic and hepatic visceral adipose tissue independently correlates with coronary artery calcification in asymptomatic patients, Journal of Nuclear Cardiology, 10.1007/s12350-014-9946-9, 21:5, (880-889), Online publication date: 1-Oct-2014.

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Mahabadi A, Lehmann N, Kälsch H, Robens T, Bauer M, Dykun I, Budde T, Moebus S, Jöckel K, Erbel R and Möhlenkamp S (2014) Association of Epicardial Adipose Tissue With Progression of Coronary Artery Calcification Is More Pronounced in the Early Phase of Atherosclerosis, JACC: Cardiovascular Imaging, 10.1016/j.jcmg.2014.07.002, 7:9, (909-916), Online publication date: 1-Sep-2014.

Groves E, Erande A, Le C, Salcedo J, Hoang K, Kumar S, Mohar D, Saremi F, Im J, Agrawal Y, Nadeswaran P, Naderi N and Malik S (2014) Comparison of Epicardial Adipose Tissue Volume and Coronary Artery Disease Severity in Asymptomatic Adults With Versus Without Diabetes Mellitus, The American Journal of Cardiology, 10.1016/j.amjcard.2014.05.057, 114:5, (686-691), Online publication date: 1-Sep-2014.

Yamashita K, Yamamoto M, Ebara S, Okabe T, Saito S, Hoshimoto K, Yakushiji T, Isomura N, Araki H, Obara C and Ochiai M (2013) Association between increased epicardial adipose tissue volume and coronary plaque composition, Heart and Vessels, 10.1007/s00380-013-0398-y, 29:5, (569-577), Online publication date: 1-Sep-2014.

Özcan F, Turak O, Canpolat U, Kanat S, Kadife İ, Avcı S, İşleyen A, Cebeci M, Tok D, Başar F, Aras D, Topaloğlu S and Aydoğdu S (2013) Association of epicardial fat thickness with TIMI risk score in NSTEMI/USAP patients Zusammenhang zwischen Dicke der epikardialen Fettschicht und TIMI-Risikoscore bei NSTEMI-/USAP-Patienten, Herz, 10.1007/s00059-013-3914-z, 39:6, (755-760), Online publication date: 1-Sep-2014.

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February 5, 2008
Vol 117, Issue 5

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https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.743062

PMID: 18212276

Originally publishedJanuary 22, 2008

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Pericardial Fat, Visceral Abdominal Fat, Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors, and Vascular Calcification in a Community-Based Sample

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