Bringing together humanistic and intergroup perspectives to build a model of internalisation of normative social harmdoing
Corresponding Author
Catherine E. Amiot
Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
Correspondence
Catherine E. Amiot, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorMorgana Lizzio-Wilson
The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorWinnifred R. Louis
The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Catherine E. Amiot
Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
Correspondence
Catherine E. Amiot, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorMorgana Lizzio-Wilson
The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorWinnifred R. Louis
The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
This article introduces a model of the internalisation of normative social harmdoing: the MINSOH. This model seeks to explain how group members internalise harmful social norms such that they personally endorse their groups' normative actions. To this aim, the MINSOH integrates two divergent yet complementary theoretical perspectives: self-determination theory and the social identity approach. These perspectives differ in their basic assumptions about the possibility for harm to become internalised, yet when integrated, they provide a powerful account of how harmdoing can become internalised. The MINSOH proposes specific conditions under which harmful normative actions become accepted by group members. This article outlines multiple self-determined motivations for harmdoing and discrete group processes that enable harmdoing to be internalised and autonomously enacted, and reviews factors that facilitate (i.e., strong/unique/comparative social identification; endorsement of ideological justifications) and block the internalisation process (presence of multiple identities/diverging norms; inclusive superordinate identity). Directions for future research are then discussed.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
- Alleyne, E., & Wood, J. L. (2010). Gang involvement: Psychological and behavioral characteristics of gang members, peripheral youth, and nongang youth. Aggressive Behavior, 36, 423–436. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20360
- Amiot, C. E., & Bastian, B. (2015). Toward a psychology of human–animal relations. Psychological Bulletin, 141(1), 6–47. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038147
- Amiot, C. E., Blanchard, C. M., & Gaudreau, P. (2008). The self in change: A longitudinal investigation of coping and self-determination processes. Self and Identity, 7(2), 204–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860701580793
- Amiot, C. E., & Bourhis, R. Y. (2003). Discrimination and the positive-negative asymmetry effect: Ideological and normative processes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(5), 597–608. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203029005005
- Amiot, C. E., de la Sablonnière, R., Terry, D. J., & Smith, J. R. (2007). Integration of social identities in the self: Toward a cognitive-developmental model. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(4), 364–388. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868307304091
- Amiot, C. E., & Hornsey, M. J. (2010). Collective self-esteem contingency and its role in predicting ingroup bias. Self and Identity, 9, 62–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860802605895
- Amiot, C. E., Louis, W. R., Bourdeau, S., & Maalouf, O. (2017). Can harmful intergroup behaviors truly represent the self? The impact of harmful and prosocial normative behaviors on intra-individual conflict and compartmentalization. Self and Identity, 16(6), 703–731. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1305442
- Amiot, C. E., Sansfaçon, S., & Louis, W. R. (2013a). Investigating the motivations underlying harmful social behaviors and the motivational nature of social norms. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(10), 2146–2157. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12167
- Amiot, C. E., Sansfaçon, S., & Louis, W. R. (2013b). Uncovering hockey fans' motivations behind their derogatory behaviors and how these motives predict psychological well-being and quality of social identity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14(3), 379–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.12.004
- Amiot, C. E., Sansfaçon, S., & Louis, W. R. (2014). How normative and social identification processes predict self-determination to engage in derogatory behaviours against outgroup hockey fans. European Journal of Social Psychology, 44(3), 216–230. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2006
- Amiot, C. E., Sansfaçon, S., Louis, W. R., & Yelle, M. (2012). Can intergroup behaviors be emitted out of self-determined reasons? Testing the role of group norms and behavioral congruence in the internalisation of discriminatory and parity behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(1), 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211429804
- Amiot, C. E., Terry, D. J., Wirawan, D., & Grice, T. A. (2010). Changes in social identities over time: The role of coping and adaptation processes. British Journal of Social Psychology, 49(4), 804–826. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466609x480624
- Atran, S., Axelrod, R., & Davis, R. (2007). Sacred barriers to conflict resolution. Science, 317(5841), 1039–1040. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1144241
- Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(3), 193–209. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_3
- Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1983). Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal system. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(5), 1017–1028. https://doi.org/10.1037/002-3514.45.5.1017
- Barreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2003). The effects of being categorised: The interplay between internal and external social identities. European Review of Social Psychology, 14(1), 139–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280340000045
10.1080/10463280340000045 Google Scholar
- Bastian, B., & Loughnan, S. (2016). Resolving the meat-paradox: A motivational account of morally troublesome behavior and its maintenance. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 21(3), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868316647562
- Baum, S. K. (2008). The psychology of genocide perpetrators, bystanders, and rescuers. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
10.1017/CBO9780511819278 Google Scholar
- Baumeister, R. F., & Campbell, W. K. (1999). The intrinsic appeal of evil: Sadism, sensational thrills, and threatened egotism. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(3), 210–221. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_4
- Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2004). Four roots of evil. In A. G. Miller (Ed.), The social psychology of good and evil (pp. 87–101). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Bellg, A. J. (2003). Maintenance of health behavior change in preventive cardiology internalisation and self-regulation of new behaviors. Behavior Modification, 27(1), 103–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445502238696
- Benet-Martinez, V., & Haritatos, J. (2005). Bicultural Identity Integration (BII): Components and psychosocial antecedents. Journal of Personality, 73, 1015–1050. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00337.x
- Berndsen, M., Thomas, E. F., McGarty, C., Bliuc, A.-M., & Hendres, D. M. (2017). Glorifying national identification increases schadenfreude about asylum seekers when they are a threat, not entitled to seek asylum, and blamed for their adversity. Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology, 2(2–3), 166–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/23743603.2017.1360573
10.1080/23743603.2017.1360573 Google Scholar
- Berndsen, M., Thomas, E. F., & Pedersen, A. (2018). Glorification of the national group elicits non-compliance with perspective-taking instructions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 79, 126–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.07.007
- Bettencourt, A. B., & Sheldon, K. (2001). Social roles as mechanisms for psychological need satisfaction within social groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(6), 1131–1143. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.1131
- Brauer, M., Judd, C. M., & Gliner, M. D. (1995). The effects of repeated expression on attitude polarization during group discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(6), 1014–1029. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.68.6.1014
- Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love or outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55(3), 429–444. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00126
- Brewer, M. B., & Chen, Y.-R. (2007). Where (who) are collectives in collectivism? Toward conceptual clarification of individualizm and collectivism. Psychological Review, 114(1), 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.114.1.133
- Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this “We”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(1), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.1.83
- Brown, R. (2000). Social identity theory: Past achievements, current problems and future challenges. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30(6), 745–778. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0992(200011/12)30:6<745:AID-EJSP24>3.0.CO;2-O
- Burton, K. D., Lydon, J. E., D'Alessandro, D. U., & Koestner, R. (2006). The differential effects of intrinsic and identified motivation on well-being and performance: Prospective, experimental, and implicit approaches to self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 750–762. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.750
- Cialdini, R. B., Demaine, L. J., Sagarin, B. J., Barrett, D. W., Rhoads, K., & Winter, P. L. (2006). Managing social norms for persuasive impact. Social Influence, 1(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510500181459
10.1080/15534510500181459 Google Scholar
- Cikara, M., Bruneau, E. G., & Saxe, R. R. (2017). Us and them: Intergroup failures of empathy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(3), 149–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411408713
- Cohen, S. J. (2016). Mapping the minds of suicide bombers using linguistic methods: The corpus of Palestinian suicide bombers' farewell letters (CoPSBFL). Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 39, 749–780. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2016.1141005
- Cornum, R., Matthews, M. D., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Comprehensive soldier fitness: Building resilience in a challenging institutional context. American Psychologist, 66(1), 4–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021420
- Costarelli, S. (2005). Affective responses to own violations of ingroup norms: The moderating role of norm salience. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35(3), 425–435. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.257
- Crandall, C. S. (1994). Prejudice against fat people: Ideology and self-interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(5), 882–894. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.5.882
- Crandall, C., Eshleman, A., & O'Brien, L. (2002). Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalisation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(3), 359–378. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.3.359
- Crandall, C. S., Miller, J. M., & White, M. H. (2018). Changing norms following the 2016 US presidential election: The Trump effect on prejudice. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9(2), 186–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617750735
- Deci, E. L., Eghrari, H., Patrick, B. C., & Leone, D. R. (1994). Facilitating internalisation: The self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Personality, 62(1), 119–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00797.x
- Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum.
10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7 Google Scholar
- Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
- Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
- Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life's domains. Canadian Psychology, 49, 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/0708-5591.49.1.14
- Dixon, J., Tropp, L. R., Durrheim, K., & Tredoux, C. (2010). “Let them eat harmony”: Prejudice-reduction strategies and attitudes of historically disadvantaged groups. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(2), 76–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410363366
- Doosje, B., Moghaddam, F. M., Kruglanski, A. W., De Wolf, A., Mann, L., & Feddes, A. R. (2016). Terrorism, radicalization and de-radicalization. Current Opinion in Psychology, 11, 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.06.008
- Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Validzic, A. (1998). Intergroup bias: Status, differentiation, and a common in-group identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.109
- Drury, J., & Reicher, S. (2000). Collective action and psychological change: The emergence of new social identities. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39(4), 579–604. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466600164642
- Fiske, A. P., & Rai, T. S. (2015). Virtuous Violence: Hurting and killing to create, sustain, end, and honor social relationships. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- Fredman, L. A., Bastian, B., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (2017). God or country? Fusion with Judaism predicts desire for retaliation following Palestinian stabbing Intifada. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(8), 882–887. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617693059
- Froming, W. J. (2015). Healing in a postgenocidal country. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 21(4), 560–564. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000132
- Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Anastasio, P. A., Bachman, B. A., & Rust, M. C. (1993). The Common Ingroup Identity Model: Recategorization and the reduction of intergroup bias. European Review of Social Psychology, 4(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779343000004
10.1080/14792779343000004 Google Scholar
- Gamborg, C., Jensen, F. S., & Sandøe, P. (2018). Killing animals for recreation? A quantitative study of hunters' motives and their perceived moral relevance. Society & Natural Resources, 31(4), 489–502. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2017.1377332
- Gatto, J., Dambrun, M., Kerbrat, C., & de Oliveira, P. (2010). Prejudice in the police: On the processes underlying the effects of selection and group socialization. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(2), 252–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.617
- Gergen, K. J. (2009). The problem of prejudice in plural worlds. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 29(2), 97–101. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017817
10.1037/a0017817 Google Scholar
- Giguère, B., Lalonde, R., & Lou, E. (2010). Living at the crossroads of cultural worlds: The experience of normative conflicts by second generation immigrant youth. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(1), 14–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00228.x
10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00228.x Google Scholar
- Goldhagen, D. J. (1996). Hitler's willing executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York, NY: Knopf.
- Golec de Zavala, A. (2011). Collective narcissism and intergroup hostility: The dark side of “in-group love”. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(6), 309–320. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00351.x
10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00351.x Google Scholar
- Gómez, A., Brooks, M. L., Buhrmester, M. D., Vázquez, A., Jetten, J., & Swann, W. B. (2011). On the nature of identity fusion: Insights into the construct and a new measure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(5), 918–933. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022642
- Greenaway, K. H., & Louis, W. R. (2010). Only human: Hostile human norms can reduce legitimization of intergroup discrimination by perpetrators of historical atrocities. British Journal of Social Psychology, 49(4), 765–783. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466609X479202
- Greenaway, K. H., Louis, W. R., & Wohl, M. J. A. (2012). Awareness of common humanity and subjective temporal distance heighten expectations of intergroup forgiveness. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(4), 446–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611425861
- Greenaway, K. H., Quinn, E., & Louis, W. R. (2011). Appealing to common humanity increases forgiveness but reduces collective action among victims of historical atrocities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(5), 569–573. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.802
- Harré, R., & Moghaddam, F. M. (2003). The self and others: Positioning individuals and groups in personal, political, and cultural contexts. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group.
10.5040/9798216187646 Google Scholar
- Haslam, S. A., Ellemers, N., Reicher, S. D., Reynolds, K. J., & Schmitt, M. T. (2010). The social identity perspective today: An overview of its defining ideas. In T. Postmes & N. R. Branscombe (Eds.), Rediscovering social identity: Key readings. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
- Haslam, N., & Loughnan, S. (2014). Dehumanization and infrahumanization. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 399–423. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115045
- Haslam, S. A., Powell, C., & Turner, J. (2000). Social identity, self-categorization, and work motivation: Rethinking the contribution of the group to positive and sustainable organisational outcomes. Applied Psychology, 49(3), 319–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/1464-0597.00018
- Haslam, S. A., & Reicher, S. (2007). Beyond the banality of evil: Three dynamics of an interactionist social psychology of tyranny. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(5), 615–622. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206298570
- Haslam, S. A., Reicher, S. D., & Birney, M. E. (2016). Questioning authority: New perspectives on Milgram's “obedience” research and its implications for intergroup relations. Current Opinion in Psychology, 11, 6–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.007
- Hodgins, H. S., & Knee, C. R. (2002). The integrating self and conscious experience. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), The motivation and self-determination of behavior: Theoretical and applied issues (pp. 87–100). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
- Hogg, M. A. (2006). Social identity theory in contemporary social psychological theories. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
- Hornsey, M. J., & Hogg, M. A. (2000). Assimilation and diversity: An integrative model of subgroup relations. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0402_03
- Hutter, R. R. C., & Crisp, R. J. (2005). The composition of category conjunctions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 647–657. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271575
- Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.x
- Jost, J. T., & Major, B. (2001). The psychology of legitimacy: Emerging perspectives on ideology, justice, and intergroup relations. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
- Kachanoff, F. J., Caouette, J., Wohl, M. J., & Taylor, D. M. (2017). Allowing the victim to draw a line in history: Intergroup apology effectiveness as a function of collective autonomy support. European Journal of Social Psychology, 47(6), 663–676. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2260
- Kachanoff, F. J., Taylor, D. M., Caouette, J., Khullar, T. H., & Wohl, M. J. (2019). The chains on all my people are the chains on me: Restrictions to collective autonomy undermine the personal autonomy and psychological well-being of group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 116(1), 141–165. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000177
- Kelman, H. C. (1961). Processes of opinion change. Public Opinion Quarterly, 25(1), 57–78. https://doi.org/10.1086/266996
- Kelman, H. C. (1999). The interdependence of Israeli and Palestinian national identities: The role of the other in existential conflicts. Journal of Social Issues, 55(3), 581–600. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00134
- Kindsvatter, P. S. (2003). American soldiers: Ground combat in the world wars, Korea, and Vietnam. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
- King, R. U., & Sakamoto, I. (2015). Disengaging from genocide harmdoing and healing together between perpetrators, bystanders and victims in Rwanda. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 21, 378–394. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000078
- Knee, C. R., Neighbors, C., & Vietor, N. A. (2001). Self-determination theory as a framework for understanding road rage. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(5), 889–904. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb02654.x
- Koestner, R., Losier, G., Vallerand, R., & Carducci, D. (1996). Identified and introjected forms of political internalisation: Extending self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1025–1036. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.5.1025
- Kruglanski, A. W., Bélanger, J. J., & Gunaratna, R. (2019). The three pillars of radicalization: Needs, narratives, and networks. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
10.1093/oso/9780190851125.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Kteily, N., Hodson, G., & Bruneau, E. (2016). They see us as less than human: Metadehumanization predicts intergroup conflict via reciprocal dehumanization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110(3), 343–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000044
- Kulich, C., de Lemus, S., Kosakowska-Berezecka, N., & Lorenzi-Cioldi, F. (2017). Multiple Identities Management: Effects on (of) identification, attitudes, behavior and well-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2258. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02258
- Leach, C. W., Spears, R., Branscombe, N. R., & Doosje, B. (2003). Malicious pleasure: Schadenfreude at the suffering of another group. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5), 932–943. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.932
- Legate, N., DeHaan, C. R., Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2013). Hurting you hurts me too: The psychological costs of complying with ostracism. Psychological Science, 24(4), 583–588. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612457951
- Leidner, B., & Castano, E. (2012). Morality shifting in the context of intergroup violence. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(1), 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.846
- Leidner, B., Castano, E., Zaiser, E., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2010). Ingroup glorification, moral disengagement, and justice in the context of collective violence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(8), 1115–1129. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210376391
- Leidner, B., Li, M., & Kardos, P. (2015). Healthy and unhealthy wars: The effects of ingroup-committed violence on physical and mental health. Peace and Conflict: The Journal of Peace Psychology, 21(3), 334–358. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000071
- Leyens, J. P., Rodriguez-Perez, A., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Gaunt, R., Paladino, M. P., Vaes, J., & Demoulin, S. (2001). Psychological essentialism and the differential attribution of uniquely human emotions to ingroups and outgroups. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31(4), 395–411. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.50
- Linville, P. W. (1987). Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(4), 663–676. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.663
- Litz, B. T., Stein, N., Delaney, E., Lebowitz, L., Nash, W. P., Silva, C., & Maguen, S. (2009). Moral injury and moral repair in war veterans: A preliminary model and intervention strategy. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 695–706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.07.003
- Louis, W. R. (2008). Intergroup positioning and power. In F. M. Moghaddam, R. Harré & N. Lee (Eds.), Global conflict resolution through positioning analysis. Peace psychology book series (pp. 21–39). New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media.
10.1007/978-0-387-72112-5_2 Google Scholar
- Louis, W. R. (2009). If they're not crazy, then what? The implications of social psychological approaches to terrorism for conflict management. In W. G. K. Stritzke, S. Lewandowsky, D. Denemark, J. Clare, & F. Morgan (Eds.), Terrorism and torture (pp. 125–153). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
10.1017/CBO9780511581199.008 Google Scholar
- Louis, W. R., Amiot, C. E., & Thomas, E. F. (2015). Collective harmdoing: Developing the perspective of the perpetrator. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 21(3), 306–312. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000112
- Louis, W. R., Amiot, C. E., Thomas, E. F., & Blackwood, L. (2016). The “activist identity” and activism across domains: A multiple identities analysis. Journal of Social Issues, 72, 242–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12165
- Louis, W. R., Mavor, K. I., La Macchia, S. T., & Amiot, C. E. (2014). Social justice and psychology: What is, and what should be. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 34(1), 14–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033033
10.1037/a0033033 Google Scholar
- Louis, W. R., Taylor, D. M., & Douglas, R. L. (2005). Normative influence and rational conflict decisions: Group norms and cost-benefit analyses for intergroup behaviour. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 8(4), 355–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430205056465
- Louis, W. R., Taylor, D. M., & Neil, T. (2004). Cost-benefit analyses for your group and yourself: The rationality of decision-making in conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 15(2), 110–143. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb022909
10.1108/eb022909 Google Scholar
- Lovelock, B. (2007). Tourism and the consumption of wildlife: Hunting, shooting and sport fishing. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
10.4324/9780203934326 Google Scholar
- MacNair, R. M. (2002). Perpetration-induced traumatic stress: The psychological consequences of killing. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group.
- MacNair, R. M. (2015). Causing trauma as a form of trauma. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 21, 313–321. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000116
- McConnell, A. R. (2011). The multiple self-aspects framework: Self-concept representation and its implications. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310371101
- McDonald, R. I., Fielding, K. S., & Louis, W. R. (2013). Energizing and de-motivating effects of norm-conflict. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(1), 57–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212464234
- McDonald, R. I., Fielding, K. S., & Louis, W. R. (2014). Conflicting norms highlight the need for action. Environment and Behavior, 46(2), 139–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916512453992
- McGarty, C., Bliuc, A.-M., Thomas, E. F., & Bongiorno, R. (2009). Collective action as the material expression of opinion-based group membership. Journal of Social Issues, 65(4), 839–857. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01627.x
- Milyavskaya, M., Gingras, I., Mageau, G. A., Koestner, R., Gagnon, H., Fang, J., & Boiché, J. (2009). Balance across contexts: Importance of balanced need satisfaction across various life domains. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(8), 1031–1045. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167209337036
- Moller, A. C., & Deci, E. L. (2010). Interpersonal control, dehumanization, and violence: A self-determination theory perspective. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 13(1), 41–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430209350318
- Mooijman, M., Hoover, J., Lin, Y., Ji, H., & Dehghani, M. (2018). Moralization in social networks and the emergence of violence during protests. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(6), 389–396. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0353-0
- Mummendey, A., & Wenzel, M. (1999). Social discrimination and tolerance in intergroup relations: Reactions to intergroup difference. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(2), 158–174. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0302_4
- Nafstad, H. E., & Blakar, R. M. (2012). Ideology and social psychology. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(4), 282–294. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00428.x
10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00428.x Google Scholar
- Nietzsche, F. W. (1974). The gay science: With a prelude in German rhymes and an appendix of songs. New York, NY: Vintage.
- Noor, M., Shnabel, N., Halabi, S., & Nadler, A. (2012). When suffering begets suffering: The psychology of competitive victimhood between adversarial groups in violent conflicts. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(4,), 351–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868312440048
- Onorato, R. S., & Turner, J. C. (2004). Fluidity in the self-concept: The shift from personal to social identity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 34(3), 257–278. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.195
- Packer, D. J. (2008). On being both with us and against us: A normative conflict model of dissent in social groups. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12(1), 50–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868307309606
- Perry, S., & Hasisi, B. (2015). Rational choice rewards and the Jihadist suicide bomber. Terrorism and Political Violence, 27(1), 53–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2014.962991
- Pinker, S. (2011). The better angels of our nature: Why violence has declined. New York, NY: Viking.
- Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (1998). Deindividuation and antinormative behavior: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 123(3), 238–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.123.3.238
- Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(4), 741–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741
- Reicher, S. D., Haslam, S. A., & Rath, R. (2008). Making a virtue of evil: A five step social identity model of development of collective hate. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(3), 1313–1344. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00113.x
10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00113.x Google Scholar
- Reicher, S. D., Haslam, S. A., & Smith, J. R. (2012). Working toward the experimenter: Reconceptualizing obedience within the Milgram paradigm as identification-based followership. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(4), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612448482
- Reicher, S. D., Spears, R., & Postmes, T. (1995). A social identity model of deindividuation phenomena. European Review of Social Psychology, 6(1), 161–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779443000049
10.1080/14792779443000049 Google Scholar
- Riek, B. M., Mania, E. W., & Gaertner, S. L. (2006). Intergroup threat and outgroup attitudes: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_4
- Roccas, S., & Brewer, M. (2002). Social identity complexity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(2), 88–106. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0602_01
- Roccas, S., Klar, Y., & Liviatan, I. (2006). The paradox of group-based guilt: Modes of national identification, conflict vehemence, and reactions to the in-group's moral violations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 698–711. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.698
- Roth, G., Kanat-Maymon, Y., & Bibi, U. (2011). Prevention of school bullying: The important role of autonomy-supportive teaching and internalisation of pro-social values. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 654–666. https://doi.org/10.1348/2044-8279.002003
- Rubin, M., & Hewstone, M. (1998). Social identity theory's self-esteem hypothesis: A review and some suggestions for clarification. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 40–62. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_3
- Rutland, A., Killen, M., & Abrams, D. (2010). A new social-cognitive developmental perspective on prejudice: The interplay between morality and group identity. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(3), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610369468
- Ryan, R. M. (1995). Psychological needs and the facilitation of integrative processes. Journal of Personality, 63(3), 397–427. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00501.x
- Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037110003-066X.55.1.68
- Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2003). On assimilating identities to the self: A self-determination theory perspective on internalisation and integrity within cultures. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self & identity (pp. 253–274). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
- Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
10.1521/978.14625/28806 Google Scholar
- Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., Grolnick, W. S., & La Guardia, J. G. (2006). The significance of autonomy and autonomy support in psychological development and psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Theory and method ( 2nd ed., pp. 795–849). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
- Saguy, T., Tausch, N., Dovidio, J. F., & Pratto, F. (2009). The irony of harmony intergroup contact can produce false expectations for equality. Psychological Science, 20(1), 114–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02261.x
- Sani, F., & Reicher, S. (2000). Contested identities and schisms in groups: Opposing the ordination of women as priests in the Church of England. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39(1), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466600164354
- Sansfaçon, S., & Amiot, C. E. (2014). The impact of group norms and behavioral congruence on the internalisation of an illegal behavior. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 18(2), 174–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035797
- Sassenberg, K., Matschke, C., & Scholl, A. (2011). The impact of discrepancies from ingroup norms on group members' well-being and motivation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(7), 886–897. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.833
- Scheepers, D., Spears, R., Doosje, B., & Manstead, A. S. (2003). Two functions of verbal intergroup discrimination: Identity and instrumental motives as a result of group identification and threat. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(5), 568–577. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203029005002
- Scheepers, D., Spears, R., Doosje, B., & Manstead, A. S. (2006a). The social functions of ingroup bias: Creating, confirming, or changing social reality. European Review of Social Psychology, 17(1), 359–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280601088773
10.1080/10463280601088773 Google Scholar
- Scheepers, D., Spears, R., Doosje, B., & Manstead, A. S. (2006b). Diversity in in-group bias: structural factors, situational features, and social functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(6), 944–960. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.6.944
- Schlachter, A., & Duckitt, J. (2002). Psychopathology, authoritarian attitudes, and prejudice. South African Journal of Psychology, 32(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124630203200201
- Sheldon, K. M., & Niemec, C. P. (2006). It's not just the amount that counts: Balanced need satisfaction also affects well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(2), 331–341. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.331
- Sherif, M. (1966). Group conflict and co-operation: Their social psychology. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
- Showers, C. (1992). Compartmentalization of positive and negative self-knowledge: Keeping bad apples out of the bunch. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(6), 1036–1049. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.6.1036
- Showers, C. J. (2002). Integration and compartmentalization: A model of self-structure and self-change. In D. Cervone, & W. Mischel (Eds.), Advances in personality science (pp. 271–291). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Skitka, L. J., & Mullen, E. (2002). The dark side of moral conviction. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2(1), 35–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2002.00024.x
10.1111/j.1530-2415.2002.00024.x Google Scholar
- Smith, L. G. E., Blackwood, L., & Thomas, E. F. (2020). The need to re-focus on the group as the site of radicalization. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1–68.
- Smith, L. G. E., & Postmes, T. (2011). The power of talk: Developing discriminatory group norms through discussion. British Journal of Social Psychology, 50(2), 193–215. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466610X504805
- Staub, E. (1999). The roots of evil: Social conditions, culture, personality, and basic human needs. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(3), 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_2
- Staub, E. (2002). Notes on terrorism: Origins and prevention. Peace and Conflict, 8(3), 207–214. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327949PAC0803_04
10.1207/S15327949PAC0803_04 Google Scholar
- Staub, E. (2004). The social psychology of good and evil. In A. G. Miller (Ed.), The social psychology of good and evil (vol. 14, pp. 51–84). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1996). Predicting prejudice. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20(3–4), 409–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(96)00026-0
- Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Fryberg, S. A. (2012). Social class disparities in health and education: Reducing inequality by applying a sociocultural self model of behavior. Psychological Review, 119(4), 723–744. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029028
- Stretesky, P. B., & Pogrebin, M. R. (2007). Gang related gun violence: Socialization, identity, and self. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 36, 85–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241606287416
- Swann, W. B., Jr., Gómez, A., Dovidio, J., Hart, S., & Jetten, J. (2010). Dying and killing for one's group: Identity fusion moderates responses to intergroup versions of the trolley problem. Psychological Science, 21(8), 1176–1183. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376656
- Swann, W. B., Jr., Gómez, A., Huici, C., Morales, F., & Hixon, J. G. (2010). Identity fusion and self-sacrifice: Arousal as catalyst of pro-group fighting, dying and helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(5), 824–841. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020014
- Swann, W. B., Jr., Gómez, A., Seyle, C., Morales, F., & Huici, C. (2009). Identity fusion: The interplay of personal and social identities in extreme group behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 995–1011. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013668
- Swann, W. B., Jr., Jetten, J., Gómez, A., Whitehouse, H., & Bastian, B. (2012). When group membership gets personal: A theory of identity fusion. Psychological Review, 119(3), 441–456. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028589
- Tajfel, H. (1981). Social stereotypes and social groups. In J. Turner & H. Giles (Eds.), Intergroup behaviour (pp. 144–167). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
- Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
- Taylor, D. M., & Louis, W. R. (2004). Terrorism and the quest for identity. In F. M. Moghaddam & A. J. Marsella (Eds.), Understanding terrorism: Psychosocial roots, consequences, and interventions (pp. 169–185). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
10.1037/10621-008 Google Scholar
- Taylor, D. M., Lydon, J. E., Bougie, É., & Johannesen, K. (2004). “Street kids”: Towards an understanding of their motivational context. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 36(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087211
- Terry, D. J., & Hogg, M. A. (1996). Group norms and the attitude–behavior relationship: A role for group identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(8), 776–793. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167296228002
- Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C. E., Louis, W. R., & Goddard, A. (2017). Collective self-determination: How the agent of help promotes pride, well-being and support for intergroup helping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217695553
- Thomas, E. F., McGarty, C., & Louis, W. (2014). Social interaction and psychological pathways to political engagement and extremism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 44(1), 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1988
- Thomas, E. F., McGarty, C., & Mavor, K. I. (2016). Group interaction as the crucible of identity formation: A glimpse at the origins of collective identity and action. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 19, 137–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430215612217
- Thomas, E. F., McGarty, C., Stuart, A., Smith, L. G. E., & Bourgoise, L. (2019). Reaching consensus promotes the internalisation of commitment to social change. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 22, 615–630. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218780320
- Thomas, E. F., Smith, L. G. E., McGarty, C., Hende, A., Curtin, N., Rees, G., … Spears, R. (2019). When and how social movements mobilize action within and across nations to support refugees. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49, 213–229. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2380
- Thomas, E. F., Smith, L. G. E., McGarty, C., & Postmes, T. (2010). Nice and nasty: The formation of pro-social and hostile social movements. International Review of Social Psychology, 23, 17–55.
- Tice, D. M. (1992). Self-concept change and self-presentation: The looking glass self is also a magnifying glass. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(3), 435–451. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.435
- Turner, J. C. (1991). Social influence. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
- Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
- Turner-Zwinkels, F. M., Postmes, T., & van Zomeren, M. (2015). Achieving harmony among different social identities within the self-concept: The consequences of internalising a group-based philosophy of life. PLoS ONE, 10(11), e0137879. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137879
- Tyler, T. R., & Blader, S. L. (2002). Autonomous vs. comparative status: Must we be better than others to feel good about ourselves? Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 89(1), 813–838. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00031-6
- Vaes, J., Paladino, M. P., Castelli, L., Leyens, J. P., & Giovanazzi, A. (2003). On the behavioral consequences of infrahumanization: The implicit role of uniquely human emotions in intergroup relations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(6), 1016–1034. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.6.1016
- Vallerand, R. J., Fortier, M. S., & Guay, F. (1997). Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: Toward a motivational model of high school dropout. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(5), 1161–1176. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1161
- Van Hiel, A., & De Clercq, B. (2009). Authoritarianism is good for you: Rightwing authoritarianism as a buffering factor for mental distress. European Journal of Personality, 23(1), 33–50. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.702
- Vansteenkiste, M., Neyrinck, B., Niemiec, C. P., Soenens, B., De Witte, H., & Van den Broeck, A. (2007). Examining the relations among extrinsic versus intrinsic work value orientations, basic need satisfaction, and job experience: A self-determination theory approach. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 80, 251–277. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317906X111024
- Webber, D., Schimel, J., Martens, A., Hayes, J., & Faucher, E. H. (2013). Using a bug-killing paradigm to understand how social validation and invalidation affect the distress of killing. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(4), 470–481. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213477891
- Wenzel, M., Mummendey, A., & Waldzus, S. (2007). Superordinate identities and intergroup conflict: The ingroup projection model. European Review of Social Psychology, 18, 331–372. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280701728302
- Widom, C. S., & White, H. (1997). Problem behaviors in abused and neglected children grown up: Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance abuse, crime, and violence. Criminal Behavior and Health, 7, 287–310. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.191
10.1002/cbm.191 Google Scholar
- Williams, G. C., & Deci, E. L. (1996). Internalisation of biopsychosocial values by medical students: A test of self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(4), 767–779. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.70.4.767
- Wispé, L. G. (1972). Positive forms of social behavior: An overview. Journal of Social Issues, 28(3), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1972.tb00029.x
- Wohl, M., & Branscombe, N. R. (2005). Forgiveness and collective guilt assignment to historical perpetrator groups depend on level of social category inclusiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(2), 288–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.2.288
- Wright, S. C., & Lubensky, M. (2009). The struggle for social equality: Collective action versus prejudice reduction. In S. Demoulin, J. P. Leyens & J. F. Dovidio (Eds.), Intergroup misunderstandings: Impact of divergent social realities (pp. 291–310). New York, NY: Psychology Press.