- Azusa, California, United States
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Claremont Graduate University, School of the Arts and Humanities, Faculty Member add
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Leadership, Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, Missiology and Mission Theology, Teamwork, Missiology, Social Psychology, and 12 moreOrganizational Behavior, Evangelicalism, Christian Missions, Short-term missions, Church Growth, Missions, World Missions, Missionaries, Missions and Contextualization, Missionary Language Learning, Cross-Cultural Missions, and Expertise edit
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Chair and Professor of Leadership, Organizational Psychology, and Public Administration, Azusa Pacific University Edi... moreChair and Professor of Leadership, Organizational Psychology, and Public Administration, Azusa Pacific University
Editor of The Great Commission Research Journal
Book Review Editor of Evangelical Missions Quarterly edit
An underlying assumption of most church-based research is that the sample from which the data is collected is representative of a wider collection of church members, church leaders, small groups, churches, denominations, or whatever is... more
An underlying assumption of most church-based research is that the sample from which the data is collected is representative of a wider collection of church members, church leaders, small groups, churches, denominations, or whatever is the focus of the study. To increase the likelihood that this assumption is met without making the research an impossible undertaking, various sampling strategies are used ranging from random sampling to convenience sampling, each with advantages and disadvantages. After a sampling strategy is chosen, an appropriate sample size should be pursued, depending on the nature of the study. The sample size of quantitative studies seeking to describe the frequency of a phenomenon (such as a belief or behavior) or the number in a category (such as demographics) is determined by the desired margin of error. It is more complex to determine the desired sample size of quantitative studies that test a relationship between concepts or differences between groups; several variables must be considered (statistical power, acceptable false-positive error rate, and effect size). For qualitative studies, sampling and data collection should continue until saturation is reached, that is, until little or no new information would be gained from additional data.
Research Interests:
Ecclesiology, Evangelicalism, Pastoral Theology, Evangelical Theology, Evangelical Ecclesiology, and 15 moreMissional Ecclesiology, Church, Evangelism, Church planting, Missional Leadership, Missional Church, Church Growth, Evangelism and Church Growth, Missional Church Theology, Church Planting Strategies, Sample Size, Church Planting Movements, Missional Theology, Statstics, and Ecclesiology & Christology
Self-leadership has become a popular topic in the field of leadership, both Christian and secular. Self-leadership theory predicts that certain behaviors lead to the better accomplishment of one's goals. In the academic literature,... more
Self-leadership has become a popular topic in the field of leadership, both Christian and secular. Self-leadership theory predicts that certain behaviors lead to the better accomplishment of one's goals. In the academic literature, self-leadership is linked to increases in self-efficacy; however, little is known about the relationship between the practices prescribed by the theory and coping with stress. This study looks at the relationship between self-leadership practices and coping stress in a sample (N = 318) of well-educated, self-identified Christians, many of whom were in positions of leadership in Christian parachurch organizations. The study also includes a measure of seeking God's will, which may be considered a Christian approach to self-leadership. No self-leadership practices from self-leadership theory were found to be positive predictors of coping with stress; two, however, were negative predictors: self-reward and self-punishment. In contrast, seeking God's will was a positive predictor of coping with stress, even when controlling for self-leadership practices and demographics.
Research Interests:
Christianity, Theology, Leadership, Coping Strategies, Self-Efficacy, and 15 moreStress, Doctrine of God, Christian Spirituality, Religious Coping, Happiness and Well Being, Christian Leadership, Self Efficacy, Christian Theology, Coping, Stress and coping, Christian Studies, Self Efficacy Theory, Spiritual/religious coping, Self Leadership, and Thriving
To better understand behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes in churches, survey research can be very useful, especially to test a hypothesis that we believe to be true. Before creating a survey or questionnaire, the phenomena being examined... more
To better understand behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes in churches, survey research can be very useful, especially to test a hypothesis that we believe to be true. Before creating a survey or questionnaire, the phenomena being examined need to be well understood and appropriate measures chosen. The items included in the survey need to measure the concepts desired and should be clear and unambiguous. The survey should be laid out to motivate maximum participation and minimize biased responses. This article provides many principles for how to accomplish these goals and to ensure that the research undertaken is credible.
Research Interests:
Christianity, Social Research Methods and Methodology, Research Methodology, Early Christianity, Internet research methods, and 15 moreContemporary Christianity, Anthropology of Christianity, Survey Methodology, Survey Research, Evangelicalism, Survey Research (Research Methodology), Church, Evangelism, Discipleship, Church Leadership, Church Growth, Evangelism and Church Growth, Church Leadership & Ministry, Christian Studies, and Questionnaires
When missionaries work closely in team contexts with high levels of interdependence, interpersonal conflict is highly likely. The dual-concern model of conflict management helps conflicting parties to understand what is necessary for... more
When missionaries work closely in team contexts with high levels of interdependence, interpersonal conflict is highly likely. The dual-concern model of conflict management helps conflicting parties to understand what is necessary for constructively resolving conflict when it occurs. Collaboration, which occurs when the interests of both parties are taken into consideration, generally leads to the best outcomes, both on the personal and organizational levels. Sometimes mediation by an outside third party will be necessary for constructive management of conflict. The mediator should be a neutral party, trusted by both missionaries. A good mediator will help each missionary to see the concerns of the other and will help them find a solution together that will address a maximum number of these concerns.
Research Interests:
Christianity, Missiology, Conflict, Missiology and Mission Theology, Christian Missions, and 15 moreMission Studies, Mediation, Conflict Resolution, Conflict Management, Evangelicalism, Christian Spirituality, Evangelism, Conflict Mediation Strategies, Christian Leadership, Missionary, Church Growth, Missions, World Missions, Interpersonal Conflict Handling Styles, and Christian Studies
Self-leadership has become a popular topic in the field of leadership, both Christian and secular. Self-leadership theory predicts that certain behaviors lead to the better accomplishment of one's goals. In the academic literature,... more
Self-leadership has become a popular topic in the field of leadership, both Christian and secular. Self-leadership theory predicts that certain behaviors lead to the better accomplishment of one's goals. In the academic literature, self-leadership is linked to increases in self-efficacy; however, little is known about the relationship between the practices prescribed by the theory and the ability to cope with stress. This study looks at the relationship between self-leadership practices and successfully coping with stress in a sample (N = 318) of well-educated, self-identified Christians, many of whom were in positions of leadership in Christian parachurch organizations. The study also includes a measure of seeking God's will, which may be considered a Christian approach to self-leadership. No self-leadership practices from self-leadership theory were positively correlated to the ability to cope with stress; two, however, were negatively correlated: self-reward and self-punishment. In contrast, seeking God's will was positively correlated with coping with stress, even when controlling for self-leadership practices and demographics.
Research Interests:
Christianity, Leadership, Coping Strategies, Stress, Stress Management, and 14 moreEvangelicalism, Christian Spirituality, Stress (Psychology), Evangelical Theology, Religious Coping, Leadership Theory, Christian Leadership, Christian Theology, Coping, Christian Studies, Spiritual/religious coping, Self Leadership, Theology and Leadership, and Leadership Theories and Models
Facebook is the most popular social networking site in the world and is used by many churches. This study seeks to discover the type of Facebook posts that most contribute to the perceived spiritual formation of church attenders as... more
Facebook is the most popular social networking site in the world and is used by many churches. This study seeks to discover the type of Facebook posts that most contribute to the perceived spiritual formation of church attenders as defined by typical church mission statements. A broad range of church attenders who use Facebook (N = 161) completed an online survey focusing on their church's Facebook page. They indicated the degree to which they believe various types of their church's Facebook posts contributed to their spiritual formation, specifically, their relationship with God, their relationship with fellow believers, their personal spiritual growth, and their involvement in ministry or service. They also indicated what type of posts they would like to see more frequently from their church. An exploratory analysis found that posts that had greater cognitive content (specifically, live broadcasts, video recordings, announcements, and devotionals) were perceived to contribute more to church attenders' spiritual formation than did posts with less cognitive content (humorous memes, photos, inspirational quotations, and external links). Confirming these results, participants also expressed a preference for their church to make more posts with high cognitive content than posts with low cognitive content. These results lead to several applications of how churches can better use Facebook to contribute to their mission. ________________
Research Interests:
Christianity, Christian Education, Leadership, Spiritual Formation, Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, and 15 moreGroup Dynamics, Evangelicalism, Evangelical movements, Evangelical Theology, Evangelism, Discipleship, Church Leadership, Millennials, Missional Church, Church Growth, Missional Church Theology, Generation Z, Church Leadership & Ministry, Christian Studies, and Discipleship and Leadership In Today's Churches
To better understand the characteristics of specific churches and phenomena that occur across churches, various metrics and measurements can be used to describe them. Measurements must be meaningful and appropriate. Quantities involving... more
To better understand the characteristics of specific churches and phenomena that occur across churches, various metrics and measurements can be used to describe them. Measurements must be meaningful and appropriate. Quantities involving people, finances, objects, or events are most frequently counted, but other measures may include behaviors, traits, skills, knowledge, and abilities of individuals. Measuring phenomena is necessary to understand how phenomena are related to each other. Measuring attitudes and beliefs are especially important because many ministries in churches are designed to influence these (e.g., preaching and teaching). However, from a Christian perspective, our motivation behind our measuring is important. We are morally obliged to ensure that measurements made are motivated by a desire to serve others and the Lord, not for boasting in our own accomplishments.
Research Interests:
Religion, Sociology of Religion, Social Research Methods and Methodology, Research Methodology, Practical theology, and 15 moreInternet research methods, Measurement and Evaluation, Ecclesiology, Evangelicalism, Evangelical movements, Evangelical Ecclesiology, Practical (empirical) theology, Church, Evangelism, Church planting, Measurement, Church Growth, Evangelism and Church Growth, Seminary, and Doctor of Ministry
The data behind the study The Top Ten Challenges Facing Churches (Moody, 2023) is presented and analyzed with a focus on differences between growing churches and non-growing churches. Church leaders (N = 129) indicated how difficult they... more
The data behind the study The Top Ten Challenges Facing Churches (Moody, 2023) is presented and analyzed with a focus on differences between growing churches and non-growing churches. Church leaders (N = 129) indicated how difficult they believed it would be for North American churches to overcome 50 potential challenges. For most challenges, no significant difference between the church leaders from growing and non-growing churches was detected. However, church leaders from non-growing churches viewed 1) attractiveness of programs, 2) retaining young adults, 3) youth programs, 4) small group participation, and 5) effective strategy as more difficult challenges to overcome than leaders from growing churches. Church leaders from growing churches viewed church conflict as a greater challenge than leaders from non-growing churches. An analysis of these differences provides insights for addressing these challenges.
Research Interests:
Religion, Youth Studies, American Religion, Youth Ministry, Evangelicalism, and 15 moreEvangelical movements, Evangelical Theology, Missional Ecclesiology, Church, Evangelism, American Religious History, Studies on worship, Worship, Church Growth, Evangelism and Church Growth, Worship & Preaching, Missional Church Theology, Worship and Music, Generation Z, and Mission and Evangelism
Social Identity Theory posits that group membership (both of self and other) influences interpersonal and intergroup processes, primarily through its influence on our self-esteem. If possible, people wish to be members of groups that... more
Social Identity Theory posits that group membership (both of self and other) influences interpersonal and intergroup processes, primarily through its influence on our self-esteem. If possible, people wish to be members of groups that raise their self-esteem and avoid membership in groups that lower their self-esteem. This leads to several processes that are relevant to evangelical ministries involving church planting and disciple making. These processes include basking in reflected glory, self-stereotyping, social creativity, leader prototypicality, and group permeability. Some social identity processes may hinder the effectiveness of ministries that should result in reconciliation. These include ingroup favoritism, outgroup derogation, and outgroup homogenization. By emphasizing our identity in Christ, which expresses itself through love and humility, and by using multiple social categorization, we can counter these tendencies in mission organizations and churches started by missionaries.
Research Interests:
Christianity, Social Psychology, Social Identity, Missiology, Leadership, and 15 moreIdentity (Culture), Missiology and Mission Theology, Christian Missions, Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, Mission Studies, Evangelicalism, Christian Spirituality, Identity, Evangelism, Self-Esteem, Discipleship, Church planting, Mission, Missional Church Theology, and Christian Studies
In North America, members of Generation Z (people born since 1995) are facing struggles and obstacles that previous generations have not had to face, resulting in higher rates of depression and suicide and lower levels of life... more
In North America, members of Generation Z (people born since 1995) are facing struggles and obstacles that previous generations have not had to face, resulting in higher rates of depression and suicide and lower levels of life satisfaction. These struggles are likely to have a negative impact on the future generation of missionaries and mission organizations. Psychological struggles due to social media, addiction related to online gaming and pornography, and fragility due to changes in parenting and education have all been amplified by the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, these challenges may make North American Generation Z missionaries less effective unless mission structures change to provide the support and accountability necessary to minimize the effects of the new cultural context.
Research Interests:
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the many changes in the present socio-cultural context point to the importance of innovation in churches. A theoretical framework for understanding innovation in churches is presented, featuring 6... more
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the many changes in the present socio-cultural context point to the importance of innovation in churches. A theoretical framework for understanding innovation in churches is presented, featuring 6 key elements. These elements include the cultural context of the church and the church's target audience, a culture of innovation within the church, innovations in church programs, processes, and personnel, social capital (social ties) which permits church members to navigate the changes associated with innovation, program loss (that which is lost when programs change), and progress toward the church's goals. The church's goals and the church's context determine which innovations would be most appropriate. A culture of innovation and strong social ties permit innovations to be implemented successfully. Program losses may reflect aspects of the church's goals that are neglected when innovations are implemented.
Research Interests:
Practical theology, Management of Innovation, Church Leadership, Church Growth, Evangelism and Church Growth, and 10 moreMissional Church Theology, Church Leadership & Ministry, Pastoral Leadership, Pastoral Ministry, Practical Theology, Discipleship and Leadership In Today's Churches, Innovation & Change Management, Theology and Leadership, Covid-19, and COVID-19 PANDEMIC
Church-based research requires working with abstract concepts ranging from sin to sanctification. Theories, concepts, and operationalizations allow us to work with these abstractions. Theories are sets of statements describing how... more
Church-based research requires working with abstract concepts ranging from sin to sanctification. Theories, concepts, and operationalizations allow us to work with these abstractions. Theories are sets of statements describing how specific concepts relate to each other. Concepts are broad ideas that exist in our thinking that can be used to describe phenomena, both within and exterior to the church. If we measure the concepts in our theories among multiple people, we can determine to what degree the relationships in our theories are true or discover under what conditions they are true. Sometimes concepts can be measured directly; other times they must be measured indirectly. Operationalizations are the specific processes used for measuring each of the concepts. As we test and refine our theories, we can more effectively accomplish the ministries to which we are called.
Research Interests:
Social Research Methods and Methodology, Research Methods and Methodology, Research Methodology, Missiology, Practical theology, and 11 moreChristian Missions, Ecclesiology, Practical (empirical) theology, Evangelism, Social identity theory, Empirical Research and Practical Theology, Church Growth, Missions, Missional Church Theology, Data Collection, and Practical Theology
Missionary conflict is inevitable and potentially dangerous if mismanaged. However, when missionaries in conflict seek to cooperate by understanding each other's perspectives and interests, creative solutions that respond to most, if not... more
Missionary conflict is inevitable and potentially dangerous if mismanaged. However, when missionaries in conflict seek to cooperate by understanding each other's perspectives and interests, creative solutions that respond to most, if not all, of the relevant concerns can be found. This requires much time and effort, and sometimes outside help. However, cooperation with a desire to love and serve the other is a Christ-like response that is well worth the cost.
Research Interests:
Missiology, Practical theology, Missiology and Mission Theology, Missiology (Religion), Conflict Management, and 8 morePastoral Theology, Church planting, Pastoral Care and Counselling, Christian Ministry, Church Leadership & Ministry, Pastoral Ministry, Practical Theology, and Conflict and Conflict Resolution
Small groups are an essential aspect of contemporary churches, playing an important role in community building, support, spiritual formation, and accountability. However, their number and impact are often limited due to a lack of people... more
Small groups are an essential aspect of contemporary churches, playing an important role in community building, support, spiritual formation, and accountability. However, their number and impact are often limited due to a lack of people willing to lead a small group, a problem faced by each new generation. This exploratory study of 217 young adults in church small groups (median age = 24.0 years), including both leaders and non-leaders of small groups, examines potential barriers to small group leadership. An exploratory factor analysis found six barriers: Desire to lead a small group, Skills in group dynamics, Desire to positively influence others, Social support, Biblical foundations, and Stability. The hypothesis that some barriers would be greater than others was supported: Stability and Desire to lead a small group were the greatest barriers whereas Desire to positively influence others was the lowest. The hypothesis that these barriers would be greater for non-leaders of small groups than for leaders of small groups was supported for all six barriers. The difference between leaders and non-leaders was largest for Desire to lead a small group, Skills in group dynamics, Social support, and especially Biblical foundations. These results lead to important insights for recruiting and training Generation Z and younger Millennials to be small group leaders.
Research Interests:
Christian Education, Leadership, Spiritual Leadership, Youth Ministry, Small group Processes, and 15 moreDiscipleship, Millennials, Recruitment and Selection, Missional Church, Church Growth, Christian Ministry, Small Groups, Spiritual Formation and Discipleship, Generation Y, Generation Z, Church Leadership & Ministry, Christian Studies, Educational Foundations and Leadership, Pastoral Ministry, and Discipleship and Leadership In Today's Churches
Because of the knowledge explosion taking place, literature reviews in church-based research are needed more than ever. Summaries and syntheses of previous research make this knowledge available to practitioners and help researchers focus... more
Because of the knowledge explosion taking place, literature reviews in church-based research are needed more than ever. Summaries and syntheses of previous research make this knowledge available to practitioners and help researchers focus on what remains unknown. In contrast to empirical studies, literature reviews rely on previously published studies to make conclusions and advance theory. These studies may include both churchbased research and more general research that is not particularly Christian. In contrast to meta-analyses which focus on synthesizing statistical information, literature reviews focus on conceptual synthesis and theory advancement. To write a literature review, authors must first choose a research problem to address. An initial review of past literature will help them focus on a narrower research question, most likely in an iterative process, to choose a specific topic. The authors must also consider the purpose of their review in light of past research and theoretical contributions that they can make to the chosen topic.
Research Interests:
Research Methodology, Practical theology, Congregational Studies, Ecclesiology, Practical (empirical) theology, and 11 moreLiterature Review, Church, Evangelism, Church Leadership, Church Growth, Evangelism and Church Growth, Seminary, Methodology and Review of Related Literature, Practical Theology, Literature Reviews, and Doctor of Ministry
Although computer-mediated communication has contributed to the missionary enterprise by making the transmission of information easier and more efficient, the negative consequences of technological innovation in communication need to be... more
Although computer-mediated communication has contributed to the missionary enterprise by making the transmission of information easier and more efficient, the negative consequences of technological innovation in communication need to be considered. Technostress is the psychological discomfort people feel when interacting with technology, such as the pressure to respond quickly to emails and text messages, to post regularly on social media, or to master and use a new app. Missionaries are prone to experience technostress and the accompanying detrimental effects on ministry and family. A review of the literature clarifies when missionaries are most likely to experience this phenomenon and what can be done to reduce the negative consequences.
Research Interests:
Organizational Psychology, Technology, Missiology, Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Missiology and Mission Theology, and 14 moreCell Phones, Social Media, Stress, Mission Studies, Facebook, Church Leadership, Church planting, Mission, Missions, Christian Ministry, World Missions, Texting, Church Leadership & Ministry, and Technostress
The attitudes of 92 head pastors were measured concerning 20 ministry-relevant ideas and practices, as well as information about their church’s present numerical growth. A statistical analysis found four pastoral attitudes that predict... more
The attitudes of 92 head pastors were measured concerning 20 ministry-relevant ideas and practices, as well as information about their church’s present numerical growth. A statistical analysis found four pastoral attitudes that predict positive or negative numerical church growth. Positive predictors of numerical church growth were strong beliefs that 1) personal and corporate prayer are important and 2) transfer growth is an indicator of congregational health. Negative predictors of numerical church growth were strong beliefs in the importance of 1) preaching and 2) outreach to the community. The practical implications of these findings are discussed in light of evangelical theology.
Research Interests:
When members of mission organizations perceive injustice within their organization, they work less effectively and attrition is more likely. This paper examines various types of organizational justice (distributive, procedural,... more
When members of mission organizations perceive injustice within their organization, they work less effectively and attrition is more likely. This paper examines various types of organizational justice (distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational) which need to be monitored and maximized to help mission organizations accomplish their goals.
Research Interests:
Christianity, Missiology, Heuristics, Missiology and Mission Theology, Organizational Justice, and 15 moreEcclesiology, Evangelicalism, Evangelical Theology, Evangelical Ecclesiology, Church, Church Leadership, Church Growth, Biases, Sprituality for Mission, Church Leadership & Ministry, Pastoral Ministry, Organizational Vision and Relationship to Mission, Christian Organizations, Missiology and Missional Theology, and Church Conflict
Missionary teams are popular, but not always effective. Five conditions contributing to healthy team functioning are examined in light of empirical evidence: trust, task conflict, commitment to decisions, accountability, and group goals.
Research Interests:
The needs and expectations of both Christians and non-Christians concerning churches vary according to the cultural context. Similarly, a church's ability to respond to these needs depends on its ability to fine-tune ministries so that... more
The needs and expectations of both Christians and non-Christians concerning churches vary according to the cultural context. Similarly, a church's ability to respond to these needs depends on its ability to fine-tune ministries so that they are appropriate to the cultural context. This study uncovers various elements of American church ministries (especially those that can be supported by technology) which church members consider important but which are poorly executed. A sample of 325 members of American churches indicated which ministries they considered most important and to what degree they believed that they were carried out well in their own church. A quadrant analysis indicated that welcoming visitors, keeping parents informed of what their children are learning, and keeping parents informed of issues that arise during church activities were aspects of ministry generally rated as very important but poorly executed.
Research Interests:
Theology, Practical theology, Missiology and Mission Theology, Youth Ministry, Biblical Theology, and 15 moreEvangelicalism, Pastoral Theology, Evangelical movements, Urban Ministry, Evangelical Ecclesiology, Missional Ecclesiology, Church, Pastoral Care, Pastoral Care and Counselling, Missional Church, Christian Ministry, Evangelism and Outreach, Missional Church Theology, Church Leadership & Ministry, and Pastoral Ministry
Pastoral narcissism in churches is a problem, from both a theological and practical perspective. In this study, we explore the question of whether church size is related to tolerance for narcissism. In the popular press, pastors of... more
Pastoral narcissism in churches is a problem, from both a theological and practical perspective. In this study, we explore the question of whether church size is related to tolerance for narcissism. In the popular press, pastors of megachurches are often portrayed as narcissistic. The Dominance Complementarity Model of narcissistic leaders (Grijalva & Harms, 2004) predicts that churches which have less dominant followers, as may be the case in larger churches, would be more tolerant of narcissistic pastors than smaller churches. Yet larger churches also have the resources to hire the most qualified staff, which would presumably exclude candidates high in narcissism. This quantitative study of 64 Christians who attend various evangelical churches in the United States examines how these two tendencies play out. The results indicate that Christians in larger churches tolerate narcissism significantly more than Christians in smaller churches. To prevent this phenomenon from having damaging effects on churches, larger churches need to be careful in their hiring practices by looking for signs of narcissism and holding their leadership accountable for godly behavior.
Research Interests:
Although wavering personal commitment to a local body of believers has been a concern of Christian leaders since New Testament times, increasing individualism and other cultural changes are affecting individual Christians’ commitment to... more
Although wavering personal commitment to a local body of believers has been a concern of Christian leaders since New Testament times, increasing individualism and other cultural changes are affecting individual Christians’ commitment to their churches in new ways. This study examines church commitment using the multidimensional construct of organizational commitment to examine characteristics of churches, church leaders, and church members that may influence such commitment. Specifically, church size, perceptions of pastoral humility, church tenure (the time one has attended a church), age, and gender are considered as possible predictors of church commitment. This commitment is measured as affective commitment (one’s emotional attachment to the church), continuation commitment (the felt-need to stay at the church), and normative commitment (one’s belief that staying at the church is the right thing to do). In a study of evangelical Christians in the U.S. (N = 244), a regression analysis indicates that higher affective commitment is associated with perceptions of greater pastoral humility and member tenure. Continuation commitment decreases as church size goes up. Higher normative commitment is associated with perceptions of greater pastoral humility, smaller churches, and longer member tenure. Overall, higher church commitment is best predicted by perceptions of pastoral humility, then by tenure and church size, with larger churches having less committed attenders. No significant differences in church commitment were associated with age or gender.
Research Interests:
Organizational Commitment, Protestantism, Pastoral Theology, Church, Megachurches, and 13 moreChurch planting, Pastoral Care and Counselling, Church Growth, Narcissism, Missional Church Theology, Humility, Church Leadership & Ministry, Affective Commitment, Pastoral Ministry, Normative Commitment, Honesty/Humility, Church Commitment, and Church Size
This grounded theory study examines the motives for relationships between local churches and missionaries: What motivates churches to enter into a relationship with a missionary, to continue this relationship, and to end it? Similarly,... more
This grounded theory study examines the motives for relationships between local churches and missionaries: What motivates churches to enter into a relationship with a missionary, to continue this relationship, and to end it? Similarly, what motivates missionaries to begin, continue, or end relationships with a local church? We used purposive stratified sampling to select 17 missionaries and church mission leaders to interview for this study. We performed semi-structured interviews with both groups to discover their understanding of why they form, maintain, and dissolve relationships with each other. Multiple motives influenced all participants. These motives can be broadly categorized as either relationship-focused motives or task-focused motives. Furthermore, the task-focused motives can either be centered on specific goals shared by churches and missionaries (e.g., starting a reproducing church among a specific people group) or on specific processes (e.g., evangelizing or feeding the poor). Although all participants had multiple motives, each participant emphasized some motives over others. The motives present in each party influence many aspects of their relationship, including their communication, financial involvement, and the purpose of the church's short-term mission trips to the missionary's setting. In contrast to social exchange theory which provides a framework to understand conditions under which a relationship will be maintained or ended, the Multiple Motive Theory of Church and Missionary Relationships goes further; it describes specific motives that exist which influence whether a relationship begins, continues, or ends.
Research Interests:
Missiology, Motivation (Psychology), Missiology and Mission Theology, Christian Missions, Mission Studies, and 15 moreEcclesiology, Evangelicalism, Interpersonal Relationships, Evangelical Theology, Evangelical Ecclesiology, Missional Ecclesiology, Church, Motivation, Motives, Christian Mission, Missions, Missional Church Theology, Short-term missions, Mission and Evangelism, and Church Finance
Cross-cultural church planters often work with individuals from several cultures or with immigrants from one specific culture. These church planters can develop a more effective church planting strategy by understanding three models of... more
Cross-cultural church planters often work with individuals from several cultures or with immigrants from one specific culture. These church planters can develop a more effective church planting strategy by understanding three models of acculturation, the process of how individuals respond and change when coming into contact with a new culture. The melting-pot one dimensional model describes how immigrants acculturate as time progresses, from one generation to another. The two dimensional acculturation strategies model describes what can be expected to happen to members of a diaspora population due to their views of both their host and home cultures. The social identity model of acculturation predicts immigrants’ desire to be member of a group based on what group membership contributes to their identity. All three models can be used to help choose an appropriate church planting strategy according to the context.
Research Interests:
The Mum effect is the natural human reluctance to share bad news with others, due to a desire to avoid a range of negative consequences, consequences affecting both self and the recipient of the bad news. Although the gospel is good news... more
The Mum effect is the natural human reluctance to share bad news with others, due to a desire to avoid a range of negative consequences, consequences affecting both self and the recipient of the bad news. Although the gospel is good news to those who believe, it may be viewed negatively by those who do not believe. Thus, Christians may be hesitant to share the gospel because of the negative consequences associated with the Mum effect. Because of the anonymity of the internet, social media is often filled with unre-strained criticism of Christianity. This may amplify the perceived negative consequences of sharing the gospel with unbelievers. In light of this cultural evolution, found now in the global north and increasingly present in the global south, Christian leaders can lead more effective ministries by distinguishing between outreach (building relationships in a way that makes the gospel attractive), witnessing (explaining how one has experienced God), and evangelism (sharing all that is necessary to make a decision for Christ), and by ensuring that all three occur in culturally relevant ways, carried out by individuals best equipped to do each, in a way consistent with the New Testament teaching on spiritual gifts. Specifically, outreach and witnessing can be done by all Christians who interact with non-Christians, whereas evangelism may be carried out, both on the individual level and in large groups, by those who are appropriately gifted. By addressing large groups in a more impersonal way, those gifted in evangelism may reduce the negative consequences of the Mum effect and build upon the outreach and witnessing done by others.
Research Interests:
Preaching, Storytelling, Social Media, Evangelicalism, Self-presentation (Psychology), and 15 moreChristian Apologetics, Evangelical Theology, Evangelical Ecclesiology, Church, Evangelism, Church Growth, Apologetics, Evangelism and Church Growth, Evangelism and Outreach, Missional Church Theology, Social Networking & Social Media, Social Media & Internet Psychology, Mum Effect, Christian Apologetics and Preaching, and Cultural Contexts of Evangelism
Childhood sexual abuse of missionary children is a tragedy that mission organizations are seeking to prevent. A second tragedy concerns missionaries falsely accused of sexual abuse. Psychotherapy that generated false memories of sexual... more
Childhood sexual abuse of missionary children is a tragedy that mission organizations are seeking to prevent. A second tragedy concerns missionaries falsely accused of sexual abuse. Psychotherapy that generated false memories of sexual abuse was common in the 1980s and 1990s and still continues to some degree today in Christian circles. This chapter reviews scientific evidence that such false memories exist and provides guidelines that Christian organizations may use to help sort true memories of childhood sexual abuse from false memories of childhood sexual abuse.
Research Interests:
The work of urban church planters is often hindered by high levels of stress. Stress may be viewed as a process that involves stressors and an individual’s perceptions of both the level of threat and his or her ability to deal with the... more
The work of urban church planters is often hindered by high levels of stress. Stress may be viewed as a process that involves stressors and an individual’s perceptions of both the level of threat and his or her ability to deal with the threat. The long term and the short term consequences of stress can be attenuated through appropriate coping strategies such as problem solving, prayer, and seeking social support. Recent empirical evidence indicates that exposure to nature is also very effective, a strategy that might be especially beneficial to urban church planters and their ministries. Several practical applications are suggested.
Research Interests:
Theology, Missiology, Missiology and Mission Theology, Stress, Evangelicalism, and 15 morePastoral Theology, Job Stress (Psychology), Stress (Psychology), Nature, Church, Evangelism, Church planting, Mission, Missions, Christian Ministry, Missional Church Theology, Cross-cultural church planting, Church Planting Strategies, Pastoral Ministry, and Training Church Planters
Terror Management Theory seeks to explain the human motivation to find meaning in life. The theory proposes that humans experience anxiety, even terror, when faced with the reality of their own mortality. To manage this anxiety, humans... more
Terror Management Theory seeks to explain the human motivation to find meaning in life. The theory proposes that humans experience anxiety, even terror, when faced with the reality of their own mortality. To manage this anxiety, humans are motivated to adopt worldviews that indicate that they are significant (in contrast to meaningless) and that they will endure beyond death, either figuratively or literally. Global crises, such as natural disasters, terrorism, or war, make human mortality salient on a large scale. In such situations, humans are more than ever motivated to seek an afterlife, to act in a way to be remembered favorably after death, and to identify with communities that will transcend the duration of their own life. These conditions make some individuals especially open to the gospel which explains how humans can experience eternal life, how they can live righteous lives full of love, and how they can fit into both the Christian community and the Missio Dei. Missionaries should use this openness to the gospel in sensitive and loving ways to help victims of global crises discover a solution to the existential terror that they experience when facing their own mortality. The loving response of missionaries is to proclaim the Christian worldview so that people can make sense out of the crisis and respond positively to the gospel.
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One of the main functions of church leadership in the New Testament is to help people participate in ministry by serving others. However, church leaders may find it difficult to motivate lay volunteers, and even church staff, to do so.... more
One of the main functions of church leadership in the New Testament is to help people participate in ministry by serving others. However, church leaders may find it difficult to motivate lay volunteers, and even church staff, to do so. What are the factors that motivate ministry involvement? This paper examines the possible role of affective organizational commitment (the degree of emotional attachment to an organization) and work engagement (the degree to which one is immersed in and energized by one’s work) as motivating factors. A study of church members involved in ministry (N =336), including both lay volunteers and paid staff, was conducted to test whether both affective organizational commitment and work engagement predict ministry involvement. The results indicate that both organizational commitment and work engagement contribute to predicting ministry involvement of church staff and lay members. This relationship is true regardless of gender, tenure in the church, or church size. Work engagement is especially important for paid staff compared to lay volunteers. These results indicate that church leaders need to not only encourage commitment, but also to make sure that ministry is engaging and energizing for those who are serving.
Research Interests:
Organizational Behavior, Psychology, Organizational Psychology, Social Psychology, Theology, and 15 morePractical theology, Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Emerging Church, Organizational Commitment, Ecclesiology, Pastoral Theology, Volunteerism, Church, Engagement, Church Growth, Work Engagement, Christian Ministry, Church Leadership & Ministry, Pastoral Ministry, and Work Engagement/employee Engagement
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the many changes in the present socio-cultural context point to the importance of innovation in churches. A theoretical framework for understanding innovation in churches is presented, featuring 6... more
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the many changes in the present socio-cultural context point to the importance of innovation in churches. A theoretical framework for understanding innovation in churches is presented, featuring 6 key elements. These elements include the cultural context of the church and the church's target audience, a culture of innovation within the church, innovations in church programs, processes, and personnel, social capital (social ties) which permits church members to navigate the changes associated with innovation, program loss (that which is lost when programs change), and progress toward the church's goals. The church's goals and the church's context determine which innovations would be most appropriate. A culture of innovation and strong social ties permit innovations to be implemented successfully. Program losses may reflect aspects of the church's goals that are neglected when innovations are implemented.
Research Interests:
Creativity, Organizational Culture, Leadership, Culture, Management of Innovation, and 15 moreOrganizational Innovativeness, Ecclesiology, Evangelicalism, Evangelical movements, Evangelical Theology, Evangelical Ecclesiology, Missional Ecclesiology, Evangelism, Church Leadership, Worship, Church Growth, Evangelism and Church Growth, Worship & Preaching, Worship and Music, and Innovation & Change Management
Because the church is the body of Christ, research focused on evangelism and disciple-making needs to be church-based. The goal of such research is to better share God’s love to a world who does not know him by building up a collection of... more
Because the church is the body of Christ, research focused on evangelism and disciple-making needs to be church-based. The goal of such research is to better share God’s love to a world who does not know him by building up a collection of knowledge that will enable us to do so. This research may be both theological (focusing on what the Bible and other theologians have said) and scientific (focusing on collecting new data and interpreting it, especially in light of theology). Church-based scientific research may be either qualitative (exploring broad ideas and phenomena in a relatively subjective way) or quantitative (testing specific ideas by collecting data measuring the variables of interest as objectively as possible). The Great Commission Research Journal is an especially appropriate outlet for publishing such research.
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Religion, Christianity, Sociology of Religion, Social Research Methods and Methodology, Social Sciences, and 15 morePractical theology, Psychology of Religion, Preaching, Science and Religion, Ecclesiology, Church History, Evangelicalism, Evangelical movements, Evangelical Theology, Religion and Science, Evangelism, Church Growth, Christian Ministry, Pastoral Ministry, and Practical Theology
Interpersonal conflict among missionaries is a major factor contributing to missionary attrition. This paper examines two approaches to resolving conflict, one focusing on mandatory submission to authority and the other focusing on... more
Interpersonal conflict among missionaries is a major factor contributing to missionary attrition. This paper examines two approaches to resolving conflict, one focusing on mandatory submission to authority and the other focusing on fostering cooperation between the parties in conflict. Both biblical and empirical evidence suggest that cooperation is usually the best option. Although the submission approach is often viewed as biblical, it represents a shallow understanding of the complete biblical picture and a naïve and overly optimistic view of human nature. The cooperation approach better incorporates the biblical principles of servant leadership, mutual submission, and seeking one another's interests. Empirical evidence suggests that organizations such as mission agencies may be more effective if they adopt an approach fostering cooperation as an organizational norm. Research on power and its abuse may be used to motivate missionaries to voluntarily limit their hierarchical power in order to better love and serve others. Viewing conflict as a decision making process can enable missionaries and mission organizations to more effectively find ways to minister and achieve their goals, including evangelism and church planting.
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This study presents an overview of the results of empirical studies concerning diversity in work teams. Although these studies have most often been carried out in secular contexts, they support perspectives of human nature that are... more
This study presents an overview of the results of empirical studies concerning diversity in work teams. Although these studies have most often been carried out in secular contexts, they support perspectives of human nature that are consistent with the biblical themes found associated with the Tower of Babel (the Similarity/Attraction Perspective) and Paul's metaphor of the Body of Christ and spiritual gifts (the Information/Decision Making Perspective). Key concepts are explained, including the measurement of diversity and team performance, task and relationship diversity, faultlines, cultural versus non-cultural diversity, and status. When the results of the various diversity studies are combined, it appears that diversity in itself has little effect on team performance. However, under certain conditions, diversity can be very detrimental or very beneficial to team performance. These various conditions are examined in light of situations that missionary teams are likely to encounter.
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Missionaries seek to be credible to the people whom they try to influence with the message of the gospel. Although Christ first and foremost calls missionaries to be humble servants who love and serve him, empirical evidence from the... more
Missionaries seek to be credible to the people whom they try to influence with the message of the gospel. Although Christ first and foremost calls missionaries to be humble servants who love and serve him, empirical evidence from the behavioral sciences indicates that missionaries who are perceived as experts, who attract people to themselves, and, most importantly, who are trustworthy are most likely to be deemed credible. To be perceived as experts, missionaries need to demonstrate their knowledge of a topic and to speak with confidence. To be perceived as attractive to others, missionaries should have frequent contact with others, demonstrate appreciation to others, and take care with their physical appearance. To come across as trustworthy, missionaries need to demonstrate long-term integrity, trustworthiness, open communication, and concern for others.
Research Interests:
Expertise, Christian Missions, Evangelicalism, Christian Apologetics, Credibility (Psychology), and 15 moreEvangelism, Missionary, Missions, Apologetics, Evangelism and Outreach, World Missions, Attractiveness, Missionaries, Missions and Contextualization, Missionary Language Learning, Trustworthiness, Christian Apologetics and Preaching, Cross-Cultural Missions, Mission and Evangelism, and Missions and Evangelism
Interpersonal conflict surrounding church programs is a major source of distress for both pastoral staff and lay members of evangelical churches. Such conflict, when destructive, may severely hinder the achievement of program objectives.... more
Interpersonal conflict surrounding church programs is a major source of distress for both pastoral staff and lay members of evangelical churches. Such conflict, when destructive, may severely hinder the achievement of program objectives. However, conflict when managed constructively may lead to a more effective program and strengthened relationships. This empirical study seeks to understand the conditions under which program-related conflict in evangelical churches leads to detrimental outcomes and those which lead to constructive outcomes. In a role-playing, survey-based experiment of American church attenders (N = 276), participants' satisfaction with conflict outcome was measured in a scenario with various outcomes concerning their program-related goal (maintaining the starting time of a midweek children's program) and their social goals (e.g., having a better relationship with the director of the children's program, being affirmed in their Christian identity, and ensuring that decisions are made fairly). The study indicates that, in a conflict concerning a children's program, church attenders who have a salient social goal achieved, but not their program-related goal, will be more satisfied than church attenders who have their program-related goal achieved but not a salient social goal.
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Peace and Conflict Studies, Conflict, Youth Ministry, Protestantism, Conflict Management, and 15 moreEvangelicalism, Evangelical movements, Urban Ministry, Evangelical Theology, Evangelical Ecclesiology, Church, Church Leadership, Pastoral Care and Counselling, Church Growth, Christian Ministry, Missional Church Theology, Churches, Church Leadership & Ministry, Ministry of Education, and Pastoral Ministry
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of human thoughts, feelings, and the associated processes, including learning. In the past 50 years, tremendous progress has been made in understanding how people learn. These principles... more
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of human thoughts, feelings, and the associated processes, including learning. In the past 50 years, tremendous progress has been made in understanding how people learn. These principles can be used to make theological education more effective in the majority world. Missionaries and other educators can make theological education more effective by being familiar with the concepts of automatic and effortful processing, the spacing effect, and the testing effect. Since the use of technology is rapidly evolving in many parts of the world, cognitive science also provides insights into some of the educational pitfalls associated with technology. Technology-based distraction in the classroom prevents effortful processing from occurring. Outside of the classroom, technology may make time-management more difficult, leading to poor study habits. An inappropriate use of multimedia in the classroom may impede learning rather than enhance it. Increasing use of technology in the majority world is often accompanied by economic growth which may also impact theological education.
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Missionary fathers are sometimes better equipped to undertake the missionary task than to be successful husbands and fathers in stressful, cross-cultural contexts. This paper examines several missiological principles which are congruent... more
Missionary fathers are sometimes better equipped to undertake the missionary task than to be successful husbands and fathers in stressful, cross-cultural contexts. This paper examines several missiological principles which are congruent with family systems theory that can help missionary fathers ensure the success of their family life.
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The relationship between a career missionary and a local church should enable each member in the relationship to better accomplish the purposes to which God has called each one. However, the missionary-church relationship can be very... more
The relationship between a career missionary and a local church should enable each member in the relationship to better accomplish the purposes to which God has called each one. However, the missionary-church relationship can be very complex, even confusing. The concepts of exchange relationships (where relationship members are expected to provide comparable benefits to each other) and communal relationships (where benefits are given to the one member without expectations of receiving something of equal value in response) provides a framework for understanding some of the dynamics of missionary-church relationships. Although a communal relationship may be a biblically-based goal, many aspects of missionary-church relationships can be understood as exchange relationships, which are also modeled and encouraged in the Bible. Ensuring that each member benefits from this relationship may make the relationship more stable during times of transition and distress.
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Media richness, the degree to which a specific media transmits information in multiple channels, is an important concept as the number of available multimedia communication methods increases regularly. Individuals differ in their... more
Media richness, the degree to which a specific media transmits information in multiple channels, is an important concept as the number of available multimedia communication methods increases regularly. Individuals differ in their preferences for media richness which may influence their choice of communication multimedia in a given situation. These preferences can influence how successful their communication efforts will be. This exploratory study of 299 adults (ages 16–84) with at least a basic ability to compute examines the relationship between multimedia preference and age, gender, and personality traits. Males and people with higher levels of extraversion and agreeableness were found to have a higher preference for media richness. Age was not a significant predictor of media richness preference.
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Organizational Behavior, Personality Psychology, Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Communication, and 15 moreMedia Studies, New Media, Social Sciences, Personality, Multimedia, Gender, Multimedia Communications, Electronics and communication, Individual Differences, Texting, Personality Traits, Media Richness, Telephone, Email use, and Media Richness Theory
Among the consequences of conflicts between missionaries are a reduction in ministry effectiveness and an increase in the likelihood of missionary attrition. In contrast to perspectives of conflict management in Christian contexts which... more
Among the consequences of conflicts between missionaries are a reduction in ministry effectiveness and an increase in the likelihood of missionary attrition. In contrast to perspectives of conflict management in Christian contexts which tend to focus on power (condemning the other party as sinful, enforcing submission to the hierarchical superior, or separation of the conflicting parties), the dual concern model of conflict management views conflict as an opportunity to understand each party's concerns so that the two parties may cooperate and find solutions that correspond to the interests of both parties (Phil. 2:4). The dual concern model also predicts conflict behaviors (i.e., forcing, submission, or avoidance) when the interests of both parties are not considered. A qualitative analysis of data collected from present and former missionaries describing power issues (N = 34) indicates that the dual concern model of conflict management can be used to predict conflict behaviors and outcomes, even when conflicts are initially framed in terms of power. Recommendations for increasing cooperation between missionaries include better training in conflict management, the creation of mediation systems, and the development of an organizational culture that promotes cooperation.
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In this overview of what psychological science has discovered about goal setting, we will see that goal setting tends to make people more productive. This essay examines the conditions under which goal setting is most effective, as well... more
In this overview of what psychological science has discovered about goal setting, we will see that goal setting tends to make people more productive. This essay examines the conditions under which goal setting is most effective, as well as the situations where goal setting can be dangerous. Studies of goal-setting theory have found that job performance increases when people have challenging but specific performance goals. The mechanisms that cause goal setting to lead to greater effectiveness are just as present in Christian ministry as in any other kind of work. Also the dangers associated with goal setting are especially relevant in Christian contexts.
Key Words: ability, accountability, church planting, dangers in goal-setting, effectiveness, effort, evangelization, feedback, formulation, goal commitment, goal ownership, goal-setting theory, job performance, language-learning, motivation, outcome expectancies, performance, planning, psychological science, rewards, self-efficacy, strategy, team context, training.
Key Words: ability, accountability, church planting, dangers in goal-setting, effectiveness, effort, evangelization, feedback, formulation, goal commitment, goal ownership, goal-setting theory, job performance, language-learning, motivation, outcome expectancies, performance, planning, psychological science, rewards, self-efficacy, strategy, team context, training.
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The focus of much missionary work concerns sharing the gospel with others so that they may put their faith in Jesus Christ. However, members of some cultures are much more resistant to this than are members of other cultures. The concept... more
The focus of much missionary work concerns sharing the gospel with others so that they may put their faith in Jesus Christ. However, members of some cultures are much more resistant to this than are members of other cultures. The concept of cultural tightness-looseness helps explain why some cultures are more closed to the gospel than are others. Tight cultures, in contrast to loose cultures, have strong social norms, violations of which are met with intense sanctions. Numerous recent studies reveal the antecedents, consequences, and the geographical distribution of cultural tightness-looseness. There are important missiological implications at the societal level, the individual level, and the organizational level when missionaries work in host cultures which are tighter than their home cultures. Understanding these implications can help the missionary better love and respond to the needs of members of their host culture.
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Cultural Studies, Social Psychology, Social Sciences, Theology, Missiology, and 15 moreCultural Theory, Missiology and Mission Theology, Biblical Studies, Culture, Stress, Biblical Theology, Evangelicalism, Church, Evangelism, Church planting, Uncertainty, Missions, Missional Church Theology, Geert Hofstede’s “Model of Cultural Dimensions”, and Contextualization
The choice of music, an essential element of worship and church life, must be addressed in cross-cultural church planting contexts. As cultures evolve, church planters are faced with choices about musical styles that may lead to... more
The choice of music, an essential element of worship and church life, must be addressed in cross-cultural church planting contexts. As cultures evolve, church planters are faced with choices about musical styles that may lead to interpersonal conflicts within the church. The purpose of this study is to empirically examine factors that may enable cross-cultural church planters to constructively manage music-related conflicts when they arise. Members of church plants, like all people, have various goals when entering into such conflicts. They are concerned about the content of the conflict (i.e., the musical style) and thus have content goals. They are also concerned about social elements of the conflict (e.g., their relationships, their identity and values, and the process used to resolve the conflict) and thus have social goals. The results of this study of 276 evangelical Christians indicate that achieving both content goals and social goals contributes to overall satisfaction across various conflict outcomes. Moreover, the evidence indicates that achieving only a social goal leads to greater satisfaction with the conflict outcome than achieving only the content goal in music-related conflict. This implies that church planters, when faced with music-related conflict, should strive to meet the gospel-congruent social goals of people with whom they are in conflict in order to maximize satisfaction with the conflict outcome.
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The role of hypotheses is central both in church-related research and in Christian ministry. Hypotheses guide the collection of data to determine what is true in research and provide tentative guidelines for action in ministry, even when... more
The role of hypotheses is central both in church-related research and in Christian ministry. Hypotheses guide the collection of data to determine what is true in research and provide tentative guidelines for action in ministry, even when they are not yet confirmed. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous research and provide clear potential solutions to research problems. They succinctly posit a testable relationship between two or more variables. Such hypotheses can be tested through appropriately designed research. Statistical techniques can indicate to what degree the evidence collected supports the hypotheses. In church-based research, hypotheses to be examined can come from a body of literature (e.g., the Church Growth Movement), a practitioner’s experience, theories from other domains (e.g., the Social Brain Hypothesis; Dunbar, 1993), and modeling phenomena using analogies (e.g., modeling the church lifecycle as an epidemic; Hayward, 2015, 2018).
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Leaders and attenders of many churches may feel a tension between contemporary values of Western culture and more conservative values that have traditionally been held by many churches. Discrepancies in values may cause some people to... more
Leaders and attenders of many churches may feel a tension between contemporary values of Western culture and more conservative values that have traditionally been held by many churches. Discrepancies in values may cause some people to leave their churches. This paper examines the relationship between values congruence (between church attenders and their churches) and organizational commitment , specifically, affective organizational commitment which measures one's emotional attachment to an organization (i.e., their church). In this study, church attenders (N = 252) provided information about themselves (concerning their personal values, their affective organizational commitment to their church, and demographics) and information about their churches (concerning the church's values and size). The values measured included both behavioral (tolerance of homosexuality) and cognitive (agreement with evangelical doctrine) aspects. The results indicate that affective organizational commitment to one's church is positively correlated with values congruence; no evidence was found that affective organizational commitment was correlated to the other variables measured. Further exploratory analyses indicated that this relationship between values congruence and affective organizational commitment varied with both the values of the church and the size of the church. In more conservative churches and in smaller churches, values congruence was more strongly related to affective organizational commitment than in more liberal churches and larger churches.
Research Interests:
Religion, Christianity, Sociology of Religion, Theology, Missiology, and 13 morePractical theology, Values, Psychology of Religion, Contemporary Christianity, Missiology and Mission Theology, Evangelicalism, Church, Evangelism, Church planting, Church Growth, Evangelism and Church Growth, Person Organization Fit, and Practical Theology
Leaders and attenders of many churches may feel a tension between contemporary values of Western culture and more conservative values that have traditionally been held by many churches. Discrepancies in values may cause some people to... more
Leaders and attenders of many churches may feel a tension between contemporary values of Western culture and more conservative values that have traditionally been held by many churches. Discrepancies in values may cause some people to leave their churches. This paper examines the relationship between values congruence (between church attenders and their churches) and organizational commitment, specifically, affective organizational commitment which measures one's emotional attachment to an organization (i.e., their church). In this study, church attenders (N = 252) provided information about themselves (concerning their personal values, their affective organizational commitment to their church, and demographics) and information about their churches (concerning the church's values and size). The values measured included both behavioral (tolerance of homosexuality) and cognitive (agreement with evangelical doctrine) aspects. The results indicate that affective organizational commitment to one's church is positively correlated with values congruence; no evidence was found that affective organizational commitment was correlated to the other variables measured. Further exploratory analyses indicated that this relationship between values congruence and affective organizational commitment varied with both the values of the church and the size of the church. In more conservative churches and in smaller churches, values congruence was more strongly related to affective organizational commitment than in more liberal churches and larger churches.
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Effective ways of conflict management must be found for missionaries when no trusted mediator in the region is available. Home office management or leaders in other regions can intervene through context rich media, such as the telephone... more
Effective ways of conflict management must be found for missionaries when no trusted mediator in the region is available. Home office management or leaders in other regions can intervene through context rich media, such as the telephone and video conferencing, to provide help. Intervention through context poor media, such as email, is much less likely to succeed. Effective managerial intervention involving interaction with each party can lead to reframing the conflict into an opportunity to cooperate and find mutually beneficial solutions. The manager can present information, ask questions, and help the parties see that resolution is possible by addressing key issues such as the relative importance of the consequences, the potential win-win nature of the solution, each party’s sense of victimization, and the certainty of continued interaction in the relationship.
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“Co-operation and the Promotion of Unity” was one the major themes addressed at Edinburgh 1910. The goal was increased cooperation among Christian organizations that would lead to greater ministry effectiveness. Five group processes are... more
“Co-operation and the Promotion of Unity” was one the major themes addressed at Edinburgh 1910. The goal was increased cooperation among Christian organizations that would lead to greater ministry effectiveness. Five group processes are presented in light of empirical studies demonstrating their ability to increase group performance: 1) Trust (reciprocal beliefs that the one party will promote the well being of another; 2) Constructive conflict (objective consideration and evaluation of various ways of accomplishing a common goal); 3) Decision commitment (beliefs held by all parties concerning the importance of following through on group decisions); 4) Accountability (the expectation that a party may be called to justify its beliefs and actions to other parties and to accept the consequences); and 5) Group goals (beliefs held by all parties concerning desired outcomes). The application of these processes to Christian organizations desiring to grow in Christian cooperation and ministry effectiveness is discussed.
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Both the emotion and expression of gratitude produce benefits for the person who is thankful, as well as the person being thanked. This study explores the degree to which various forms of gratitude expression are appreciated by those... more
Both the emotion and expression of gratitude produce benefits for the person who is thankful, as well as the person being thanked. This study explores the degree to which various forms of gratitude expression are appreciated by those being thanked. In a survey-based study (N=361), costly, private expressions of gratitude were more appreciated by people being thanked than less costly, public expressions. Higher levels of the HEXACO personality traits of conscientiousness and emotionality increased the degree to which people appreciated being thanked. Lower honesty-humility (e.g., narcissism) predicted a greater appreciation of receiving public expressions of gratitude while higher honesty-humility predicted a greater appreciation of receiving private expressions of gratitude. This information can be used by Christian leaders to help equip others for ministry.
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Christianity, Personality Psychology, Practical theology, Leadership, Narcissism (Psychology), and 15 morePastoral Theology, Christian Spirituality, Gratitude, Church, Christian Leadership, Pastoral Care, Church Leadership, Pastoral Care and Counselling, Church Growth, Christian Ministry, Church Leadership & Ministry, Christian Studies, Pastoral Ministry, Expressing Gratitude and Appreciation and Greeting, and Theology and Christian Ministry
Organizational justice is the perception that one is being treated fairly in an organization, especially by those who hold power, such as the leaders within a church, both lay and staff. These perceptions of fairness (or lack of fairness)... more
Organizational justice is the perception that one is being treated fairly in an organization, especially by those who hold power, such as the leaders within a church, both lay and staff. These perceptions of fairness (or lack of fairness) will influence church members' commitment to, satisfaction with, and involvement in their church, as well as their psychological and spiritual well-being. Young churches are especially susceptible to the consequences of violations of organizational justice because young churches experience frequent changes in programs and delegation of responsibilities. Leaders of young churches should seek to maximize organizational justice, grounded in biblical principles, in order to have a healthy, functional body of believers who work together to serve God. These leaders need to respond to justice violations with humility, managing any conflicts that occur in effective and constructive ways. They must also work to prevent organizational justice violations in young churches from becoming engrained in the churches' culture.
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Organizational Behavior, Christianity, Organizational Psychology, Missiology, Leadership, and 15 moreIndustrial and Organizational Psychology, Missiology and Mission Theology, Organizational Justice, Justice, Evangelicalism, Evangelical Theology, Church, Evangelism, Christian Leadership, Church planting, Church Growth, Missions, Evangelism and Church Growth, Missional Church Theology, and Church Leadership & Ministry
Church planters and missionaries in France may not have any idea how important the early religious history of the country is to modern day residents. This survey of France’s religious history up to the year 1000 A.D. demonstrates that... more
Church planters and missionaries in France may not have any idea how important the early religious history of the country is to modern day residents. This survey of France’s religious history up to the year 1000 A.D. demonstrates that many of the beliefs that developed during this time are still quite relevant to twenty-first century France. By understanding these various currants, pastors and missionaries can build upon felt-needs experienced by the French in order to more effectively proclaim the gospel in a persuasive manner.
Writing from an evangelical perspective, David R. Dunaetz shares from his research and his ministry experiences from 17 years of church planting in France. He and his wife Karen started two churches in the eastern suburbs of Paris and helped several others move from missionary dependence to being fully self-supporting churches.
Writing from an evangelical perspective, David R. Dunaetz shares from his research and his ministry experiences from 17 years of church planting in France. He and his wife Karen started two churches in the eastern suburbs of Paris and helped several others move from missionary dependence to being fully self-supporting churches.
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Voluntary organizations, which differ from other organizations in the way they reward and retain members, can easily suffer setbacks from a loss of membership. Poorly managed conflict is often a source of attrition. This study examined... more
Voluntary organizations, which differ from other organizations in the way they reward and retain members, can easily suffer setbacks from a loss of membership. Poorly managed conflict is often a source of attrition. This study examined the relationship between personality, conflict styles, and membership duration of people (N = 431) who attend or have attended churches (primarily Protestant churches), the most common form of voluntary association in America. Most of the Big 5 personality traits significantly predicted conflict styles and/or membership duration. Extraversion predicted higher preferences for collaboration and lower preferences for avoidance. Agreeableness predicted higher preferences for collaboration and accommodation, lower preferences for competition, and longer membership durations. Conscientiousness predicted higher preferences for collaboration and lower preferences for avoidance. Neuroticism predicted higher preferences for avoidance and lower preferences for collaboration and competition. Openness predicted shorter membership durations. The relationships between conflict styles and membership duration were less clear.
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As a supplement to traditional textbooks on research methods in psychology and other social sciences, this book provides a series of outlines, discussion questions, and activities for classroom use. Because much real-world research is... more
As a supplement to traditional textbooks on research methods in psychology and other social sciences, this book provides a series of outlines, discussion questions, and activities for classroom use. Because much real-world research is done in organizational contexts, survey applications are emphasized. The book is written from a Christian point of view, enabling and encouraging students to integrate biblical concepts concerning ethics and purpose into their research practices.
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Interpersonal conflict, a process involving perceptions of differences and opposition, is often an undesired but inevitable consequence of interaction between individuals. Multiple goals (internal representations of desired states) can be... more
Interpersonal conflict, a process involving perceptions of differences and opposition, is often an undesired but inevitable consequence of interaction between individuals. Multiple goals (internal representations of desired states) can be present in interpersonal conflict. Past studies identify four major categories of conflict-related goals: content goals, relationship goals, identity goals, and process goals; the last three may be classified together as social goals. Several hypotheses were tested in an online experiment in which adult members of evangelical churches (N = 276) imagined themselves in various church-related conflict situations. Participants were assigned to one of two conditions; in one condition, participants read scenarios where their content goals were achieved and in the other condition, participants read scenarios where their content goals were not achieved. Each participant read a series of three scenarios involving the different types of social goals. For each of the three scenarios, they imagined how satisfied they would be with two different outcomes. In the first outcome, in addition to achieving or not achieving their content goal (depending on the condition), they did not achieve the social goal that was made salient (e.g., the relationship is damaged or they lose face); in the second outcome, they achieved this social goal. In addition, participants completed individual difference measures of dominance, sociability, face threat sensitivity, and justice sensitivity. This study found support for the hypothesis that the achievement of each type of conflict-related goal leads to greater satisfaction with the conflict outcome than not achieving the goal. It also found support for the hypothesis
that the achievement of two conflict-related goals (specifically, a content goal and a social goal) interact to lead to greater satisfaction with the conflict outcome beyond the main effects of achieving each goal individually. Additionally, this study tested hypotheses that individual differences (dominance, sociability, face threat sensitivity, and justice sensitivity) moderate the relationship between conflict-related goal achievement and conflict outcome satisfaction. Support was only found for the hypothesis that individuals higher in sociability report greater differences in satisfaction when their relationship goals are achieved (relative to not achieved) than those who score lower in sociability. The results imply that, when both a content goal and a social goal are present, disputants are especially satisfied when both goals are achieved. Exploratory analyses also indicated females, younger adults, and people with greater church involvement responded more strongly to achieving goals than males, older adults, and those with less church involvement. This information can be used by disputants, negotiators, and mediators who are concerned about maximizing joint outcomes.
that the achievement of two conflict-related goals (specifically, a content goal and a social goal) interact to lead to greater satisfaction with the conflict outcome beyond the main effects of achieving each goal individually. Additionally, this study tested hypotheses that individual differences (dominance, sociability, face threat sensitivity, and justice sensitivity) moderate the relationship between conflict-related goal achievement and conflict outcome satisfaction. Support was only found for the hypothesis that individuals higher in sociability report greater differences in satisfaction when their relationship goals are achieved (relative to not achieved) than those who score lower in sociability. The results imply that, when both a content goal and a social goal are present, disputants are especially satisfied when both goals are achieved. Exploratory analyses also indicated females, younger adults, and people with greater church involvement responded more strongly to achieving goals than males, older adults, and those with less church involvement. This information can be used by disputants, negotiators, and mediators who are concerned about maximizing joint outcomes.
Research Interests:
Conflict, a process involving perceptions of differences and opposition, is often an undesired but inevitable consequence of social interaction. This review describes the various goals (internal representations of desired states) that can... more
Conflict, a process involving perceptions of differences and opposition, is often an undesired but inevitable consequence of social interaction. This review describes the various goals (internal representations of desired states) that can be present in interpersonal conflict. Several streams of research are examined: conflict motivational models which examine the conflicting parties' motives, conflict types which classify conflicts by the parties' conscious focus, and desired outcome models which seek to identify what the parties in a conflict desire to happen. An integrative summary of these streams of research identifies four major categories of conflict goals: content goals, relationship goals, identity goals, and process goals. Further research is needed to clarify the nature of these goals, as well increase our understanding of the relationship between conflict goals, conflict outcomes, and conflict behavior in various contexts. Such research may lead to more constructive conflict management and more satisfying conflict resolution.
Research Interests:
Organizational Behavior, Organizational Psychology, Social Psychology, Self and Identity, Peace and Conflict Studies, and 13 moreSocial Sciences, Social Identity, Motivation (Psychology), Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Conflict, Personal Relationships, Identity (Culture), Conflict Resolution, Conflict Management, Identity, Motivation, Social Conflict, and Goals
This meta-analysis of six studies demonstrates that preferred conflict styles are all predicted by personality traits of the Big Five framework. Collaboration is predicted by high extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and... more
This meta-analysis of six studies demonstrates that preferred conflict styles are all predicted by personality traits of the Big Five framework. Collaboration is predicted by high extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and conscientiousness and by low neuroticism. Competition is predicted by high extraversion and openness in younger adults and by low agreeableness in older adults. Avoidance is predicted by low extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness and by high neuroticism and agreeableness. Accommodation is predicted by high agreeableness and perhaps low extraversion. In addition, the predictive ability of conscientiousness for collaboration and avoidance is stronger in older adult populations than in younger adult populations.