Abstract
Beginning with an analysis of the debate on the usefulness of the concepts of ‘Americanization’ and ‘Westernization’, this essay reviews the recent research on the European-American relationship during the Cold War that has dealt with the cultural impact of the United States upon Europe. The second half is devoted to a discussion of relevant work on this subject in the fields of economic and business history. Overall, the article tries to bring out that those who have applied the concept of ‘Americanization’ to their research on cultural and/or economic history have been well aware of the complexities of trans-Atlantic relations in this period, whether they were viewed as a two-way exchange or as a process of circulation.
Notes
[2] CitationStead, Americanization of the World. This article is not concerned with the domestic Americanization movement of the early twentieth century and the question of the integration of immigrant populations into the United States.
[9] CitationJarausch and Siegrist, eds., Amerikanisierung und Sowjetisierung; CitationMarkovits, Uncouth Nation; CitationStephan, ed., Americanization and Anti-Americanism; CitationRevel, Anti-Americanism; CitationHollander, ed., Understanding Anti-Americanism; CitationRoger, The American Enemy; CitationBehrends, von Klimo, and Poutrus, eds., Antiamerikanismus im 20. Jahrhundert (with articles on Eastern Europe developments); CitationPells, Not Like Us; CitationBarjot and Réveillard, eds., L'américanisation; CitationJudt and Lacorne, eds., With Us or Against Us; CitationMcPherson, ed., Anti-Americanism in Latin America and the Caribbean.
[13] Short summary of the concept in CitationJoll, Gramsci, 88–104. Mention should be made here of the concept, used by some scholars, of the ‘self-Americanization’ of the Europeans, but it seems to me that it comes close to what Gramsci meant when he talked of the cultural hegemony of the bourgeoisie and its power over the working class. The theme of culture in international relations is also taken up by CitationGienow-Hecht and Schumacher, eds., Culture and International History.
[14] CitationDe Grazia, Irresistible Empire; CitationLundestad, ‘Empire’ by Integration; CitationSchmidt, ‘Civil Empire by Co-Optation’; CitationScott-Smith, Networks of Empire. This may also explain why the concept of ‘encounter’ (Begegnung), for a while also popular in a non-Western context, came under criticism because it underestimated the frequently very violent nature of the European/Western expansion into other societies. For an application of Begegnung in a European–American cultural context see CitationPlé, Wissenschaft und säkulare Mission; Joseph et al., eds, Close Encounters.
[18] CitationSaunders, Cultural Cold War; CitationWilford, Mighty Wurlitzer. See also the studies cited in note 9; CitationArmstrong, ‘Cultural Cold War in Korea’; CitationHixson, Parting the Curtain; CitationCorbin, L'image de l'Europe; CitationRichmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War; CitationRichmond, Practicing Public Diplomacy; CitationCull, Cold War and the United States Information Agency; CitationGalle, RIAS Berlin; CitationCaute, Dancer Defects; CitationBelmonte, Selling America; CitationMastrogregori, ed., Citation Studi sul ‘Congress for Cultural Freedom’; Scott-Smith, The Politics of Apolitical Culture .
[25] On visual arts: CitationLenz, ‘Refractions of Modernity’; CitationRuby, ‘Fascination, Ignorance and Rejection’; CitationCuriel et al., eds., Arte, Historia e Idenditad en America; CitationSandler, The Confusion Era. On literature: CitationBrockmann, German Literary Culture; on classical music: CitationMonod, Settling Scores; on science: CitationKrige, American Hegemony; on architecture and design: see note 53 below; on modern dance: see note 54 below.
[45] CitationKipping and Bjarnar, eds., Americanisation of European Business; CitationGourvish and Tiratsoo, eds., Missionaries and Managers; CitationMcKenna, World's Newest Profession; CitationDjelic, Exporting the American Model; CitationKipping and Engwall, eds., Management Consulting. CitationKudo, Kipping and Schröter, eds., German and Japanese Business; CitationSaito, ‘Americanization and Postwar Japanese Management’. However, there was some technology transfer from East to West, i.e., from occupied Germany to Western Europe and the US. See CitationJudt and Ciesla, eds., Technology Transfer out of Germany.
[46] CitationCohen, A Consumers' Republic; CitationStrasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed; CitationStrasser et al., eds., Getting and Spending; CitationRioux and Sirinelli, eds., La culture de masse; CitationBerghoff, ed., Konsumpolitik; CitationWalter, ed., Geschichte des Konsums; CitationWildt, ‘Plurality of Taste’; CitationCarter, How German Is She?; CitationSiegrist et al., eds., Europäische Konsumgeschichte; CitationCrew, ed., Consuming Germany.
[47] CitationOldenziel and Zachmann, eds., Cold War Kitchen; CitationCastillo, ‘Domesticating the Cold War’; CitationSchindelbeck, Marken, Moden und Kampagnen; CitationTiersten, Marianne in the Market; CitationVeszelits, Neckermanns; CitationKleinschmidt and Triebel, eds., Marketing; CitationWiesen, ‘Miracles for Sale’; CitationSwett et al., eds., Selling Modernity.
[61] In a different way, CitationJessica Gienow-Hecht tried to move away from the United States as the centre of gravity in her Decentering America. Mention should finally also be made of the concept of a histoire croisée that CitationMichael Werner and Bénédicte Zimmermann at EHESS in Paris have put forward. Interested in processes of constant interaction and interrelation, they stress the fluidity of national categories and advocate a transnational history that is multi-perspectival – one that looks for the ‘crossings’ of dynamic and often contradictory developments beyond a bilateralism.
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