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{{Short description|Yellow organic pigment created by plants}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{chembox
{{Chembox
| verifiedrevid = 451675803
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 457657742
| ImageFile = Luteine - Lutein.svg
| ImageSize = 250px 300px
| ImageFile1 = Lutein molecule spacefill.png
| IUPACName = β,ε-carotene-3,3'-diol
| ImageSize1 = 300
| OtherNames = Luteine; ''trans''-lutein; 4-​[18-​(4-​Hydroxy-​2,6,6-​trimethyl-​1-​cyclohexenyl)-​3,7,12,16-​tetramethyloctadeca-​1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17-​nonaenyl]-​3,5,5-​trimethyl-​cyclohex-​2-​en-​1-​ol
| ImageAlt1 = Space-filling model of lutein
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
| IUPACName = (3''R'',6''R'',3{{prime}}''R'')-β,ε-Carotene-3,3{{prime}}-diol
| SystematicName = (1''R'',4''R'')-4-{(1''E'',3''E'',5''E'',7''E'',9''E'',11''E'',13''E'',15''E'',17''E'')-18-[(4''R'')-4-Hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-en-1-yl]-3,7,12,16-tetramethyloctadeca-1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17-nonaen-1-yl}-3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex-2-en-1-ol
| OtherNames = {{Unbulleted list
| Luteine
| ''trans''-Lutein
| Xanthophyll
}}
|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers
| Abbreviations =
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
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| CASNo = 127-40-2
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| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 173929
| PubChem = 5281243
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| UNII = X72A60C9MT
| SMILES = CC1=C(C(C[C@@H](C1)O)(C)C)/C=C/C(=C/C=C/C(=C/C=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/C=C(\C)/C=C/[C@H]2C(=C[C@@H](CC2(C)C)O)C)/C)/C
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|Section2={{Chembox Properties
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| C=40 | H=56 | O=2
| ATC_Supplemental =}}
| MolarMass = 568.871 g/mol
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
| Appearance = Red-orange crystalline solid
|C=40|H=56|O=2
| MolarMass =568.871 g/mol
| Appearance =Red-orange crystalline solid
| Density =
| MeltingPtC = 190
| MeltingPt = 190 °C<ref name="Ref_">[http://www.carl-roth.de/jsp/de-de/sdpdf/5671.PDF ''MSDS at Carl Roth (Lutein Rotichrom, German)''.]</ref>
| MeltingPt_ref =<ref name="ref_b">[http://www.carl-roth.de/jsp/de-de/sdpdf/5671.PDF ''MSDS at Carl Roth (Lutein Rotichrom, German)''.]</ref>
| Melting_notes =
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| Solubility = Insoluble
| SolubleOther = Soluble
| Solvent = fats
| pKa =
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}}
 
'''Lutein''' ({{ pron IPAc-en| ˈluːti.ɨn}} or {{IPA ˈ|lj|uː|t|i|ᵻ|n|,_|- en| ˈluːtiːn t| iː|n}} , ;<ref name="Ref_a"> Merriam-Webster' [http://www.dictionary.com/browse/lutein?s =t Online Dictionary "Lutein"], OED<!--the [[Random OED House was Webster's not Unabridged converted properly--> Dictionary]].</ref> from [[Latin]] ''luteus'' meaning "yellow") is a [[xanthophyll]] and one of 600 known naturally occurring [[carotenoid]]s. Lutein is synthesized only by plants , and like other xanthophylls is found in high quantities in [[green leafy vegetable]]s such as [[spinach ]], [[kale]] and [[ kale yellow carrot]] s. In green plants, xanthophylls act to modulate light energy and serve as [[non-photochemical quenching]] agents to deal with triplet chlorophyll , (an excited form of chlorophyll ), which is overproduced at very high light levels , during photosynthesis. See [[xanthophyll cycle]] for this topic.
 
Animals obtain lutein by ingesting plants.<ref name="lpi">{{cite web |title=Carotenoids |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/carotenoids |publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis|access-date=10 August 2017 |date=July 2016}}</ref> In the human [[retina]], lutein is absorbed from blood specifically into the [[macula of retina|macula lutea]],<ref name="prer">{{cite journal |pmc=4698241 |year=2015 |last1=Bernstein |first1=P. S. |title=Lutein, Zeaxanthin, and ''meso''-Zeaxanthin: The Basic and Clinical Science Underlying Carotenoid-based Nutritional Interventions against Ocular Disease |journal=Progress in Retinal and Eye Research |volume=50 |pages=34–66 |last2=Li |first2=B |last3=Vachali |first3=P. P. |last4=Gorusupudi |first4=A |last5=Shyam |first5=R |last6=Henriksen |first6=B. S. |last7=Nolan |first7=J. M. |doi=10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.10.003 |pmid=26541886}}</ref> although its precise role in the body is unknown.<ref name=lpi/> Lutein is also found in egg yolks and animal fats.
Lutein is obtained by animals directly or indirectly, from plants. Lutein is apparently employed by animals as an [[antioxidant]] and for blue light absorption. Lutein is found in egg yolks and animal fats. In addition to coloring yolks, lutein causes the yellow color of chicken skin and fat, and is used in chicken feed for this purpose. The human retina accumulates [[lutein]] and [[zeaxanthin]]. The latter predominates at the [[macula lutea]] while lutein predominates elsewhere in the retina. There, it may serve to protect the retina from the ionizing effect of blue light.<ref name="Ref_b">[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/lutein Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary]</ref>
 
Lutein is [[isomer]]ic with [[zeaxanthin]], differing only in the placement of one double bond. Lutein and zeaxanthin can be interconverted in the body through an intermediate called [[meso-zeaxanthin|''meso''-zeaxanthin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krinksy |first1=Norman |last2=Landrum |first2=John |last3=Bone |first3=Richard |title=Biological Mechanisms of the Protective Role of Lutein and Zeaxanthin in the Eye |journal=Annual Review of Nutrition |date=2003 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=171–201 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nutr.23.011702.073307 |pmid=12626691}}</ref> The principal natural [[stereoisomer]] of lutein is [[Chirality (chemistry)#By configuration: R- and S-|(3''R'',3{{prime}}''R'',6{{prime}}''R'')]]-''beta'',''epsilon''-carotene-3,3{{prime}}-diol. Lutein is a [[lipophilic]] molecule and is generally insoluble in water. The presence of the long [[chromophore]] of conjugated double bonds ([[polyene]] chain) provides the distinctive light-absorbing properties. The polyene chain is susceptible to oxidative degradation by light or heat and is chemically unstable in acids.
The principal natural [[stereoisomer]] of lutein is [[Chirality_(chemistry)#By_configuration:_R-_and_S-|(3''R'',3&prime;''R'',6&prime;''R'')]]-''beta'',''epsilon''-carotene-3,3&prime;-diol.
Lutein is a [[lipophilic]] molecule and is generally insoluble in water. The presence of the long [[chromophore]] of conjugated double bonds ([[polyene]] chain) provides the distinctive light-absorbing properties. The polyene chain is susceptible to oxidative degradation by light or heat and is chemically unstable in acids.
 
Lutein is present in plants as fatty-acid esters [[ester]]s, with one or two fatty acids bound to the two hydroxyl-groups. For this reason, [[saponification]] (de- esterfication esterification) of lutein [[esters ]] to yield free lutein may yield lutein in any ratio from 1:1 to 1:2 molar ratio with the saponifying fatty acid.
 
Lutein is [[isomer]]ic with [[zeaxanthin]], differing only in the placement of one double bond.
 
==As a pigment==
This [[xanthophyll]], like its sister compound [[zeaxanthin]], has primarily been used in food and supplement manufacturing as a natural colorant due to its [[orange yellow-red ]] [[color ]]. <ref name=lpi/><ref>{{cite web |title=Maintaining color stability |url=https://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/articles/2006/08/maintaining-color-stability.aspx |publisher=Natural Products Insider, Informa Exhibitions, LLC |access-date=10 August 2017 |date=1 August 2006 |archive-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810211741/https://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/articles/2006/08/maintaining-color-stability.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> Lutein absorbs [[blue]] light and therefore appears [[yellow]] at low concentrations and orange-red at high concentrations.
 
Many songbirds (like [[golden oriole]], [[evening grosbeak]], [[American yellow warbler|yellow warbler]], [[common yellowthroat]] and [[Cissa (genus)|Javan green magpies]], but not [[American goldfinch]] or yellow [[domestic canary|canaries]]<ref>Mary E. Rawles, "The Integumentary System", in A. J. Marshall (ed.), 2012, "Biology and Comparative Physiology of Birds", vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QBzgBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA220 p. 220]. {{ISBN|9781483263793}}.</ref>) deposit lutein obtained from the diet into growing tissues to color their feathers.<ref name="pmid12892761">{{cite journal |vauthors=McGraw KJ, Beebee MD, Hill GE, Parker RS |title=Lutein-based plumage coloration in songbirds is a consequence of selective pigment incorporation into feathers |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology |volume=135 |issue=4 |pages=689–96 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12892761 |doi=10.1016/S1096-4959(03)00164-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/sold_for_a_song |title=Sold for a song: The forest birds captured for their tuneful voices |last=Gill |first=Victoria |work=BBC News|access-date=31 December 2017}}</ref>
Lutein was traditionally used in [[chicken]] feed to provide the yellow color of [[broiler]] chicken skin. Polled consumers viewed yellow chicken skin more favorably than white chicken skin. Such lutein fortification also results in a darker yellow [[egg yolk]]. Today the coloring of the egg yolk has become the primary reason for feed fortification. Lutein is not used as a [[colorant]] in other foods due to its limited stability, especially in the presence of other dyes.
 
==Role in human eyes==
Although lutein is concentrated in the [[macula of retina|macula]] &ndash; a small area of the [[retina]] responsible for three-color vision &ndash; the precise functional role of retinal lutein has not been determined.<ref name=lpi/>
Lutein was found to be concentrated in the [[macula]], a small area of the retina responsible for central vision. The hypothesis for the natural concentration is that lutein helps keep the eyes safe from [[oxidative stress]] and the high-energy photons of blue light. Various research studies have shown that a direct relationship exists between lutein intake and [[pigmentation]] in the eye.<ref name="Malinow1980">{{cite journal |author=Malinow MR, Feeney-Burns L, Peterson LH, Klein ML, Neuringer M |title=Diet-related macular anomalies in monkeys |journal=Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. |volume=19 |issue=8 |pages=857–63 |year=1980 |month=August |pmid=7409981 |url=http://www.iovs.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7409981}}</ref><ref name="Johnson2000">{{cite journal |author=Johnson EJ, Hammond BR, Yeum KJ, ''et al.'' |title=Relation among serum and tissue concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin and macular pigment density |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=71 |issue=6 |pages=1555–62 |year=2000 |month=June |pmid=10837298 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/71/6/1555}}</ref><ref name="Ref_c">Landrum, J., ''et al.'' Serum and macular pigment response to 2.4 mg dosage of lutein. in ARVO. 2000.</ref><ref name="Berendschot2000">{{cite journal |author=Berendschot TT, Goldbohm RA, Klöpping WA, van de Kraats J, van Norel J, van Norren D |title=Influence of lutein supplementation on macular pigment, assessed with two objective techniques |journal=Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. |volume=41 |issue=11 |pages=3322–6 |year=2000 |month=October |pmid=11006220 |url=http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/full/41/11/3322}}</ref><ref name="Aleman2001">{{cite journal |author=Aleman TS, Duncan JL, Bieber ML, ''et al.'' |title=Macular pigment and lutein supplementation in retinitis pigmentosa and Usher syndrome |journal=Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. |volume=42 |issue=8 |pages=1873–81 |year=2001 |month=July |pmid=11431456 |url=http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/full/42/8/1873}}</ref><ref name="Duncan2002">{{cite journal |author=Duncan JL, Aleman TS, Gardner LM, ''et al.'' |title=Macular pigment and lutein supplementation in choroideremia |journal=Exp. Eye Res. |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=371–81 |year=2002 |month=March |pmid=12014918 |doi=10.1006/exer.2001.1126 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0014483501911261}}</ref><ref name="Johnson2005">{{cite journal |author=Johnson EJ, Neuringer M, Russell RM, Schalch W, Snodderly DM |title=Nutritional manipulation of primate retinas, III: Effects of lutein or zeaxanthin supplementation on adipose tissue and retina of xanthophyll-free monkeys |journal=Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=692–702 |year=2005 |month=February |pmid=15671301 |doi=10.1167/iovs.02-1192 |url=http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/full/46/2/692}}</ref>
 
Lutein may play a role in [[Haidinger's brush]], an [[entoptic phenomenon]] that allows humans to detect [[polarized light]].
 
===Macular degeneration===
Several studies show that an increase in macula pigmentation decreases the risk for eye diseases such as age-related [[macular degeneration]] (AMD).<ref name="Richer1999">{{cite journal |author=Richer S |title=ARMD—pilot (case series) environmental intervention data |journal=J Am Optom Assoc |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=24–36 |year=1999 |month=January |pmid=10457679 }}</ref><ref name=Richer2004>{{cite journal |author=Richer S, Stiles W, Statkute L, ''et al.'' |title=Double-masked, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of lutein and antioxidant supplementation in the intervention of atrophic age-related macular degeneration: the Veterans LAST study (Lutein Antioxidant Supplementation Trial) |journal=Optometry |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=216–30 |year=2004 |month=April |pmid=15117055 }}</ref><ref name="Age2001">{{cite journal |author= |title=A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss: AREDS report no. 8 |journal=Arch. Ophthalmol. |volume=119 |issue=10 |pages=1417–36 |year=2001 |month=October |pmid=11594942 |pmc=1462955 |author1= Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group }}</ref> The only randomized clinical trial to demonstrate a benefit for lutein in macular degeneration was a small study, in which the authors concluded that visual function is improved with lutein alone or lutein together with other nutrients and also that more study was needed .<ref name=Richer2004/>
 
In 2013, findings of the [[Age-Related Eye Disease Study]] (AREDS2) showed that a [[dietary supplement]] formulation containing lutein reduced progression of [[age-related macular degeneration]] (AMD) by 25 percent.<ref name="AREDS2">{{cite web |url=https://nei.nih.gov/news/pressreleases/050513 |title=NIH study provides clarity on supplements for protection against blinding eye disease |date=5 May 2013 |access-date=10 August 2017 |publisher=US National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD |archive-date=15 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815055737/https://nei.nih.gov/news/pressreleases/050513 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="formula">{{cite web |title=The AREDS Formulation and Age-Related Macular Degeneration |url=https://nei.nih.gov/amd/summary |publisher=US National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD|access-date=10 August 2017 |date=November 2011}}</ref> However, lutein and zeaxanthin had no overall effect on preventing AMD, but rather "the participants with low dietary intake of lutein and zeaxanthin at the start of the study, but who took an AREDS formulation with lutein and zeaxanthin during the study, were about 25 percent less likely to develop advanced AMD compared with participants with similar dietary intake who did not take lutein and zeaxanthin."<ref name=formula/>
There is [[epidemiology|epidemiological]] evidence of a relationship between low [[blood plasma|plasma]] concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin, and an increased risk of developing [[age-related macular degeneration]] (AMD). Some studies support the view that supplemental lutein and/or zeaxanthin help protect against AMD.<ref name="PMID17846363" />
 
In AREDS2, participants took one of four AREDS formulations: the original AREDS formulation, AREDS formulation with no beta-carotene, AREDS with low zinc, AREDS with no beta-carotene and low zinc. In addition, they took one of four additional supplement or combinations including lutein and zeaxanthin (10&nbsp;mg and 2&nbsp;mg), omega-3 fatty acids (1,000&nbsp;mg), lutein/zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids, or placebo. The study reported that there was no overall additional benefit from adding omega-3 fatty acids or lutein and zeaxanthin to the formulation. However, the study did find benefits in two subgroups of participants: those not given beta-carotene, and those who had little lutein and zeaxanthin in their diets. Removing beta-carotene did not curb the formulation's protective effect against developing advanced AMD, which was important given that high doses of beta-carotene had been linked to higher risk of lung cancers in smokers. It was recommended to replace beta-carotene with lutein and zeaxanthin in future formulations for these reasons.<ref name=AREDS2/>
In 2007, in a 6-year study, John Paul SanGiovanni of the [[National Eye Institute]], [[Maryland]] found that lutein and zeaxanthin ([[nutrients]] in [[Egg (food)|eggs]], [[spinach]] and other green vegetables) protect against [[blindness]] ([[macular degeneration]]), affecting 1.2 million [[United States|Americans]], mostly after age 65. Lutein and zeaxanthin reduce the risk of AMD.<ref name="PMID17846363"/>
 
* Three subsequent meta-analyses of dietary lutein and zeaxanthin concluded that these carotenoids lower the risk of progression from early stage AMD to late stage AMD.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu R, Wang T, Zhang B, Qin L, Wu C, Li Q, Ma L |display-authors=3 |title=Lutein and zeaxanthin supplementation and association with visual function in age-related macular degeneration |journal=Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=252–8 |year=2014 |pmid=25515572 |doi=10.1167/iovs.14-15553}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang X, Jiang C, Zhang Y, Gong Y, Chen X, Zhang M |display-authors=3 |title=Role of lutein supplementation in the management of age-related macular degeneration: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |journal=Ophthalmic Res. |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=198–205 |year=2014 |pmid=25358528 |doi=10.1159/000363327 |s2cid=5055854}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ma L, Dou HL, Wu YQ, Huang YM, Huang YB, Xu XR, Zou ZY, Lin XM |display-authors=3 |title=Lutein and zeaxanthin intake and the risk of age-related macular degeneration: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Br. J. Nutr. |volume=107 |issue=3 |pages=350–9 |year=2012 |pmid=21899805 |doi=10.1017/S0007114511004260 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Cataracts===
* An updated 2023 [[Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] review of 26 studies from several countries, however, concluded that [[dietary supplement]]s containing zeaxanthin and lutein alone have little effect when compared to placebo on the progression of AMD.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Jennifer R. |last2=Lawrenson |first2=John G. |date=2023-09-13 |title=Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for slowing the progression of age-related macular degeneration |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2023 |issue=9 |pages=CD000254 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000254.pub5 |issn=1469-493X |pmc=10498493 |pmid=37702300 |pmc-embargo-date=September 13, 2024 }}</ref> In general, there remains insufficient evidence to assess the effectiveness of dietary or supplemental zeaxanthin or lutein in treatment or prevention of early AMD.<ref name="LPI">{{cite web |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/phytochemicals/carotenoids/index.html#sources |title=Lutein + Zeaxanthin Content of Selected Foods |publisher=Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis |date=2014|access-date=20 May 2014}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
There is also epidemiological evidence that increasing lutein and zeaxanthin intake lowers the risk of [[cataract]] development.<ref name="PMID17846363" /><ref name=PM18332316>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18332316 |title=Associations between age-related nuclear cataract and lutein and zeaxanthin in the diet and serum in the Carotenoids in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study, an Ancillary Study of the Women's Health Initiative. }}</ref> Consumption of more than 2.4 mg of lutein/zeaxanthin daily from foods and supplements was significantly correlated with reduced incidence of nuclear lens opacities, as revealed from data collected during a 13- to 15-year period in the Nutrition and Vision Project (NVP).<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 20590393 | year = 2010 | last1 = Barker Fm | first1 = 2nd | title = Dietary supplementation: effects on visual performance and occurrence of AMD and cataracts. | volume = 26 | issue = 8 | pages = 2011–23 | doi = 10.1185/03007995.2010.494549 | journal = Current medical research and opinion}}</ref>
 
===Cataract research===
===Photophobia (abnormal human optical light sensitivity)===
There is preliminary epidemiological evidence that increasing lutein and zeaxanthin intake lowers the risk of [[cataract]] development.<ref name=lpi/><ref name="PMID17846363" /><ref name=PM18332316>{{cite journal |title=Associations between age-related nuclear cataract and lutein and zeaxanthin in the diet and serum in the Carotenoids in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study, an Ancillary Study of the Women's Health Initiative |pmid=18332316 |doi=10.1001/archopht.126.3.354 |volume=126 |issue=3 |pmc=2562026 |journal=Arch Ophthalmol |pages=354–64 |vauthors=Moeller SM, Voland R, Tinker L, Blodi BA, Klein ML, Gehrs KM, Johnson EJ, Snodderly DM, Wallace RB, Chappell RJ, Parekh N, Ritenbaugh C, Mares JA |year=2008}}</ref> Consumption of more than 2.4&nbsp;mg of lutein/zeaxanthin daily from foods and supplements was significantly correlated with reduced incidence of nuclear lens opacities, as revealed from data collected during a 13- to 15-year period in one study.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=20590393 |year=2010 |last1=Barker Fm |first1=2nd |title=Dietary supplementation: effects on visual performance and occurrence of AMD and cataracts. |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=2011–23 |doi=10.1185/03007995.2010.494549 |journal=Current Medical Research and Opinion |s2cid=206965363}}</ref>
A study by Stringham and Hammond, published in the Jan-Feb issue of Journal of Food Science, discusses the improvement in visual performance and decrease in light sensitivity (glare) in subjects taking 10&nbsp;mg lutein and 2&nbsp;mg zeaxanthin per day.<ref name="Ref_f">http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2009.01447.x/abstract;jsessionid=350B6E677AC73B3F3FB38975B92835B9.d01t01?systemMessage=Due+to+scheduled+maintenance+access+to+the+Wiley+Online+Library+may+be+disrupted+as+follows:+Monday,+6+September+-+New+York+0400+EDT+to+0500+EDT;+London+0900+BST+to+1000+BST;+Singapore+1600+to+1700</ref>
 
Two meta-analyses confirm a correlation between high diet content or high serum concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin and a decrease in the risk of cataract.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu XH, Yu RB, Liu R, Hao ZX, Han CC, Zhu ZH, Ma L |title=Association between lutein and zeaxanthin status and the risk of cataract: a meta-analysis |journal=Nutrients |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=452–65 |year=2014 |pmid=24451312 |pmc=3916871 |doi=10.3390/nu6010452|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ma L, Hao ZX, Liu RR, Yu RB, Shi Q, Pan JP |title=A dose-response meta-analysis of dietary lutein and zeaxanthin intake in relation to risk of age-related cataract |journal=Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. |volume=252 |issue=1 |pages=63–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24150707 |doi=10.1007/s00417-013-2492-3 |s2cid=13634941}}</ref> There is only one published clinical intervention trial testing for an effect of lutein and zeaxanthin supplementation on cataracts. The AREDS2 trial enrolled subjects at risk for progression to advanced age-related macular degeneration. Overall, the group getting lutein (10&nbsp;mg) and zeaxanthin (2&nbsp;mg) were NOT less likely to progress to needing cataract surgery. The authors speculated that there may be a cataract prevention benefit for people with low dietary intake of lutein and zeaxanthin, but recommended more research.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chew EY, SanGiovanni JP, Ferris FL, Wong WT, Agron E, Clemons TE, Sperduto R, Danis R, Chandra SR, Blodi BA, Domalpally A, Elman MJ, Antoszyk AN, Ruby AJ, Orth D, Bressler SB, Fish GE, Hubbard GB, Klein ML, Friberg TR, Rosenfeld PJ, Toth CA, Bernstein P |title=Lutein/zeaxanthin for the treatment of age-related cataract: AREDS2 randomized trial report no. 4 |journal=JAMA Ophthalmol |volume=131 |issue=7 |pages=843–50 |year=2013 |pmid=23645227 |doi=10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2013.4412 |pmc=6774801 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==In nutrition==
Lutein is a natural part of human diet when fruits and vegetables are consumed. For individuals lacking sufficient lutein intake, lutein-fortified foods are available, or in the case of elderly people with a poorly absorbing digestive system, a [[sublingual]] spray is available. As early as 1996, lutein has been incorporated into dietary supplements. While no [[recommended daily allowance]] currently exists for lutein as for other nutrients, positive effects have been seen at dietary intake levels of 6–10&nbsp;mg/day.<ref name="Seddon1994">{{cite journal |author=Seddon JM, Ajani UA, Sperduto RD, ''et al.'' |title=Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E, and advanced age-related macular degeneration. Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group |journal=JAMA |volume=272 |issue=18 |pages=1413–20 |year=1994 |month=November |pmid=7933422 |doi=10.1001/jama.272.18.1413 }}</ref> The only definitive side effect of excess lutein consumption is bronzing of the skin ([[carotenodermia]]).
 
==In diet==
The functional difference between lutein (free form) and lutein esters is not entirely known. It is suggested that the [[bioavailability]] is lower for lutein esters, but much debate continues.<ref name="pmid12468605">{{cite journal |author=Bowen PE, Herbst-Espinosa SM, Hussain EA, Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis M |title=Esterification does not impair lutein bioavailability in humans |journal=J Nutr |volume=132 |issue=12 |pages=3668-73 |year=2002 |pmid=12468605}}</ref>
Lutein is a natural part of a human diet found in orange-yellow fruits and flowers, and in leafy vegetables. According to the NHANES 2013-2014 survey, adults in the United States consume on average 1.7&nbsp;mg/day of lutein and zeaxanthin combined.<ref name="WWEIA">[https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400530/pdf/1314/Table_1_NIN_GEN_13.pdf NHANES 2013-2014 survey results, reported as What We Eat In America]</ref> No [[recommended dietary allowance]] currently exists for lutein. Some positive health effects have been seen at dietary intake levels of 6–10&nbsp;mg/day.<ref name="Seddon1994">{{cite journal |vauthors=Seddon JM, Ajani UA, Sperduto RD |title=Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E, and advanced age-related macular degeneration. Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group |journal=JAMA |volume=272 |issue=18 |pages=1413–20 |date=November 1994 |pmid=7933422 |doi=10.1001/jama.272.18.1413}}</ref> The only definitive side effect of excess lutein consumption is bronzing of the skin ([[carotenodermia]]).{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}
 
As a [[food additive]], lutein has the [[E number]] E161b ( [[INS number ]] 161b) and is extracted from the petals of African marigold ( ''[[Tagetes ]] erecta ]]'').<ref name="Ref_d">[http://www.codexalimentarius.net/gsfaonline/additives/details.html?id=384 WHO/FAO Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Food Additives]</ref> It is approved for use in the EU<ref>UK Food Standards Agency: {{cite web |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist |title=Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers | accessdate access-date=2011-10-27}}</ref> and Australia and New Zealand .<ref>Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code .{{cite web |url=http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2011C00827 |title=Standard 1.2.4 - Labelling of ingredients | accessdate access-date=2011-10-27}}</ref> however In the United States lutein may not be used as a food coloring for foods intended for human consumption, but can be added to animal feed and is banned allowed as a human dietary supplement often in combination with [[zeaxanthin]]. Example: lutein fed to chickens will show up in skin color and egg yolk color.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The effect of dietary supplementation with the USA natural carotenoids curcumin and lutein on broiler pigmentation and immunity |first1=N |last1=Rajput |first2=M |last2=Naeem |first3=S |last3=Ali |first4=J F |last4=Zhang |first5=L |last5=Zhang |first6=T |last6=Wang |journal=Poultry Science |volume=92 |issue=5 |pages=1177–1185 |date=1 May 2013 |doi=10. 3382/ps.2012-02853 |pmid=23571326 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{ Cn cite journal |url=https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/catalog/2338965 |title=Enhancement of Yolk Color in Raw and Boiled Egg Yolk with Lutein from Marigold Flower Meal and Marigold Flower Extract |last1=Lokaewmanee |first1=Kanda |last2=Yamauchi |first2=Koh-en |last3=Komori |first3=Tsutomu |last4=Saito |first4=Keiko |journal=Journal of Poultry Science |volume=48 |number=1 |pages=25–32 |date=2011 |doi=10.2141/jpsa.010059 |access-date=21 February 2020 |issn=1346-7395|doi-access=free}} </ref>
 
Some foods are contain considered relatively good high sources amounts of the nutrients lutein:<ref name= "Ref_e">[http: lpi/ /news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070910/hl_nm/eyesight_nutrients_dc;_ylt=AhJwo077jBEbQvMoRIMIxV2s0NUE Yahoo.com, Study finds spinach, eggs ward off cause of blindness]</ref><ref name="PMID17846363">{{cite journal | author vauthors=SanGiovanni JP, Chew EY, Clemons TE, ''et Ferris al.'' FL, Gensler G, Lindblad AS, Milton RC, Seddon JM, Sperduto RD |title=The relationship of dietary carotenoid and vitamin A, E, and C intake with age-related macular degeneration in a case-control study: AREDS Report No. 22 |journal= Arch. Archives Ophthalmol. of Ophthalmology |volume=125 |issue=9 |pages=1225–32 | year date= September2007 |month=September |pmid=17846363 |doi=10.1001/archopht.125.9.1225 | url=http://archopht.ama doi- assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view access= long&pmid=17846363 free}}</ref><ref > name=" Ref_e Ref_USDA">[http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 23 (2010)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303184216/http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/ |date=3 March 2015 }}</ref><ref name="nasturtium">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.tb08336.x |issn=1750-3841 |volume=70 |issue=9 |pages=S605–S609 |last=Niizu |first=P.Y. |author2=Delia B. Rodriguez-Amaya |title=Flowers and Leaves of Tropaeolum majus L. as Rich Sources of Lutein |journal=Journal of Food Science |year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eisenhauer |first1=Bronwyn |last2=Natoli |first2=Sharon |last3=Liew |first3=Gerald |last4=Flood |first4=Victoria M. |title=Lutein and Zeaxanthin—Food Sources, Bioavailability and Dietary Variety in Age-Related Macular Degeneration Protection |journal=Nutrients |date=9 February 2017 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=120 |pmc=5331551 |pmid=28208784 |doi=10.3390/nu9020120|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manke Natchigal |first1=A. |last2=Oliveira Stringheta |first2=A.C. |last3=Corrêa Bertoldi |first3=M. |last4=Stringheta |first4=P.C. |title=QUANTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF LUTEIN FROM TAGETES (TAGETES PATULA L.) AND CALENDULA (CALENDULA OFFICINALIS L.) FLOWERS. |journal=Acta Hortic. |date=2012 |volume=939, 309-314 |url=https://www.actahort.org/books/939/939_40.htm |access-date=3 July 2019 |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514063851/https://www.actahort.org/books/939/939_40.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 
<center>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Product
! Lutein / +zeaxanthin <ref name=lpi/><br /><small>(micrograms per hundred 100 grams) </small>
|-
| [[Tropaeolum|nasturtium]] (yellow flowers, lutein levels only)
| 45,000<ref name="nasturtium"/>
|-
| [[Calendula officinalis|pot marigold]] (yellow and orange flowers, lutein levels only)
| 29,800
|-
| [[kale]] (raw)
| 39,550
|-
| [[kale]] (cooked)
| 18246 18,246
|-
| [[dandelion]] leaves (raw)
| 13,610
|-
| [[Tropaeolum|nasturtium]] (leaves, lutein levels only)
| 13,600<ref name="nasturtium"/>
|-
| [[turnip]] [[leaf vegetables|greens]] (raw)
| 12825 12,825
|-
| [[spinach]] (raw)
| 12198 12,198
|-
| [[spinach]] (cooked)
| 11308 11,308
|-
| [[ turnip]] swiss [[leaf vegetables|greens chard]] (raw or cooked)
| 8440 11,000
|-
| [[turnip]] [[leaf vegetables|greens]] (cooked)
| 8,440
|-
| [[collard ]] greens ]] (cooked)
| 7694 7,694
|-
| [[ Watercress watercress]] (raw )
| 5767 5,767
|-
| garden [[peas]] (raw)
| 2593 2,593
|-
| [[romaine lettuce]]
| 2312 2,312
|-
| [[zucchini]] (courgettes)
| 2125 2,125
|-
| [[ Brussels brussels sprouts]]
| 1590 1,590
|-
| [[ Pistachio broccoli]] , nuts raw
| 1205 1,403
|-
| [[ broccoli pistachio]] nuts
| 1121 1,205
|-
| [[broccoli]], cooked
| [[maize|Maize/corn]]
| 644 1,121
|-
| [[ egg carrot]] ( food cooked) |egg]]
| 687
|-
| [[maize]]/corn
| 642
|-
| [[egg (food)|egg]] (hard boiled)
| 353
|-
| [[ carrot avocado]] (raw)
| 271
|-
| [[carrot]] (raw)
| 256
|-
Line 167 ⟶ 192:
| 122
|}
 
</center>
===Safety===
In humans, the Observed Safe Level (OSL) for lutein, based on a non-government organization evaluation, is 20&nbsp;mg/day.<ref name="pmid16814439">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shao A, Hathcock JN |title=Risk assessment for the carotenoids lutein and lycopene |journal=Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=289–98 |year=2006 |pmid=16814439 |doi=10.1016/j.yrtph.2006.05.007 |quote=<small>The OSL risk assessment method indicates that the evidence of safety is strong at intakes up to '''20mg/d for lutein''', and 75 mg/d for lycopene, and these levels are identified as the respective OSLs. Although much higher levels have been tested without adverse effects and may be safe, the data for intakes above these levels are not sufficient for a confident conclusion of long-term safety.</small>}}</ref> Although much higher levels have been tested without adverse effects and may also be safe, the data for intakes above the OSL are not sufficient for a confident conclusion of long-term safety.<ref name=lpi/><ref name="pmid16814439"/> Neither the U.S. Food and Drug Administration nor the [[European Food Safety Authority]] considers lutein an essential nutrient or has acted to set a tolerable upper intake level.<ref name=lpi/>
 
==Commercial value==
The lutein market is segmented into pharmaceutical, nutraceutical dietary supplement, food, pet foods food, and animal and fish feed. The pharmaceutical market for lutein is estimated to be about US $190 &nbsp;million, and the nutraceutical and food is categories are estimated to be about US $110 &nbsp;million. Pet foods food and other animal applications for lutein are estimated at US $175 &nbsp;million annually. This Apart includes from chickens (usually in combination with other carotenoids), to get color in egg yolks, and fish farms to color the customary flesh age closer to wild- related caught macular color.<ref>{{Cite degeneration journal applications |last=Lokaewmanee |first=Kanda & Yamauchi |date=2011 |title=Enhancement of Yolk Color in Raw and Boiled Egg Yolk with Lutein from Marigold Flower Meal and Marigold Flower Extract |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271886561 |journal=The Journal of Poultry Science |volume=48 |pages=25–32 |doi=10.2141/jpsa.010059 |via=ResearchGate|doi-access=free }}</ref> In the dietary supplement industry, newer the major market for lutein is for products with claims of helping maintain eye health.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Campbell |first=J. |date=14 January 2021 |title=Natural Eye Supplements Care For Your Long-Term Vision|url=https://articles.intechrahealth.com/how-to-care-for-your-vision-with-natural-eye-supplements/|access-date=2021-01-16|website=Intechra Health|language=en-US}}</ref> Newer applications are emerging in cosmetics, skins oral and as topical an products [[antioxidant]] for skin health. Skin health via orally consumed It supplements is one of the fastest growing areas of the US $2 &nbsp;billion carotenoid market.<ref name="Ref_g">FOD025C The Global Market for Carotenoids, [[BCC Research ]]</ref>
 
==See also==
*[[Carotenoid]]s
*[[List of antioxidants in food]]
*[[List of phytochemicals in food]]
*[[Lutein-free diet]] (for autism spectrum disorders)
*[[Macular Degeneration]]
*[[Zeaxanthin]]
 
==References==
Line 183 ⟶ 207:
 
==External links==
* [http://www.luteininfo.com Lutein Information Bureau]
 
{{Carotenoids}}
{{Authority control}}
 
[[Category:Carotenoids]]
Line 191 ⟶ 214:
[[Category:Dietary antioxidants]]
[[Category:Food colorings]]
[[Category: Alcohols Secondary alcohols]]
[[Category:Cyclohexenes]]
 
[[Category:E-number additives]]
[[bs:E161b]]
[[bg:Лутеин]]
[[de:Lutein]]
[[es:Luteína]]
[[eo:Luteino]]
[[fr:Lutéine]]
[[is:E-161b]]
[[it:Luteina]]
[[lt:Liuteinas]]
[[hu:Lutein]]
[[nl:Luteïne]]
[[ja:ルテイン]]
[[no:Lutein]]
[[pl:Luteina (barwnik)]]
[[pt:Luteína]]
[[ru:Лютеин]]
[[sv:Lutein]]
[[tr:Lutein]]
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