Abstract
Keywords
1. Introduction
1.1 Glioblastoma: epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment
2. Methods
3. TMZ in GBM management
3.1 Existing TMZ modalities
- a.
Prospective Modalities with Concomitant TMZ
4. Issues in GBM management (Figure 1)
- a.
The BBB
- b.
Treatment Resistance
5. Potential impact of in delivery and nanotechnology
- a.
The IN Route
- b.
Nanoparticles (NPs) and the IN Route
Drug Carrier | Agent | Mechanism of Action | Route of Administration | Preclinical Results | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Polymeric NPs (PLGA) | Bevacizumab | Anti-VEGF monoclonal antibody | Intranasal | Decrease in tumor size and VEGF | [
[36]
] |
Paclitaxel | Mitotic Inhibitor | Intranasal | Inhibition of tumor cell growth | [
[41]
] |
|
Doxorubicin | Topoisomerase II Inhibitor | Intranasal | Inhibition of tumor cell growth | [
[42]
] |
|
Polyfunctional Gold–Iron Oxide NPs (polyGIONs) | antimiR-21 | Inhibition of p53 | Intranasal | Tumor suppression and enhanced TMZ efficacy | [
[17]
] |
miR-100 + TMZ | Inhibition of PLK1 | ||||
Gold NPs | Polycytidylic acid + TMZ | Induction of Type 1 Interferon + DNA Methylator | Intranasal | Tumor suppression | [
[16]
] |
Heavy Chain Ferritin Nanocage | Paclitaxel | Mitotic Inhibitor | Intravenous | Inhibition of tumor cell growth | [
[49]
] |
PLA Polymeric Micelle | Paclitaxel | Mitotic Inhibitor | Intravenous | Inhibition of tumor cell growth | [
[51]
] |
sHDL Mimicking Nanodiscs | Docetaxel | Inhibition of Microtubular Depolymerization | Intracranial | Tumor regression | [
[57]
] |
- c.
Examples of IN Delivery Application
- i.
IN Delivery of Bevacizumab Polymeric-NPsAs discussed previously, treatment resistance to TMZ occurs in roughly 50% of GBM patients and in an effort to bypass this limitation, the anti-angiogenic agent bevacizumab (BVZ), an intravenous monoclonal antibody, was developed to cut off tumors’ access to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and ultimately halt further tumor growth. The agent was determined to be unviable in GBM however, because of low BBB penetration efficiency and peripheral toxicity, which is the long-standing issue in the treatment of GBM [[36],[37],[38]].Sousa et al. sought to determine the viability of BVZ when delivered IN via poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) NPs to increase BBB penetration and decrease the systemic toxicity issues associated with IV administration. The BVZ-PLGA-NPs and free-BVZ were delivered IN in healthy mice models and both agents accumulated in the brain (5400 ± 2313 ng/g of brain tissue and 1346 ± 391 ng/g of brain tissue, respectively), but unlike free-BVZ, the BVZ-PLGA-NPs maintained residence within the brain for >7 days with no off-site accumulation. Mice were then implanted with a human (U87 MG) GBM xenograft and IN administered free-BVZ and BVZ-PLGA-NPs to determine GBM treatment efficacy. The two-week post treatment analysis displayed free-BVZ accumulation in the lung and liver and none in the brain. Conversely, the BVZ-PLGA-NP group was remarkable for BVZ accumulation only in the brain, resulting in a decrease in VEGF and tumor size. The use of novel BVZ-PLGA-NP should be transitioned to the clinical setting to establish its role as a potential mono- or adjunct therapy in the management of GBM [[36]].
- ii.
IN Delivery of Novel RGD-NP-PTXIn a study performed by Ullah et al., IN delivery of NPs composed of PLGA loaded with paclitaxel (PTX) conjugated to a cancer targeting moiety, arginyl-glycyl-aspartic tripeptide (RGD), was evaluated for therapeutic efficacy and viability in mice implanted with human U87 MG GBM cells. PTX is a mitotic inhibitor known to specifically target malignant cells with a low risk in harming normal cells [[39]]. The RGD targeting moiety binds with high affinity to the integrin αvβ3, which is highly expressed by tumor cells [[40]]. It was determined that IN delivery of the RGD coated PLGA NPs loaded with PTX (RGD-NP-PTX) resulted in successful delivery of the nanoformulation to the GBM tumor microenvironment with a prolonged residence time of 48 h. Also, tumor cell death occurred in ∼80 ± 5% of the U87 MG cells when assayed, and there was a tumor volume reduction of 26 ± 14 mm3 in the U87 MG implanted mice models. It was concluded that PTX is a viable and efficacious treatment option in mice when loaded in the novel RDG-PLGA nanocarrier and delivered via the IN route. This preclinical discovery warrants further investigation in the realm of IN delivery of nanocarriers loaded with chemotherapeutic agents in the clinical setting [[41]].
- iii.
IN Delivery of Novel RGD-NP-DOXAn additional study was performed by Ullah et al. evaluating the use of doxorubicin (DOX) loaded PLGA-NPs with an RGD surface moiety (RGD-NP-DOX) for targeted delivery to the GBM tumor microenvironment [[42]]. The agent DOX is a topoisomerase II inhibitor already approved for the treatment of other malignancies and CNS disorders, but this study highlights its relevance as a viable treatment option when used IN in the management of GBM at the preclinical level [[43]]. Rats were intracranially implanted with GBM C6 cell lines and subsequently treated IN with RGD-NP-DOX and a 48-hour residence time, primarily in the tumor region, was observed. Also, IN delivery of RGD-NP-DOX resulted in 76 ± 3.91% tumor growth inhibition, and 15 ± 3.95 mm3 reduction in tumor burden compared to control and other formulations of free-DOX and NP-DOX without RGD [[42]]. These results are indicative of targeted delivery to the tumor region via nanocarrier-mediated IN administration with promising inhibition of GBM cell growth. Thus Ullah et al. confirmed on the preclinical level the relevance of nose-to-brain delivery of DOX via a PLGA nanoformulation with promising results that should be transitioned to clinical trials.
- iv.
IN Delivery of T7-polyGIONs-miRNA with Concomitant TMZSukumar et al. used the IN route not only to deliver NPs loaded with microRNA therapy to enhance TMZ therapy in GBM, but also to subsequently obtain a roadmap of the nasal cavity and its associated nerve pathways during drug delivery. In this study, miRNA therapies (antimiR-21 and miR-100) were loaded into novel theranostic polyfunctional gold-iron oxide NPs (polyGIONs) with a β-cyclodextrin-chitosan (CD-CS) hybrid polymer coated with PEG-T7 (targeting molecule) peptide and delivered IN in conjunction with TMZ therapy for in vivo analysis of tumor targeting efficiency and enhanced therapeutic efficacy. The T7-CD–CS–polyGIONs-miRNA was IN delivered into mice implanted with a U87 MG xenograft. Nanocarrier delivery was tracked using dye tagged to the miRNA molecules, which allowed accurate tracking from the nasal mucosa to associated nerve pathways and ultimately the brain. The NP containing miRNA accumulated in the appropriate region of the brain and resided there for ∼8 days. In terms of tumor regression and overall survival, the T7-CD–CS–polyGIONs-miRNAs provided a ∼42% reduction in tumor size, accumulation exclusively in the brain region, and survival >44 days with the control group surviving <16 days. The T7-coated NP group was compared to mice receiving the non-T7 coated NP, which yielded only a ∼7.8% reduction in tumor size with diminishing accumulation in the brain and eventual peripheral organ off-loading [[17]]. This experiment demonstrated once again the viability of the IN route for targeted delivery to the GBM tumor microenvironment. It was shown that CD–CS–polyGIONs loaded with miRNA followed by TMZ therapy is a suitable method to enhance an already approved GBM treatment option [[17]].
- v.
IN Delivery of Immunostimulant-NPs with Concomitant TMZYin et al. utilized the IN route to deliver gold NPs (AuNP) combined with polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)), a synthetic dsRNA, to form novel compound Au@PP/poly(I:C). This novel NP is being used to initiate immunogenic cell death (ICD) by inducing the production of type I interferon (IFN–I) to enhance TMZ chemotherapy. ICD is not induced when TMZ is used alone, as this agent does not initiate the production of IFN-I, which warranted the investigation of supplementing TMZ with an immunostimulant [[16],[44],[45]]. Mice were intracranially implanted with GL261 glioma cells and treated with TMZ monotherapy, Au@PP/poly(I:C) monotherapy, TMZ in combination with Au@PP/poly(I:C), or not treated at all to compare tumor size and overall survival after five days of treatment. A significant decrease (p < 0.05) in tumor size was observed between the untreated group and all the other groups with the most notable difference observed between the untreated group and the combination therapy group, 16.80 ± 1.625 mm2 vs. 3.800 ± 1.562 mm2, respectively. Furthermore, the TMZ group had less decrease in tumor volume when compared to the combination therapy group, 5.200 ± 2.131 mm2 vs. 3.800 ± 1.562 mm2, respectively, and this difference was also significant (p < 0.05), indicating greater tumor regression in the combination therapy group. In terms of overall survival, mice in the combination therapy group had a median survival time (MST) of 36 days compared to the TMZ alone group and control groups with MSTs of 31 and 21 days, respectively [[16]]. This study highlighted the potential of IN delivery of AuNPs combined with immunostimulants. Clinical application of this method in GBM management is hard to determine based on the results of this study because treatment was only administered for five days and tumor volume increased 17 days post treatment. Prolonged combination therapy administered >5 days should be assessed to determine efficacy and viability of this treatment approach.
6. Emerging novel mechanisms in GBM
- a.
Ferritin Nanocage Delivery of Paclitaxel
- b.
Transferrin Targeted Delivery of Paclitaxel Loaded Polymeric Micelles
- c.
Perillyl Alcohol and the Ketogenic Diet
- d.
HDL Nanodiscs
7. Conclusion
Declarations
Author contribution statement
Funding statement
Data availability statement
Declaration of interest’s statement
Additional information
References
-
CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2012-2016.Neuro Oncol. 2019; 21: v1-v100
-
The 2007 WHO classification of tumours of the central nervous system.Acta Neuropathol. 2007; 114: 97-109
-
Radiotherapy plus concomitant and adjuvant temozolomide for glioblastoma.N. Engl. J. Med. 2005; 352: 987-996
-
Nose-to-brain delivery: exploring newer domains for glioblastoma multiforme management.Drug Deliv Transl Res. 2020; 10: 1044-1056
-
MRI combined with PET-CT of different tracers to improve the accuracy of glioma diagnosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Neurosurg. Rev. 2019; 42: 185-195
-
The CNS and the brain tumor microenvironment: implications for glioblastoma immunotherapy.Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020 Oct 5; 21: 7358
-
Nasal route and drug delivery systems.Pharm. World Sci. 2004; 26: 137-142
-
Bevacizumab plus radiotherapy-temozolomide for newly diagnosed glioblastoma.N. Engl. J. Med. 2014; 370: 709-722
-
Autophagy inhibition improves the efficacy of curcumin/temozolomide combination therapy in glioblastomas.Cancer Lett. 2015; 358: 220-231
-
Effect of nivolumab vs bevacizumab in patients with recurrent glioblastoma: the CheckMate 143 phase 3 randomized clinical trial.JAMA Oncol. 2020 Jul 1; 6: 1003-1010
-
Levetiracetam enhances the temozolomide effect on glioblastoma stem cell proliferation and apoptosis.Cancer Cell Int. 2018; 18: 136
-
Tumor treating fields in the management of patients with malignant gliomas.Curr. Treat. Options Oncol. 2020; 21: 76
-
Developing a clinically relevant radiosensitizer for temozolomide-resistant gliomas.PLoS One. 2020; 15e0238238
-
Injectable hydrogels for localized chemotherapy and radiotherapy in brain tumors.J. Pharmacol. Sci. 2018; 107: 922-933
-
Temozolomide loaded nano lipid based chitosan hydrogel for nose to brain delivery: characterization, nasal absorption, histopathology and cell line study.Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2018; 116: 1260-1267
-
Intranasal delivery of immunotherapeutic nanoformulations for treatment of glioma through in situ activation of immune response.Int. J. Nanomed. 2020; 15: 1499-1515
-
Intranasal delivery of targeted polyfunctional gold-iron oxide nanoparticles loaded with therapeutic microRNAs for combined theranostic multimodality imaging and presensitization of glioblastoma to temozolomide.Biomaterials. 2019; 218: 119342
-
Glioblastoma heterogeneity and cancer cell plasticity.Crit. Rev. Oncog. 2014; 19: 327-336
-
The blood-brain barrier.Cold Spring Harbor Perspect. Biol. 2015; 7: a020412
-
HFE polymorphisms influence the response to chemotherapeutic agents via induction of p16INK4A.Int. J. Cancer. 2011; 129: 2104-2114
-
Temozolomide resistance in glioblastoma multiforme.Genes Dis. 2016; 3: 198-210
-
Combination of levetiracetam and IFN-α increased temozolomide efficacy in MGMT-positive glioma.Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 2020; 86: 773-782
-
Merging transport data for choroid plexus with blood-brain barrier to model CNS homeostasis and disease more effectively.CNS Neurol. Disord. - Drug Targets. 2016; 15: 1151-1180
-
Strategies to enhance drug absorption via nasal and pulmonary routes.Pharmaceutics. 2019; 11: 113
-
Insights into direct nose to brain delivery: current status and future perspective.Drug Deliv. 2014; 21: 75-86
-
Lipid nanoparticles for intranasal administration: application to nose-to-brain delivery.Expet Opin. Drug Deliv. 2018; 15: 369-378
-
Nanoparticles for direct nose-to-brain delivery of drugs.Int. J. Pharm. 2009; 379: 146-157
-
Intranasal administration: a prospective drug delivery route to the brain.Neurochem. J. 2012; 6: 77-88
-
Opportunities and challenges for the nasal administration of nanoemulsions.Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2015; 15: 356-368
-
Size matters: gold nanoparticles in targeted cancer drug delivery.Ther. Deliv. 2012; 3: 457-478
-
Nanoparticles as delivery vehicles for the treatment of retinal degenerative diseases.Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2018; 1074: 117-123
-
Brain targeting of temozolomide via the intranasal route using lipid-based nanoparticles: brain pharmacokinetic and scintigraphic analyses.Mol. Pharm. 2016; 13: 3773-3782
-
Nose-to-brain delivery of temozolomide-loaded PLGA nanoparticles functionalized with anti-EPHA3 for glioblastoma targeting.Drug Deliv. 2018; 25: 1634-1641
-
Nose-to-brain delivery of amisulpride-loaded lipid-based poloxamer-gellan gum nanoemulgel: in vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies.Int. J. Pharm. 2021 Sep 25; 607: 121050
-
Gold nanoparticles in cancer treatment.Mol. Pharm. 2019; 16: 1-23
-
Enhanced anti-angiogenic effects of bevacizumab in glioblastoma treatment upon intranasal administration in polymeric nanoparticles.J. Contr. Release. 2019; 309: 37-47
-
Influence of bevacizumab on blood-brain barrier permeability and O-(2-(18)F-Fluoroethyl)-l-Tyrosine uptake in rat gliomas.J. Nucl. Med. 2017; 58: 700-705
-
FDA drug approval summary: bevacizumab (Avastin®) as treatment of recurrent glioblastoma multiforme.Oncologist. 2009; 14: 1131-1138
-
Gene expression and mitotic exit induced by microtubule-stabilizing drugs.Cancer Res. 2003; 63: 7891-7899
-
Cyclic RGD-linked polymeric micelles for targeted delivery of platinum anticancer drugs to glioblastoma through the blood–brain tumor barrier.ACS Nano. 2013; 7: 8583-8592
-
Nose-to-Brain delivery of cancer-targeting paclitaxel-loaded nanoparticles potentiates antitumor effects in malignant glioblastoma.Mol. Pharm. 2020; 17: 1193-1204
-
Intranasal delivery of cancer-targeting doxorubicin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles arrests glioblastoma growth.J. Drug Target. 2020; 28: 617-626
-
Differential effects of doxorubicin treatment on cell cycle arrest and Skp2 expression in breast cancer cells.Anti Cancer Drugs. 2007; 18: 1113-1121
-
IFN-beta down-regulates the expression of DNA repair gene MGMT and sensitizes resistant glioma cells to temozolomide.Cancer Res. 2005; 65: 7573-7579
-
TLR3: interferon induction by double-stranded RNA including poly(I:C).Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2008; 60: 805-812
-
Phase II study of paclitaxel in patients with recurrent malignant glioma.J. Clin. Oncol. 1996; 14: 2316-2321
-
Convection-enhanced delivery of paclitaxel for the treatment of recurrent malignant glioma: a Phase I/II clinical study.J. Neurosurg. 2004; 100: 472-479
-
Transferrin receptor 1 facilitates poliovirus permeation of mouse brain capillary endothelial cells.J. Biol. Chem. 2016; 291: 2829-2836
-
Target delivering paclitaxel by ferritin heavy chain nanocages for glioma treatment.J. Contr. Release. 2020; 323: 191-202
-
Receptor-mediated PLGA nanoparticles for glioblastoma multiforme treatment.Int. J. Pharm. 2018; 545: 84-92
-
Transferrin receptor-targeted PEG-PLA polymeric micelles for chemotherapy against glioblastoma multiforme.Int. J. Nanomed. 2020; 15: 6673-6688
-
Targeting the transferrin receptor for brain drug delivery.Prog. Neurobiol. 2019; 181: 101665
-
Perillyl alcohol induces apoptosis in human glioblastoma multiforme cells.Oncol. Rep. 2005; 13: 943-947
-
Preliminary results from a phase I/II study of perillyl alcohol intranasal administration in adults with recurrent malignant gliomas.Surg. Neurol. 2008; 70 (discussion 266-257): 259-266
-
Long-term outcome in patients with recurrent malignant glioma treated with Perillyl alcohol inhalation.Anticancer Res. 2013; 33: 5625-5631
-
Efficacy of a ketogenic diet with concomitant intranasal perillyl alcohol as a novel strategy for the therapy of recurrent glioblastoma.Oncol. Lett. 2018; 15: 1263-1270
-
High-density lipoprotein-mimicking nanodiscs for chemo-immunotherapy against glioblastoma multiforme.ACS Nano. 2019; 13: 1365-1384
Article info
Publication history
Identification
Copyright
User license
Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivs (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) |Permitted
For non-commercial purposes:
- Read, print & download
- Redistribute or republish the final article
- Text & data mine
- Translate the article (private use only, not for distribution)
- Reuse portions or extracts from the article in other works
Not Permitted
- Sell or re-use for commercial purposes
- Distribute translations or adaptations of the article
Elsevier's open access license policy