Skip to main content
Intended for healthcare professionals
Open access
Research article
First published online March 14, 2018

Fear of Injections and Needle Phobia Among Children and Adolescents: An Overview of Psychological, Behavioral, and Contextual Factors

Tage Orenius [email protected], LicPsych, Hanna Säilä, MD, PhD, Katriina Mikola, MD, and Leena Ristolainen, DSc, PT https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3041-260XView all authors and affiliations
All Articles
https://doi.org/10.1177/2377960818759442

Abstract

The purpose of this clinical update is to provide an overview of the fear of needles and needle phobia in children and adolescents including characteristics and diagnosis, prevalence and epidemiology, etiological factors, and treatment options. Needle-related fear and needle phobia present as significant needle-related distress and avoidance behavior. The etiology is biopsychosocial. These challenging conditions are more common in children and adolescents than in adults. The nurse–patient relationship enables the provision of suitable preparation before injection procedures. Nurses can use exposure-based interventions and incorporate coping strategies and teaching of parents and children. Nurses play a pivotal role in noticing the need for further treatment. Procedural needle-related distress is a complex phenomenon representing a continuum ranging from needle fear to more severe needle phobia. For patients with needle fear management and training methods used by nurses can possibly prevent a progression of the condition into needle phobia. In cases of needle phobia, a correct diagnosis made by a psychiatrist is necessary and enables referral to a psychotherapist with experience in treating children and adolescents with needle phobia.

Introduction

Children and adolescents are subjected to needles in their various encounters with health care. Most commonly, children’s first exposure to needles may be when they receive routine health maintenance immunizations. However, they may also be subjected to needles when having a wound sutured, when having an intravenous infusion started for treatment or in undergoing a lumbar puncture. Chronically ill children may require repeated treatments and blood sampling with certain procedures, such as joint punctures and intraarticular corticoid injections, causing severe distress to the child. Studies have shown that hospitalized children report needle procedures as one of their most feared and painful experiences (Hart & Bossert, 1994; Kortesluoma & Nikkonen, 2004). Needle procedure-related fear may result in increased avoidance behavior and attempts to eliminate any possible exposure to needles (Sokolowski, Giovannitti, & Boynes, 2010).
Our aim is to present a comprehensive and pragmatic overview of fear of needles and needle phobia in children and adolescents regarding characteristics and diagnosis, prevalence and epidemiology, etiological factors, and practical treatment options. A broader understanding of the conditions is necessary for adequate management, interventions, and treatments.

Brief Review

Characteristics and Diagnosis

Needle phobia has been described in the literature using interchangeable definitions such as belonephobia (fear of needles and pins), trypanophobia (fear of injections), and aichmophobia (fear of sharp, pointed objects) according to the Encyclopedia of Phobias, Fears, and Anxieties (Doctor, Kahn, & Adamec, 2009).
In the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision, Clinical Modification, needle phobia is categorized as the fear of injections and transfusions (F40.231; World Health Organization, 2004). The main feature in the condition is such a severe fear of venipuncture that active avoidance of the procedure is practiced (Cook, 2016). The International Classification of Diseases and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria for needle phobia are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. ICD and DSM Criteria for Needle Phobia.
Diagnostic system Symptoms
ICD-10-CM 1. The psychological or autonomic symptoms must be primary manifestations of anxiety and not secondary to other symptoms, such as delusion or obsessional thoughts.
2. The anxiety must be restricted to the presence of needles or situations where a needle is used.
3. Needles or situations where a needle may be used are avoided whenever possible.
DSM-5 1. The individual shows marked fear or anxiety about needles.a
2. Needles or situations where needles may be used almost always give rise to immediate fear or anxiety.
3. Needles or situations where needles may be used are actively avoided or endured with intense fear or anxiety.
4. The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the needles, the situation, and the sociocultural context.
5. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for 6 months or more.
6. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning.
7. The disturbance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder (panic disorder, agoraphobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, etc.).
Note. Adapted from criteria for specific phobias to fit the condition of needle phobia. ICD-10-CM = International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision, Clinical Modification; DSM = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Retrieved from American Psychiatric Association, 2013; World Health Organization, 2004.
a
In children, the fear or anxiety may be expressed by crying, tantrums, freezing, or clinging.

Prevalence and Epidemiology

Epidemiological studies on the fear of needles and needle phobia lack uniformity in the definitions used across researchers. This fact has made these studies challenging to interpret.
Further, several studies have addressed needle-related distress without distinguishing between a fear of needles and diagnosable needle phobia. In one study, 63% of children (aged 6–17) reported a fear of needles, and significant relations between a fear of needles and the female sex, as well as increasing perceived pain intensity during immunizations (Taddio et al., 2012). In another study of children (aged 4–16) with type 1 diabetes, 40.9% reported injection-related fear, and 22.7% reported associated pain. Further, children with diabetes and those younger than 9 years reported a higher frequency (75%) of fear of injections when compared with older children (21.4%; Howe, Ratcliffe, Tuttle, Dougherty, & Lipman, 2011). Over one third of children with an average age of 9 years (SD = 4.1) requiring methotrexate injections or blood tests for juvenile idiopathic arthritis have reported often or almost always feeling a fear of injections (Mulligan et al., 2013). In a large sample of children having immunizations, the self-reported fear of needles was scored as strong in 68% of children aged 6 to 8 years, in 65% of children aged 9 to 12 years, and in 51% of children aged 13 to 17 years (Taddio et al., 2012). In children (aged 6–17) with type 1 diabetes mellitus and having multiple daily injections, needle fear was present in 32.7% based on the responses of caregivers, while 22.2% of adolescents (aged 11–17) reported a fear of needles (Cemeroglu et al., 2014). In the adult population, a fear of needles is estimated to be 22% (Wright, Yelland, Heathcote, Ng, & Wright, 2009).
Needle phobia, an anxiety disorder affecting 3.5% to 10% of the general population (Nir, Paz, Sabo, & Potasman, 2003), has a median age of onset of 5.5 years (Bienvenu & Eaton, 1998). The literature shows that needle phobia decreases with age. While needle phobia could be diagnosed in 19% of children aged 4–6 years, in children aged 10–11, it could be found in 11% (Majstorovic & Veerkamp, 2003). Fears are common among 4- to 6-year-olds, become even more prominent in 7- to 9-year-olds, and then decrease in frequency in 10- to 12-year-olds (Muris, Merckelbach, Gadet, & Moulaert, 2000). Of 18‐year‐old adolescents expressing dental anxiety, 11% have reported being needle phobic, and 17% and 15% of participants reported a high level of fear during their last dental and medical injection, respectively. Fainting has been experienced by 2% during a dental injection and by 7% during a medical injection. Avoidance of treatment when an injection was needed was 6.7% for dental treatment and 5.2% for medical treatment (Vika, Raadal, Skaret, & Kvale, 2006).
In conclusion, the fear of needles seems to be more common than diagnosable needle phobia. Both conditions show a decrease with age.
There are seemingly no studies specifically addressing the factors related to decreasing the fear of needles or needle phobia with age available at present. Theoretically, the maturation of emotion-regulation processes could be a plausible explanation for the decrease. Emotion regulation reflects a diverse set of control processes, which either stop the emotion from launching or prevent it from being expressed once it is triggered, primarily by the cortical modulation of subcortical circuits (Gross & Barrett, 2011). According to recent findings, positive amygdala-prefrontal functional connectivity in early childhood switches to negative functional connectivity during the transition to adolescence, reflecting an enhanced cognitive management of emotions (Gee et al., 2013). Even increased coping skills and natural desensitization through repeated exposure to needle experiences might be influential factors.

Etiology

Needle phobia apparently results from a combination of genetics and life events (Willemsen, Chowdhury, & Briscall, 2002). Fears usually represent transitory phenomena during childhood but can occasionally become highly stressful and develop into phobias (Du, Jaaniste, Champion, & Yap, 2008). Of individuals recollecting onset experiences for their needle-related distress, 76% reported conditioning-like events as the primary cause, while vicarious experiences were reported as primary by 20%, and 3% reported information as being primary in their fear onset (Kleinknecht, 1994). It is widely held that phobic fear is the result of a direct conditioning experience and its maintenance by avoidant behavior (Field, 2006).
Approximately 80% of adults with needle phobia reported that a first-degree relative exhibits the same fear (Accurso et al., 2001). In a recent review on specific phobia subtypes, the highest heritability was found for the blood-injection-injury phobia (Van Houtem et al., 2013). It is argued that a heritable predisposition to needle phobia may have its basis in evolution, given that humans who avoided stab wounds and other incidences of pierced flesh would have had a greater chance of survival. During the Mid-Paleolithic era, an encounter with a stranger holding a sharp object was possibly associated with an inescapable threat to life. Thus, a heritable predisposition to abruptly increase vagal tone and collapse flaccidly rather than freeze or attempt to flee or fight in response to an approaching sharp object or the sight of blood may have evolved as an alternative survival reaction (Bracha, Bracha, Williams, Ralston, & Matsukawa, 2005).

Individual factors

Patients suffering from a vasovagal needle phobia react to fear with a vasovagal syncope reaction. The sight of a needle triggers an autonomic overreaction, with a sudden increase in heart rate and blood pressure followed by an immediate slowing of the heart and decrease in blood pressure. The reduction in blood flow to the brain occasionally results in fainting (Aydin, Salukhe, Wilke, & Willems, 2010). People fainting during needle procedures report a fear of the vasovagal syncope reaction rather than fear of the needle procedure itself (Accurso et al., 2001).
In associative fear of needles, a traumatic experience, such as an extremely painful medical procedure or witnessing a family member or friend undergo such a procedure, causes the patient to associate all procedures involving needles with the original experience (Du et al., 2008). Associative fear of needles causes primarily psychological symptoms, such as extreme unexplained anxiety, preoccupation with the upcoming procedure, and panic attacks.
The sensations and side effects of some injection drugs can be considerably significant in the associative fear of needles. Children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis who frequently require methotrexate injections often develop psychological side effects, such as anticipatory nausea and behavioral distress in anticipation of the treatment (Van der Meer et al., 2007). Mulligan et al. (2013) reported that methotrexate administered subcutaneously was, in children (M = 9.0, SD = 4.1), associated with a greater risk of postadministration vomiting than methotrexate taken as pills.
Resistive needle phobia is characterized by combativeness. The underlying fear involves not only a dread of needles or injections but also a fear of being controlled, most commonly stemming from the physical or emotional restraint associated with prior needle procedures (Trijsburg et al., 1996). When a particular situation cannot be altered or avoided, a child can become oppositional and aggressive in his or her struggle for escape (Albano, Chorpita, & Barlow, 2003).
The hyperalgesic fear of needles, manifesting itself as punctate hypersensitivity, does not reflect fear of the actual needle but a fear of an excessive injection-related pain sensation (Ziegler, Magerl, Meyer, & Treede, 1999). In the juvenile nervous system, nociceptive thresholds are lower than in adults, and endogenous pain inhibitory systems are inchoate. Injury, inflammation, and stress in early life can prime peripheral nociceptors and central pain circuits to overactivate when processing pain (de Lalouvière, Ioannou, & Fitzgerald, 2014; Fitzgerald, 2005). Childhood tissue injury can have prolonged effects upon the developing pain system, resulting in prolonged pain hypersensitivity in the area of injury, which may last for up to 3 years after the initial tissue injury (Peters et al., 2005). This is supported by findings in which children aged 4 to 12 years with chronic diseases have a lower pain threshold than children of the same sex and age who experience venepuncture for the first time (Bisogni et al., 2014).
Regarding the role of tactile hypersensitivity in needle phobia, stressful childhood experiences can give rise to impaired self-regulation by altering patterns of endocrine and functions of the autonomic nervous system (Miller, Chen, & Parker, 2011). In sensory processing disorder, defined as a condition associated with deviances in sensory gating and registration of sensory stimuli (Cheng & Boggett-Carsjens, 2005), sensitivity to tactile stimuli is commonly elevated (Tomchek & Dunn, 2007). The plausible interrelations between mechanisms of tactile hypersensitivity, sensory processing disorder, and hyperalgesic needle phobia are not known and need to be studied.

Adult influence factors

Children’s distress during venepuncture is related to the behavior of accompanying adults (Taylor, Sellick, & Greenwood, 2011). The pain expressions of infants seem to be related to the quality of maternal caregiving. Intrusive caregiving behaviors of mothers increased pain reactivity in 3- to 20-week-old infants. Further, maternal nonintrusiveness was related to lower infant pain expressions, both immediately and 1 minute following needle procedures (Din, Riddell, & Gordner, 2009). According to Mahoney, Ayers, and Seddon (2010), children’s (aged 7–16) distress was associated with the distress-promoting behavior of adults, while children’s coping was associated with the coping-promoting behavior of adults during venepuncture.
Tsao et al. (2006) found that parental anxiety and sensitivity contributed to anxiety and sensitivity in girls but not in boys (aged 8–18) undergoing laboratory procedures.
In paediatric oncology patients (aged 3–18) undergoing routine blood procedures, influences in adult–child interactions were found to be bidirectional. Further, relations were found between rates of adult distress-promoting verbalizations and expected and actual pain ratings by parents and children, as well as nurse observations of pain. A positive relationship between expected and observed pain ratings by parents and rate of child distress was found (Spagrud et al., 2008).
Despite the mixed findings regarding the advantages of parental presence for children during venepuncture, it seems to benefit parents. Thus, it is appropriate to provide parents with the opportunity to be present during their child’s painful procedure (Piira, Sugiura, Champion, Donnelly, & Cole, 2005). Parents feeling more comfortable by providing reassurance seem to make themselves and the children feel better during needle procedures (McMurtry, 2013).

Management and Treatments

The literature addressing needle-related fear and needle phobia has focused on the management of the fear of needles and needle pain. Anxiety can be an important predictor of pain report and pain tolerance in children and adolescents (Tsao et al., 2004), making the differentiation between the fear of needles and pain behavior challenging. Duff (2003) argues that needle-related difficulties largely reflect anticipatory or procedural distress.
Needle fear has been managed medically with benzodiazepines and nitrous oxide gas. The use of nitrous oxide has been studied in large samples, and it has been shown to be effective and safe for children of all ages (Babl, Oakley, Seaman, Barnett, & Sharwood, 2008; Zier & Liu, 2011). Procedural pain can be managed medically using topical analgesics (Eidelman, Weiss, Lau, & Carr, 2005).
The effectiveness of behavioral management of needle-related fear varies greatly, depending on the age of the person and the severity of the condition. Relaxation techniques (i.e., muscular relaxation, imagery relaxation, deep breathing, and autogenic training) might be useful in cases of mild fear of needles (Willemsen et al., 2002). However, relaxation methods may be contraindicated in cases of a vasovagal response due to the risk of a decrease in heart rate and blood pressure. Instead, graded exposure approaches can be used that include a coping component relying on applied tension as a way to prevent complications associated with the vasovagal response (Ditto, Byrne, & Holly, 2009).
Education seems to be effective in reducing procedure anxiety in older children but seems to have a negative effect on younger children’s anxiety (Copanitsanou & Valkeapää, 2014). Older children and adolescents have stronger rational defences, making it possible for the child to think through and rationalize the procedure (Willemsen et al., 2002).
Psychological treatments of specific phobias focus on altering the tripartite components of the pathological fear response (i.e., physiology, behavior, and cognition), as well as the overall subjective experience of fear (Davis & Ollendick, 2005). Uman et al. (2013) presented a comprehensive review of the effectiveness of psychological interventions for needle‐related procedural pain and fear in children and adolescents, excluding studies with patients with diagnosed needle phobias. Although they stated that there still is a gap in the understanding of the efficacy of interventions across age ranges, they reported that the greatest effects in improving the condition were observed with distraction and hypnosis. These results are supported by the systematic review and meta-analysis by Birnie et al. (2014) in which distraction and hypnosis were found to be efficacious in reducing needle-related pain and fear. McMurtry et al. (2015) evaluated the effectiveness of exposure-based psychological and physical interventions for the management of high levels of needle fear or phobia and fainting in children and adults. Results reveal that exposure-based interventions effectively reduced fear of injections in children (aged ≥ 7 years) and adults.
Psychological distraction, a form of attentional deployment, diverts the attention away from an emotional stimulus and toward other content (Sheppes, Scheibe, Suri, & Gross, 2011). Research has shown that distraction may be a useful tool for clinicians who work with a variety of pain problems (Malloy & Milling, 2010) and is effective in reducing experiences of unpleasantness in adults by enhancing the processing of emotions (Webb, Miles, & Sheeran, 2012). Distraction techniques can be chosen according to the child’s age: Simple movements and visual or auditory stimuli, such as blowing bubbles, can be used for toddlers, and rhymes and kaleidoscopes can be used for children aged 6 to 18 months (Duff, 2003; Koller & Goldman, 2012). Cognitive strategies, such as counting and story reading, can be used for children aged 2 to 3 years, and guided imagery and playing videogames can be employed for children aged 5 years (Duff, 2003).
Hypnosis is a special psychological state hypothesized to weaken the frontal control of behavioral schemas, thereby allowing direct activation of behavior by the hypnotist’s suggestions (Kirsch & Lynn, 1998). The classic use of hypnosis involves direct suggestions for modification of sensations. The use of hypnotic methods is age-specific and depends on the hypnotic susceptibility of the individual (Hilgard & Hilgard, 2013). Accardi and Milling (2009) reported that pain reduction in certain procedures, such as venepunctures, mainly depends on the individual hypnotic susceptibility.
An integration of pharmacologic pain treatment and distraction techniques facilitated by nurses yielded a primary benefit of decreased behavioral distress in children and adolescents (aged 2–16). Behavioral distress, on a 0 to 5 numerical rating scale, was significantly lower for older children and for those children who were provided distraction (Fanurik, Koh, & Schmitz, 2000).

Nursing Implications

Health-care professionals regard the use of needles as routine; yet for patients, needles can arouse anxiety. Time and skill are required to prevent or overcome needle-related distress in children and adolescents, which may lead to management problems and treatment refusal (Cook, 2016). Nurses frequently experience stress when immunizing children who fear and resist needle injections (Ives & Melrose, 2010), further implicating the need for incorporating assessment and intervention methods for fear of needles.
Suitable preparation can decrease both needle-related fear and pain, as presented by Kajikawa, Maeno, and Maeno (2014). In their model, children learned about injections and how a vaccine works. They injected a vaccine (water) into skin (sponge) using a syringe and imitation needle. Children’s fear of needles and unwillingness to get vaccinations were decreased after the learning experience. Educating parents can offer a novel and effective way of improving the quality of pain care delivered to infants during vaccination (Taddio et al., 2014). On the contrary, warning the patient in terms of pain or undesirable experiences can result in more pain and anxiety than when not doing so (Lang et al., 2005).
Nurses can effectively incorporate coping strategies into their teaching of parents and children to administer injections. A useful model for overcoming stressful venepuncture is presented by Thurgate and Heppell (2005). In their three-step approach created for children and young people between the ages of 5 and 19 years, relaxation, control, and graded exposure is provided. McMurtry et al. (2016), in their evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for the management of high levels of needle fear across the lifespan, exposure-based interventions are considered good clinical practice. In vivo exposure-based therapy is recommended for children 7 years and older with high levels of needle fear. Imaginal, computer-based exposure is recommended for individuals who are unwilling to undergo in vivo exposure.
Training children in coping skills, without the inclusion of adult coaching, seems to be insufficient (Cohen, Bernard, Greco, & McClellan, 2002). The additional use of coping strategies by mothers seems to reduce the level of needle-related distress in children (Coyne, 2006). Over half of parents and children have considered taking control to be the optimum coping strategy (Ayers, Muller, Mahoney, & Seddon, 2011). Although children have reported perceiving parents as worried when they reassure, parents tend to feel more comfortable providing reassurance than distraction, making both themselves and the child feel better (McMurtry, 2013).

Conclusions

The fear of needles and needle phobia are challenging and common conditions among children and adolescents. It seems reasonable to perceive needle-related distress on a continuum ranging from needle fear to more severe needle phobia. Managing procedural distress can provide both short- and long-term benefits by increasing compliance and reducing avoidance behavior in medical care. Health-care professionals could benefit from education in identifying and managing the different manifestations of needle phobia. Children and adolescents expressing a fear of needles may benefit from management procedures, while phobic individuals probably need more focused therapeutic interventions. Management of fear and management of pain can have different treatment implications. Further research is needed on topics such as the role of tactile hypersensitivity and emotion regulation in needle phobia. Parents need guidance in supporting their children and adolescents subjected to needle procedures.
A diagnostic evaluation by a psychiatrist is implicated in severe cases of needle-related distress. A correct diagnosis is necessary and enables referral to a psychotherapist with experience in treating children and adolescents with needle phobia. Nurses can play a pivotal role in noting the need for further treatment.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by Orton research-grants by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Finland.

ORCID iD

References

Accardi M. C., Milling L. S. (2009) The effectiveness of hypnosis for reducing procedure-related pain in children and adolescents: A comprehensive methodological review. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 32(4): 328–339.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Accurso V., Winnicki M., Shamsuzzaman A. S., Wenzel A., Johnson A. K., Somers V. K. (2001) Predisposition to vasovagal syncope in subjects with blood/injury phobia. Circulation 104(8): 903–907.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Albano A. M., Chorpita B. F., Barlow D. H. (2003) Childhood anxiety disorders. Child Psychopathology 2: 279–329.
Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2013) The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM 5, Washington, DC, USA: bookpointUS.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Aydin M. A., Salukhe T. V., Wilke I., Willems S. (2010) Management and therapy of vasovagal syncope: A review. World Journal of Cardiology 2(10): 308.
Crossref
PubMed
Google Scholar
Ayers S., Muller I., Mahoney L., Seddon P. (2011) Understanding needle‐related distress in children with cystic fibrosis. British Journal of Health Psychology 16(2): 329–343.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Babl F. E., Oakley E., Seaman C., Barnett P., Sharwood L. N. (2008) High-concentration nitrous oxide for procedural sedation in children: Adverse events and depth of sedation. Pediatrics 121(3): e528–e532.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Bienvenu O. J., Eaton W. W. (1998) The epidemiology of blood-injection-injury phobia. Psychological Medicine 28(05): 1129–1136.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Birnie K. A., Noel M., Parker J. A., Chambers C. T., Uman L. S., Kisely S. R., McGrath P. J. (2014) Systematic review and meta-analysis: Distraction and hypnosis for needle-related pain and distress in children and adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 39(8): 783–808. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsu029.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Bisogni S., Dini C., Olivini N., Ciofi D., Giusti F., Caprilli S., Festini F. (2014) Perception of venipuncture pain in children suffering from chronic diseases. BMC Research Notes 7(1): 735.
Crossref
PubMed
Google Scholar
Bracha H. S., Bracha A. S., Williams A. E., Ralston T. C., Matsukawa J. M. (2005) The human fear-circuitry and fear-induced fainting in healthy individuals. Clinical Autonomic Research 15(3): 238–241.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Cemeroglu A. P., Can A., Davis A. T., Cemeroglu O., Kleis L., Daniel M. S., Koehler T. J. (2014) Fear of needles in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus on multiple daily injections (MDI) and continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII). Endocrine Practice 6: 1–25.
Google Scholar
Cheng M., Boggett-Carsjens J. (2005) Consider sensory processing disorders in the explosive child: Case report and review. The Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review 14(2): 44.
PubMed
Google Scholar
Cohen L. L., Bernard R. S., Greco L. A., McClellan C. B. (2002) A child-focused intervention for coping with procedural pain: Are parent and nurse coaches necessary? Journal of Pediatric Psychology 27(8): 749–757.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Cook L. S. (2016) Needle phobia. Journal of Infusion Nursing 39(5): 273–279.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Copanitsanou P., Valkeapää K. (2014) Effects of education of paediatric patients undergoing elective surgical procedures on their anxiety – A systematic review. Journal of Clinical Nursing 23(7–8): 940–954.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Coyne I. (2006) Children’s experiences of hospitalization. Journal of Child Health Care 10(4): 326–336.
Crossref
PubMed
Google Scholar
Davis T. E., Ollendick T. H. (2005) Empirically supported treatments for specific phobia in children: Do efficacious treatments address the components of a phobic response? Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 12(2): 144–160.
Crossref
ISI
Google Scholar
de Lalouvière L. L. H., Ioannou Y., Fitzgerald M. (2014) Neural mechanisms underlying the pain of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Nature Reviews Rheumatology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1038/nrrheum.2014.4.
Crossref
ISI
Google Scholar
Din L., Riddell R. P., Gordner S. (2009) Brief report: Maternal emotional availability and infant pain-related distress. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 34(7): 722–726. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsn110.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Ditto B., Byrne N., Holly C. (2009) Physiological correlates of applied tension may contribute to reduced fainting during medical procedures. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 37(3): 306–314.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Doctor R. M., Kahn A. P., Adamec C. (2009) The encyclopedia of phobias, fears, and anxieties, New York, NY: Infobase Publishing.
Google Scholar
Du S., Jaaniste T., Champion G. D., Yap C. S. (2008) Theories of fear acquisition: The development of needle phobia in children. Pediatric Pain Letter-Commentary 10(2): 13–17.
Google Scholar
Duff A. J. A. (2003) Incorporating psychological approaches into routine paediatric venepuncture. Archives of Disease in Childhood 88(10): 931–937.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Eidelman A., Weiss J. M., Lau J., Carr D. B. (2005) Topical anesthetics for dermal instrumentation: A systematic review of randomized, controlled trials. Annals of Emergency Medicine 46(4): 343–351.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Fanurik D., Koh J. L., Schmitz M. L. (2000) Distraction techniques combined with EMLA: Effects on IV insertion pain and distress in children. Children’s Health Care 29(2): 87–101.
Crossref
ISI
Google Scholar
Field A. P. (2006) Is conditioning a useful framework for understanding the development and treatment of phobias? Clinical Psychology Review 26(7): 857–875.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Fitzgerald M. (2005) The development of nociceptive circuits. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6(7): 507–520.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Gee D. G., Humphreys K. L., Flannery J., Goff B., Telzer E. H., Shapiro M., Tottenham N. (2013) A developmental shift from positive to negative connectivity in human amygdala-prefrontal circuitry. The Journal of Neuroscience 33(10): 4584–4593.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Gross J. J., Barrett L. F. (2011) Emotion generation and emotion regulation: One or two depends on your point of view. Emotion Review 3(1): 8–16.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Hart D., Bossert E. (1994) Self-reported fears of hospitalized school-age children. Journal of Pediatric Nursing 9(2): 83–90.
PubMed
Google Scholar
Hilgard E. R., Hilgard J. R. (2013) Hypnosis in the relief of pain, Oxford, UK: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group Ltd.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Howe C. J., Ratcliffe S. J., Tuttle A., Dougherty S., Lipman T. H. (2011) Needle anxiety in children with type 1 diabetes and their mothers. MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing 36(1): 25–31.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Ives M., Melrose S. (2010) Immunizing children who fear and resist needles: Is it a problem for nurses? In Nursing forum Vol. 45, No. 1,Blackwell Publishing Inc, pp. 29–39.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Kajikawa N., Maeno T., Maeno T. (2014) Does a child’s fear of needles decrease through a learning event with needles? Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing 37(3): 183–194.
Crossref
PubMed
Google Scholar
Kirsch I., Lynn S. J. (1998) Dissociation theories of hypnosis. Psychological Bulletin 123(1): 100.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Kleinknecht R. A. (1994) Acquisition of blood, injury, and needle fears and phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy 32(8): 817–823.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Koller D., Goldman R. D. (2012) Distraction techniques for children undergoing procedures: A critical review of pediatric research. Journal of Pediatric Nursing 27(6): 652–681.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Kortesluoma R. L., Nikkonen M. (2004) ‘I had this horrible pain’: The sources and causes of pain experiences in 4-to 11-year-old hospitalized children. Journal of Child Health Care 8(3): 210–231.
Crossref
PubMed
Google Scholar
Lang E. V., Hatsiopoulou O., Koch T., Berbaum K., Lutgendorf S., Kettenmann E., Kaptchuk T. J. (2005) Can words hurt? Patient-provider interactions during invasive procedures. Pain 114(1): 303–309.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Mahoney L., Ayers S., Seddon P. (2010) The association between parents’ and healthcare professionals’ behavior and children’s coping and distress during venepuncture. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 35(9): 985–995. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsq009.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Majstorovic M., Veerkamp J. S. (2003) Relationship between needle phobia and dental anxiety. Journal of Dentistry for Children (Chicago, Ill.) 71(3): 201–205.
Google Scholar
Malloy K. M., Milling L. S. (2010) The effectiveness of virtual reality distraction for pain reduction: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review 30(8): 1011–1018.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
McMurtry C. M. (2013) Pediatric needle procedures: Parent-child interactions, child fear, and evidence-based treatment. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne 54(1): 75.
Crossref
ISI
Google Scholar
McMurtry C. M., Noel M., Taddio A., Antony M. M., Asmundson G. J., Riddell R. P., Shah V. (2015) Interventions for individuals with high levels of needle fear: Systematic review of randomized controlled trials and quasi-randomized controlled trials. The Clinical Journal of Pain 31(Suppl 10): S109.
Crossref
PubMed
Google Scholar
McMurtry C. M., Taddio A., Noel M., Antony M. M., Chambers C. T., Asmundson G. J., Bucci L. M. (2016) Exposure-based Interventions for the management of individuals with high levels of needle fear across the lifespan: A clinical practice guideline and call for further research. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 45(3): 217–235.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Miller G. E., Chen E., Parker K. J. (2011) Psychological stress in childhood and susceptibility to the chronic diseases of aging: Moving toward a model of behavioral and biological mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin 137(6): 959.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Mulligan K., Kassoumeri L., Etheridge A., Moncrieffe H., Wedderburn L. R., Newman S. (2013) Mothers’ reports of the difficulties that their children experience in taking methotrexate for juvenile idiopathic arthritis and how these impact on quality of life. Paediatric Rheumatology 11: 23.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Muris P., Merckelbach H., Gadet B., Moulaert V. (2000) Fears, worries, and scary dreams in 4- to 12-year-old children: Their content, developmental pattern, and origins. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 29(1): 43–52.
Crossref
PubMed
Google Scholar
Nir Y., Paz A., Sabo E., Potasman I. (2003) Fear of injections in young adults: Prevalence and associations. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 68(3): 341–344.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Peters J. W., Schouw R., Anand K. J., van Dijk M., Duivenvoorden H. J., Tibboel D. (2005) Does neonatal surgery lead to increased pain sensitivity in later childhood? Pain 114(3): 444–454.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Piira T., Sugiura T., Champion G. D., Donnelly N., Cole A. S. J. (2005) The role of parental presence in the context of children’s medical procedures: A systematic review. Child: Care, Health and Development 31(2): 233–243.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Sheppes G., Scheibe S., Suri G., Gross J. J. (2011) Emotion-regulation choice. Psychological Science 22(11): 1391–1396.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Sokolowski C. J., Giovannitti J. A. Jr., Boynes S. G. (2010) Needle phobia: Etiology, adverse consequences, and patient management. Dental Clinics of North America 54(4): 731–744.
Crossref
PubMed
Google Scholar
Spagrud L. J., von Baeyer C. L., Ali K., Mpofu C., Fennell L. P., Friesen K., Mitchell J. (2008) Pain, distress, and adult-child interaction during venipuncture in pediatric oncology: An examination of three types of venous access. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 36(2): 173–184.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Taddio A., Ipp M., Thivakaran S., Jamal A., Parikh C., Smart S., Katz J. (2012) Survey of the prevalence of immunization non-compliance due to needle fears in children and adults. Vaccine 30(32): 4807–4812.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Taddio A., Smart S., Sheedy M., Yoon E. W., Vyas C., Parikh C., Shah V. (2014) Impact of prenatal education on maternal utilization of analgesic interventions at future infant vaccinations: A cluster randomized trial. Pain 155(7): 1288–1292.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Taylor C., Sellick K., Greenwood K. (2011) The influence of adult behaviors on child coping during venipuncture: A sequential analysis. Research in Nursing and Health 34(2): 116–131.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Thurgate C., Heppell S. (2005) Needle phobia – Changing venepuncture practice in ambulatory care. Paediatric Nursing 17(9): 15–18.
Crossref
PubMed
Google Scholar
Tomchek S. D., Dunn W. (2007) Sensory processing in children with and without autism: A comparative study using the short sensory profile. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 61(2): 190–200.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Trijsburg R. W., Jelicic M., Van den Broek W. W., Plekker A. E. M., Verheij R., Passchier J. (1996) Exposure and participant modelling in a case of injection phobia. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 65(1): 57–61.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Tsao J. C., Myers C. D., Craske M. G., Bursch B., Kim S. C., Zeltzer L. K. (2004) Role of anticipatory anxiety and anxiety sensitivity in children’s and adolescents’ laboratory pain responses. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 29(5): 379–388.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Tsao J. C., Lu Q., Myers C. D., Kim S. C., Turk N., Zeltzer L. K. (2006) Parent and child anxiety sensitivity: Relationship to children’s experimental pain responsivity. The Journal of Pain 7(5): 319–326.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Uman L. S., Birnie K. A., Noel M., Parker J. A., Chambers C. T., McGrath P. J., Kisely S. R. (2013) Psychological interventions for needle-related procedural pain and distress in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews 10: CD005179. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005179.pub2.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Van der Meer A., Wulffraat N. M., Prakken B. J., Gijsbers B., Rademaker C. M. A., Sinnema G. (2007) Pediatric rheumatology psychological side effects of MTX treatment in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: A pilot study. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology 25: 480–485.
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Van Houtem C. M. H. H., Laine M. L., Boomsma D. I., Ligthart L., Van Wijk A. J., De Jongh A. (2013) A review and meta-analysis of the heritability of specific phobia subtypes and corresponding fears. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 27(4): 379–388.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Vika M., Raadal M., Skaret E., Kvale G. (2006) Dental and medical injections: Prevalence of self‐reported problems among 18‐yr‐old subjects in Norway. European Journal of Oral Sciences 114(2): 122–127.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Webb T. L., Miles E., Sheeran P. (2012) Dealing with feeling: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation. Psychological Bulletin 138(4): 775.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Willemsen H., Chowdhury U., Briscall L. (2002) Needle phobia in children: A discussion of aetiology and treatment options. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 7(4): 609–619.
Crossref
Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2004) International classification of diseases and related health problems Vol. 110th rev. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
Google Scholar
Wright S., Yelland M., Heathcote K., Ng S. K., Wright G. (2009) Fear of needles-nature and prevalence in general practice. Australian Family Physician 38(3): 172.
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Ziegler E. A., Magerl W., Meyer R. A., Treede R. D. (1999) Secondary hyperalgesia to punctate mechanical stimuli central sensitization to A-fibre nociceptor input. Brain 122(12): 2245–2257.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar
Zier J. L., Liu M. (2011) Safety of high-concentration nitrous oxide by nasal mask for pediatric procedural sedation: Experience with 7802 cases. Pediatric Emergency Care 27(12): 1107–1112.
Crossref
PubMed
ISI
Google Scholar

Cite article

Cite article

Cite article

OR

Download to reference manager

If you have citation software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice

Share options

Share

Share this article

Share with email
EMAIL ARTICLE LINK
Share on social media

Share access to this article

Sharing links are not relevant where the article is open access and not available if you do not have a subscription.

For more information view the Sage Journals article sharing page.

Information, rights and permissions

Information

Published In

Volume 4
Article first published online: March 14, 2018
Issue published: January-December 2018

Keywords

  1. needle phobia
  2. etiology
  3. management
  4. children
  5. adolescents

Rights and permissions

© The Author(s) 2018.
Creative Commons License (CC BY-NC 4.0)
Creative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
PubMed: 33415191

Authors

Affiliations

LicPsych
Orton Orthopaedic Hospital, Orton, Helsinki, Finland
View all articles by this author
Hanna Säilä, MD, PhD
Orton Research Institute, Orton, Helsinki, Finland
View all articles by this author
Katriina Mikola, MD
Helsinki University Central Hospital, Children’s Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
View all articles by this author
Leena Ristolainen, DSc, PT
Orton Orthopaedic Hospital, Orton, Helsinki, Finland
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3041-260X
View all articles by this author

Notes

Tage Orenius, Vattuniemenkatu 18 D 44, 00210, Helsinki, Finland. Email: [email protected]

Metrics and citations

Metrics

Journals metrics

This article was published in SAGE Open Nursing.

VIEW ALL JOURNAL METRICS

Article usage*

Total views and downloads: 50989

*Article usage tracking started in December 2016

Articles citing this one

Receive email alerts when this article is cited

Web of Science: 53 view articles Opens in new tab

Crossref: 50

  1. Prevalence, factors associated and management of needle phobia among t...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  2. Pilot testing “Teach Ted”: A digital application for children undergoi...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  3. Acute treatment of migraine in children aged 6−11: Real‐world analysis...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  4. Virtual Reality Distraction for Needle-Related Pain and Distress in Ch...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  5. Efficacy of administering a sugar‐free flavor before dental injections...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  6. Opportunities to overcome underutilization of enhanced insulin deliver...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  7. Exploring the family experience of children aged 2–4 years receiving d...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  8. Adaptable gold solid microneedle arrays for drug delivery
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  9. A Bioinspired and Cost‐Effective Device for Minimally Invasive Blood S...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  10. The development and evaluation of a vaccination pathway for children w...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  11. Acceptability of a novel device to improve child patient experience du...
    Go to citation Crossref Google ScholarPub Med
  12. Ensuring our exstrophy-epispadias complex patients and families thrive
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  13. The Effects of Virtual Reality and Kaleidoscope on Pain and Fear Durin...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  14. Acceptability and feasibility of an app to prepare children for a bloo...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  15. Understanding attitudes and beliefs regarding COVID-19 vaccines among ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  16. Iontophoresis-driven microneedle patch for the active transdermal deli...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  17. Design and User Experience of VirNE Application: Deep Breathing Exerci...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  18. Effects of Using Guided Deep Breathing Exercises in a Virtual Natural ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  19. Evaluation of the effects of photobiomodulation with different laser a...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  20. The effect of visual and/or auditory distraction techniques on childre...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  21. Virtual reality vs. buzzy®. efficacy in pain and anxiety management du...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  22. Age regression in the treatment of needle phobia: a case report
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  23. Cholesterol Screening in Children: Is a Universal Approach Working?
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  24. Tablet-Based Sensor: A Stable and User-Friendly Tool for Point-of-Care...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  25. Double‐Layered Polyvinylpyrrolidone–Poly(methyl vinyl ether‐ ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  26. Children's experiences of intravenous injection using the draw, write,...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  27. Understanding barriers and motivations to papillomavirus vaccination i...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  28. Analysis of Differences in User Groups and Post Sentiment of COVID-19 ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  29. Positive effects of a child‐centered intervention on children's fear a...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  30. Using the health belief model to explain COVID-19 vaccination hesitanc...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  31. Nebulized fusion inhibitory peptide protects cynomolgus macaques from ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  32. Burden associated with Fabry disease and its treatment in 12–15 year o...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  33. Systemic IgG Exposure and Safety in Patients with Primary Immunodefici...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  34. Oral Fluorescein Angiography with Ultra-Wide-Field Scanning Laser Opht...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  35. Impact of hair type, hair sample weight, external hair exposures, and ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  36. The Combined Diffusion and Adsorption Concept for Prediction of Nanopa...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  37. Effects of Virtual Reality-Based Distraction of Pain, Fear, and Anxiet...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  38. Development and characterization of a dry reservoir-hydrogel-forming m...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  39. Needle Fear among Children during Mass Measles Rubella (MR) Injectable...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  40. Dosage Forms Suitability in Pediatrics: Acceptability of Analgesics an...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  41. Virtual Reality Reduces Pediatric Anxiety During Food Allergy Clinical...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  42. Adolescents’ pain and distress during peripheral intravenous cannulati...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  43. Establishing a Contingency Plan to Improve Patient Comfort During Peri...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  44. Needle-free Mental Incisive Nerve Block: In vitro, Cadaveric, and Pilo...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  45. Effect of Hand Massage on Pain, Anxiety, and Vital Signs in Patients B...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  46. Effects of Green Color Exposure on Stress, Anxiety, and Pain during Pe...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  47. Advances in subcutaneous injections: PRECISE II: a study of safety and...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  48. Managing patients with needle phobia in aesthetic practice
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  49. Investigating the effect of local warming on vein diameter in the ante...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar

Figures and tables

Figures & Media

Tables

View Options

View options

PDF/ePub

View PDF/ePub

Get access

Access options

If you have access to journal content via a personal subscription, university, library, employer or society, select from the options below:

Alternatively, view purchase options below:

Access journal content via a DeepDyve subscription or find out more about this option.

Start 2 week free trial
Need help?

Also from Sage