ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION SECOND EDITION LINDSAY JONES EDITOR IN CHIEF REFERENCE USA MACMILIAN An imprint of Thomson Gale, a part of The Thomson Corporation f,-stviins Unlvwrsttrxtffis [* *H 3-l#T'ffi THOrvlsoN t(, KA -- GALE Detroit . New York. San Francisco. San Diego r New Haven, Conn o Waterville, Maine o London o Munich :#.- B.=- " i' ", 1 :i THOrvlsoIv t'- G^I\,LE Encyclopedia of Religion, Second Edition LindsaY Jones, Editor in Chief Since this page cannot legibly accommodate For permission to use material from this product, submit your request via Web at http://www. g a e-ed it.com/perm issio ns, or you may download our Permissions Request form and submit your request by fax or mail to: O 2005 Thomson Gale, a Part of The Thomson Corporation. all copyright notices, the acknowledgments constitute an extension of the copyright I Thomson, Star Logo and Macmillan Reference USA are trademarks and Gale is a registered trademark used herein under license. 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PAPER) |SBN 0-02-86s735-7 (v' 2) |SBN 0-02-86s734-g (V. 1) ISBN 0-02-85s737-3 (u' a) |SBN 0-02-865736's (v. 3) lSBN 0-02-865739-X (v' 5) lSBN 0-02-865738-1 (v. 5) ISBN 0-02-865741-1 (v' 8) lSBN 0-02-865740-3 (v. 7) ISBN 0-02-865743-8 (v' 10) ISBN o-02 -86s742-X (v. 9) ISBN 0-02-865981-3 (v' ISBN 0-02-86s980-s (v. 11) (v. lsBN 0-02-86s983-X ISBN 0-02-86s9s2-1 12) - - - (v. 1a) - -13) ISBN 0-02-86598a-8 (v. 15) i. nrt-lcloN-ENcYcLoPEDlAs. l. JoNEs, LINDSAY 1954B131.E46 2005 2004017a52 200'.3-dc22 This title is atso available as an e-book. lsBN 0-02-865997-X Contact your Thomson Gale representative for ordering information. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 4,'' i." ffi .---:-::i:.:, 762 BALTIC RELIGION: NE\T RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS Gimbutas, Marija. The Balts. London, 1963. See pages L79-204 for a short, popular survey of Bdtic religion. Hopkins, Grace Sturtevant. Indo-European *Deiwos and. Related Words. Philadelphia, 1932. A valuable erymological and mantic study of names of Indo-European sky gods. se- lietuuiub religijos bibliografija. Kaunas, Lithuania, 1938. The best complete bibliography of Baldc religion up to 1938. Ivinskis , Zenonas. Senoues Johansons, Andrejs. Der Schirmherr des Hoftt im Volksglauben der Letten. Stockholm, 1964. Valuable as a collection of material, but the speculative construction of "house god" is false. Kokare, Elza. Latuieiu galuenie mitologiskie t1li folkloras atueidE. Kg", Lawia, 1996. Major Lawian mythological figures as depicted in folklore. Kursrte, Janrna. Latuieiufolklora mttu spogult. Kg", Lawia, 1996. Lawian folklore as reflected by myth. Kursrte, Janrna . Mltiskais folklord, literatura, maksla. Kg*, Lawia, 1999. The mythical in folklore, literature, and art. Mackova, Jolanta. AtraktA debess. Rig", Lawia, 1995. Lawian symbols. Mannhardt, Wilhelm. "Die lettischen Sonnenmythe n." Zeitschrirt *!'1":':::il^:l'J:Ir",3i'l;Hil'"*bu'ls'l'rimporMannhardt, Wilhelm. Letto-preussische Giitterlehre. Rig", Lawia, 1936. The best sourcebook on Baltic religion. Neuland, Lena. Jumis die Fruchtbarkeitsgottheit der alten Letten. Stockholm, 1 977 . A basic study of the fertiliry cult with extensive analyses of sources and bibliography. Pisani, Vittore. Le religioni dei Cehi e dei Baho-Skui nell'Europa precristiana. Milan, Italy, 1950. A brief comparative survey marred by linguistic shortcomings. Rudzite, Anta, ed. Latuieiu tautas dzlueszirya. 4 vols. Kg", Lawia, 1990. Lawian world perception. Skrivele, Kristrne, ed. Latuian Tales ofMagic. Riga, Lawia, 2001. Smits, Peteris. Latuieiu tautas ticejumi. Kg", Lawia, lg|1 Lawian folk beliefs. Straubergs, Karlis. Latuieiu buramie udrdi. 1939-1941. Lawian magic formulae. Straubergs, Karlis. Latuieiu tautas ?aradas. vian customs. Toporov, Vladimir. Bahu mitologijos Toporou. 2 vols. Rig*, Lawia, fug", Lawia, 1944. Lat- ir ritualo tyrimai: Rinktine/ Vilnius, 2000. Velius, Norbertas. Senoues bahu pasauleiiura.Yilnius, 1983. The world perception of ancient Balts. Velius, Norbertas. Suzeistas uejas. Vilnius, 1987. Lithuanian symbols. Velius, Norbertas, ed. Lietuuiu mitologija. Vilnius, 1997. Lithuanian mpholory. Velius, Norbenas, ed. Bahu religijos ir mitologijos iabinai (Dictionary of Baltic religion and mytholory), 4 vols. Vilnius, 1996-200 1. Zicans, Eduards. "Die Hochzeit der Sonne und des Mondes in der lettischen Mythologie." Studia Theologica I (1935): 17l200. Important as a supplement to \Tilhelm Mannhardt's solar mythology. Hennros Brczers (1987) Srcun ANrnnvn QA05) BALTIC RELIGION: NEW. RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS In the context of Baltic religion, the designation "modern movements" refers to different movements in the Baltic lands, organized or unorganized, aiming at a revival or restoration of the autochthonous pre-Christian religions, as well as at a fusion of these religions with esoteric, metaphysical, theosophical, astrological, or environmentalist teachings and practices. The polysemantic term Baltic ts used here as an ethnic denominator, with the modern Balts-Lithuanians and Lawians-as the primary focus, but with some attention paid also to Prussians and other Baltic-related groups. LrrEnenv AND Srusolrc CoNsrRUCTroNs oF BALTTc PaGANISM. Among Baltic peoples, ideas about "genuine, inherited, local, natural" religion as opposed to "borrowed, superimposed, alien, artificial" Christianity were formulated in the second half of the nineteenth centur/, during the period of gradual transition from patriarchal to modern society soon after the abolishment of serfdom. This concept of natural, local religion was reinforced in public discourse by different means, among them the Lawian epi c Laipleszs (Bear-slayer) by Andrejs Pumpurs (1841-1902), with its national hero Labplesis opposed to the Black Knight, symbolizing the cruof Lat- saders and, henceforth, the forceful Christi anlzation At that time, some remnants of pagan practices still existed in remote rural areas, and this served as a conceptual permit to treat the revived religions as a continuation of a tradition. via. The quest for a national identiry created a demand for proof that the Baltic peoples were as developed culturally as other Europeans, especially the older nations. That was one of the reasons why certain efforts were taken to construct mythological pantheons as impressive as those of the ancient Greeks. By the end of the nineteenth century, a significant amount of research on Baltic mythology was published, and many facts about the ancient worldview and religion became broadly known. Still, most of the essential topics were stud- ied insufficiently, and some of the analyses of these topics were quite controversial; for that reason, the missing elements, not necessarily documented in historical or ethnographical sources, were re-created in literature. Those new creations at times permeated serious studies, as with Teodoras Narbutas's Lithuanian Mythology, the first volume of his fundamental historical work Dzieje starolytne narodu litewshiego (1 835-1 841). Such a process took another direction in Lawia, where writers, poets, and publicists created new gods and goddesses in their literary works. In the opening part of his epic, Pumpurs created a pantheon in which well-known Lawian gods were featured along with deities from Prussian sources (and some invented deities as well). More or less invented pantheons are found in the publications of Juris Alunans (18321864), but especially in the works of Milgelis Krogzemis- Auseklis (1850-1879) and Jekabs Lautenbahs-J[smig5 (1847-1928). Thus, in the poetry of Auseklis one finds the ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION, SECOND EDITION :::a:: BALTIC RELIGION: NE\T RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS 763 Baitic priestly tradition. (Unconfirmed sources report 3e rzanskis-Klausutis succeeded in getting such recogniinonlv before the First \forld \War.) in 1937 , but was not much noticed by the public. The writer Eduards Meklers (1884-1973) planned to establish a new, syncretic religion, comprised of elements of all world religions but with a sanctuary in Latvia and with Lawian forms of worship. Considerable were the efforts of the Lithuanian writer and publisher Dom"r Sidl"uskas-Visuomis (1878-1944), who tried to revive the Romuva or Visuoma faith and religion, inspired by the ideas and writings of Vydunas. During the second decade of the fwentieth century he formulated the doctrinal basis for this religion, later partly published in the United States. But his repeated efforts to register Visuoma as a religion in 1925 were sqymied. In spite of good publicity, his sermons were not permitted after 1927 , and his lectures at the public university were banned in 1930. During the first half of the 1930s he organized Rasos celebrations in the vicinity of Sartai Lake in northeastern Lithuania. Not incidentally, he referred to the place of celebration as Romuvba name meaning "natural sanctuary" for him-thus hoping to make it the central location of the revived religion. ill;: rcrous MovEMENTS IN THE Fnsr Herr oF THE TwEN*r-T-F{ Cr,xTURY. The Prussian Lithuanian writer, mystic, DtEwuRI. Latvian Dievturrba could be considered the most successful effort to put the revived religion into organized 868-1953) and legally recognized forms. Dievturrba was founded by Er- deities and spirits, of which only Laima, Lauma, Perkons, and UsiqS-are taken --: :r Lawian folklore texts. Two are from Lithuanian and *,r', ir'r are from Prussian sources, while the rest are invented : -.useklis or taken from uncertain sources and transformed ,:rt the srylistics of his romantic works. - of almost sixry ""jnes -: , '-D)ekla, Those mythologies, like the fundamental folklore col:";: -,:rs published at the end of the nineteenth century, be-.-i..-: : ,ln€ of the cornerstones of the new constructed national -:r:,ry-.As such, they did not promote ritual practice, but -;:::: served as a symbolic marker of ethniciry. Those few : -i::- -o-l activities that did occur still preserved their symbol. -;.:iire. Thus, for instance, the Lithuanian publicist Jonas -.:'.::inas BerZanskis-Klausutis (1862-1936) tried to ; - ',,.:rtten acknowledgment from the Russian imperial rr -.i:ration that he was Kriuir4. Kriuaiti*the obad- successor of ;,r.: ::: i- r:: *,*, - r ::.ilosopher \Tilhelm Storosta-Vydfinas (1 - r,-- sr-nthesize theosophy with the Lithuanian pantheist :'". r :-,-:l Vydunas was attracted by theosophy because he :-' :" form of nonorthodox philosophical religiosiwas a doctrine that declared none of ;;'1 i : i gions to be superior, claiming instead that all ex=. :'-:::, i.:i the same esoteric truth through different languages. - ; ',,. r-s a crucial discovery fot Vydtnas, opening uP the r,,-i ::irn-of honoring the old Lithuanian religion. He con::"- : -:.i to the justification of Lithuanian paganism through i i :. .:natic works (the trilogy Amdina ugnis ["eternal fire"]), u1 i :*:ough historical and philosophical writings. Particu*d- nportant in his writings has been the concePt of Romu- :'n:'::..', ed " it as a : : : him, theosophy '{:- {.* -- ,: * : pagan Baltic (originally, Prussian) sanctuary. E the activities initiated by Vydnnas was the celebra- lr * - i Rno*the pagan Lithuanian midsummer solstice',r1 - . R.ambynas hill. The Tilsit Lithuanian singing soci.ry, -- ..r": :', '\'r-drtnas from 1895, was at the core of those celebra- 'ri ' : ;nd performed more or less regularly until 1935, when lr'i;: :-,-;ien. was closed by the Nazis. !,-,on after the First \forld 'War and the subsequent for- r , . - : of the Baltic nation-states, ideas began to circulate -: -::iing the form that the revived or renewed religions *: rake, and about how to organize them, but these pror, -.i; ird not meet with much success and were not realtzed. ri'r ; wrote a book on ancient Latvian religion and ethics to organize a non-Christian congregation. The lr"r::' - gian Janis Sanders (1858-l 95I) attempted to reform ." - j:raniqy: he sought to abandon the Old Testament, to .i:'ri :':.: and correct the Gospels by comparing them to the -:::; originals, to view the teaching of Jesus in the light of , :"r,:rra. and to shape Christian ritual in a way he supposed r r,:: specifically Latvian. In 1930 he founded the Latvian - - j:ian Sociery, which became the Larvian Christian Conru,,-' ul1 r ccs ::ied : CLOPEDIA OF RELIGION, SE,COND EDITION gregation nests Brasti4S (1892-1942), 2n artist, publicist, and researcher, together with Karlis BregZis-Marovskis ( 1 8951958?). They initiated the development of the doctrine, coined the terms Dieuturtba (Latvian religion) and Dieuturi (adepts of Dievturiba-literally, "those who keep their God"), and published the first manifesto in the brochure The Restoration of Latuian Religionin 1925. The new religious organization was registered under the name Latviu Dievtu[u Draudze (Community of Latvian Dievturi) in 1926. Following disagreements berween the rwo leaders, BrastigS in 1929 a new organization, Latvijas Dievtugu Sadraudze (Congregation of Lawian Dievturi), which kept its status as a religious organization until 1935, after that time continuing as a public organization. Latvju Dievtugu Dra udze, which had become Bregiis-Marovskis's organrzation, ceased to exist at the beginning of the 1930s. founded and registered In the following years BrastiAS tablish doctrines based did the basic work to es- on the ancient mythol oW, and to He published selections of Lawian folk-song texts, which were intended to serve as canonical rexrs revealing different aspects of the religion. The church's doctrine was published in the forrn of a catechism in Dieutuyu cerohslis (1932), in which questions related to theology, religious life, ethics, and ritual were discussed. According to this publication, Lawians have worshiped only one God, Dievs; their religion has been monotheistic, of, shape rituals and social practices. more exactly, henotheistic. Dievs is progenitor of everything, and He is omnipotent. Dievs is one, but dual-He is spirit and matter, Father and Mother, the good and the bad simulraneously. Mara is a goddess representing the material aspect of Dievs, while Laima is the aspect of Dievs connected with causaliry, fate, and fortune. Brasti45 described humans as being threefold-they consist of augums (body) , uelis (astral 764 BALTIC RELIGIoN: NE\r RE,LIGIoUS MoVEME,NTS body), and du1sele (soul). The body is composed of rough matter and is subject to destruction; the astral body is formed of thin, subtle matrer and enrers W lu uakts (the world of shades) after death, staying there until it gradually disappears; the soul is imperishable, eternal, and reaches Dievs's abode after death. The moral norms of Dievturrba were expressed as imperatives, the most imporranr of which is "Be good!" Humans were presumed to be naturally good, because that was Dievs's intention, and any deviation from that was considered to be a mistake. Dievturi propagated the use of vernacular names for calendar months (these are still are in use in Lithuania) " Additionally, they used their own method of reckoning time: for the adepts of Dievturiba the starting point was "rhe period of the formation of Aryans (meaning Indo-Europeaos)," which was assumed to be some 10,000 years ago. To mark this, a 1 was added to the year of the Christian era, so thar, for example, 11926 corresponds to 1926 cn. According to the statute of the Congregation of Latvian Dievturi, membership in the church was open to Lawian nationals of both sexes. There was an elected Diiuadonis (Grand Leader) at the head of the organizarion, while the regional sections were permitted their own leaders. Also, no ordained priests were intended; instead, there could be only the performers of ritual actions. The movement gained ground during the 1930s, its members and supporrers being mostly intellectuals-students, artists, academics, and teachers. The congregational activities included me etings, holy services, calendar celebrations, and life-cycle celebrations such as wed- dings and funerals. The Congregation of Latvian Dievturi published their magazine Labietis (The good, noble man), from 1933 until 1940. Before that, BregZis-Marovskis also published a magazine, Dieutuyu Vlstnesis, from 1928 until 1929, as well as his version of Dievturrba's doctrine, The Teachirug of Latuian Religizn (1 93 1). DURTNG THE Sounr AND Nazl OccupnrIONS. The devotees of Baltic paganism can be characterized as the modelers of a new, narional faith that was intended to support national statehood and lay a new, firm spiritual foundation for it. After the occupation of the Baltic countries by the U.S.S.R., p"gan movemenrs were claimed to be of a chauvinistic character, and thus inherently inimical to the ideas of communism and internationalism. They were destroyed and their members persecuted. BrastigS was deported and shot dead in a Russian prison in 1942. REucrous MovsuENTS These movements partly survived in exile and in secret during the whole occupation period, but the story of this requires a special study, as only a few facts are known concerning their status during the Soviet period. Stasys Jameikis, the follower of Sidl",trkas-Visuomis, tried to orga nize some religious activities even under the extreme conditions of life in a Soviet forced labor camp. Certain elements of Dievturi's rituals, or at least some outward signs, were present at weddings and funerals when nonconformist pagans were participants. The first initiatives to revive the Dievturi movement in exile were started in Germany by 1944, and in Sweden by the beginning of the 1950s. The most vigorous developmenr of the movement occurred in the United States starting at the end of 1 940s, under the leadership of Ernests Brastig5's brother Arvids. Arvids BrastigS became the Grand Leader in 1947, and he kept this position until his death in 1984. The religion has been registered as rhe Lawian Church Dievturi in Illinois. To meet congregational needs, a church complex named Dievseta was built in \Wisconsin. The magazine Labietis was relaunched in 1955, and has been published continuously since then. Smaller groups of Dievturi emerged at different periods in Canada, Ausrralia, and Great Britain. The exile Dievturi church was by led by Janis Palieps from 1985 until 1990; by Mar$ers Grrns, the son-in-law ofArvids Brasti+5, until 1995; by Juris Kf avigS until 2000; and, since 2000, by Palieps again. Nnw Rnucrous MovEnaENTS rN THE Sncoiro Herr or A resurgence of ethnically based religiosiry in the Baltics emerged at the end of the 1960s, a development that should be viewed in the conrext of global cultural changes. The new religious movements were less uniform, less dogmatic; they displayed much more interest in the preservation of nature and of cultural herirage. At the same time, these morrements were much more open to other traditions and influences; they were essentially pantheistic. Most of the neopagans displayed marked interest in folk tradition and folklore in general; therefore they can often be viewed as the extremist wing of folklore movements. THE TwETTIETH CENruRy. One of the characteristics of most Lithuanian and Latviin the modern period is the presence of pan-Baltism. This encompasses the study of the traditions of kindred peoples-Lithuanians, Larvians, Curonians, Prussians, Yatvings-with the goal of finding a quintessential primitive spirit, which would embody the ancient heritage when followed consciously. Feelings of ethnic kinship have led to closer cooperation between modern Balts, as well as between Balts and neighboring peoples-Poles, Belarussians, German Prussians-who are presumed to have inherited certain aspects of ancient Baltic religion. an religious movements Rouuve. Lithuanian Ramuva (Romuva) was revived in 1957 as the Association for the Study of Local Culture. Its first and most important activiry was the organization of Rasos celebrations, which involved an ever-increasing number of participants. A strong impulse for the movemenr's de- velopment was provided by Professor Marija Gimbutas (1921-1994), who visited Lithuania in 1968 and delivered one or (most likely) rwo lectures on Baltic history and mythology at Vilnius Universiqy. The association was dissolved and the Rasos celebrations stopped in L971 after the group was accused of becoming increasingly nationalistic and of being involved in religious activiry, but the org anization was reborn in 1988 as the Association for Lithuanian Ethnic Culture. To distinguish between cultural and religious activities, a new organrz2siep-the Communiry of Baltic Faith RomuENCYCLOPE,DIA OF RELIGION, SECOND EDITION BALTIC RELIGION: NE\T RELIGIOUS \-a-was officially registered in 1992. Additionally, a termi- nological distinction was agreed uPon: Romuua would refer ro the religion, and Ramuuato the much broader movement ci preseruation, study, practice, and dissemination of ethnic ;ulture. As of 2001, twelve regional Romuva organizations had emerged in Lithuania, with a collective membership of about rwo thousand members and numerous suPporters. There are Romuva organizations in Can ada, Russia, and the L-nited States. Vilija \(itte, a member of the Canadian Ro:rtruva, published six issues of the magazine Sacred Serpentin Canada in 1 994-1995, with a focus on traditional Baltic cul:rre, old beliefs, and indigenous Lithuanian religion. The Romuva faith emphasizes the sacredness of nature ind of humans first and foremost. The contact of adepts with ::re divine is based on tradition and Personal experience. Tra- iirional Lithuanian gods-Dievas, Laima' Perkunas, the core of One mandatory. not but Ze mvna-are preferred, to aspire believers Darna(harmony); is faith r,)oCepts of the in and home at harmony to create endeavor harmon/, -::ner pursue harmony with ancestors' and seek : armony with the universe-with life and with the divini:res. The essential moral concept is Dora. This encompasses :-specr for Nature, for all expressions of life. It asks for a con::dent and loving attitude towards the world, refusing vio--nce and vengeance. On account of its doctrine of Doraand ::e traditional toleration of other faiths in the Grand Duchy : i Lithuania, Romuva claims it does not negate other reli:ions. This claim is perhaps best understood in light of its '* ir-\- flexible doctrinal formulations, with their emphasis on ::e experience of the divine. Humans (male dmogus, female ,rroril are children of the Earth (Zeme), and therefore are :esponsible for other life forms. There is no essential differ:rce between the status of men and women, and the domi: r.nt view is that both can Participate in all rituals and on -l hierarchical levels. ::e communiry, The three biggest Romuva communities joined to make :,-re Union of the Religion of Ancient Balts in 2001. Restor"nq rhe priestly class, a circle of ritual elders (Vaidih1' Ratas) -,i..ls established, and the highest priest (Kriuis) was chosen ;rd ordained in 2002. The new Kriuis, Jonas Trinkunas (b. ::139), was given the name Jaunius after an elaborate ritual : n the Gediminas hill, which is believed to be the burial :lace of Grand Duke Gediminas of the fourteenth century' : ne of the last pagan rulers of the Grand Duchy. Following these developments, a public discussion has )een sparked concerning the validiry of the Kriuis institution. -lrqumenrs in favor of it cite the continuation of pagan Prac:ices up until the lwentieth centuY, and claim that "native is a significant constituent Part of modLithuanianness. Additionally, a discussion was initiated in Parliamenr in 2001 on the question of whether or not the R.eligion ofAncient Balts should be reco gnized as a tradition-,, .thtic religiosiry" .rn al religion, alongside Catholicism, Russian Orthodoxl, Judaism, and others. As of 2003 there has been no resolution to iiris issue. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION, SECOND EDITION MOVEMENTS 765 tVorld Romuva has initiated the ofganrzation of the Congress of Ethnic Religions (\WCER)-an institution consisting of "ethnical and/or traditional and/or native religious gro*pr." It is primarily concerned with the protection and d.,r.lopment of ethnic cultures, religions, and identities, and the "eihnic religions" are defined as "surviving ancient religions, such as Hinduism, or animism of various other culLrr.r, as well as religions in the process of restoration, such as the Iceland rc Asaffu,Lawtan Dieuturi, Lithuanian RomuuA and others." The objectives of the \7CER, as stated in its regulations, are to: 1. Spread educational knowledg. about ethnic ""a cultures their religions, while propagating mutual trust and tolerance for the peoples of Europe and the entire world. 2. Through education, ProPagation and the organization of support for the apPropriate projects Preserve ethnii cultures and religions, safeguard them from tinction and propagate such ideas. 3. Unift people and organLzations engaged in ex- ethno- cultural and ethno-religious activities within Lithuania and outside its borders. 4. Fight against religious discrimination. 5. Undertake other kinds of activities concerning ethnic culture and ethnic religions. The first Congress was held in Vilnius, Lithuania, in 1998, and several countries were represented there: Belarus, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France' Germany, br...., India, Lawia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, Ukraine, and the United States. Six congresses were arranged by the fall of 2003, all in Lithuania. A newsletter, the Oakt has been published since 1999. DmVruru: CONTEMPoRARY DEvsroPMENTs. The Dievturi organlzation was restored officially in 1990, shortly before the regaining of Lawian national independence. A few years later, in 1995, the Latvian parliament recognized it as one of the traditional religions of Lawia. The Congregarion of Lawian Dievturi has sections and regional organizations: according to the 2001 census, their ,r,r*b.r is twelve, with the total number of members exceeding six hundred. There have been significant changes in the approach to leadership questions within the communiry. The first Grand Leader after the restoration was Eduards Detlavs (1919-1 992); ir was his initiative to drop this title. From 1992 to 1995, Dievturi in Latvia accePted the leadership of Marfers Grtns, who was the head of the Dievturi church in exile. He was followed by Janis Brikmanis and, since 1998, by Romans Pussars (b. 1932). Simultaneously, Grrns has been regarded as the Dievturi's highest authority globally. The main forms of Dievturi's religious activities are congregational meetings, celebration of calendar holidays, and lif.-.y.le celebrations-weddings, funerals, and so on. The Dievturi church has the right to register marriage, and in 'ffi 766 BALTIC RELIGION: NE\T RELIGIoUS MoVEMENTS 2001 four couples availed themselves of this possibiliry. Members of the Dievturi church organize summer camps and lecture courses, and have effectively tried to introduce Lawian folklore, mythology, and ethics teaching into the curriculum of general education schools. The magazine Dieutuyu Vestnesis was published from 1989 until L996. Two opinions of what Dievturrba is have emerged recently in public discourse. According to the first, it is a religion, practiced by members of the Dievturi church. The other position rends, in reaction ro the decreasing significance of the Dievturi church, to rrear a much broader spectrum of modern folkloric expression as parr of Dievturrba practice. MovnnaENTs AND Gnoups wrrH MencrNAL Rnrrcrous INThe Lawian folklore movement was started in the second hait of the I970s as a grassroots effort seeking the VOLVEMENT. preservation, study, practice, and dissemination of ethnic culture. \fhile concentrating on songs, dances, and calendar and life-cycle celebratio ns, folklo rists occasio nally perfo rmed rituals, incantations, and offcrings ro deities, claiming to do these things "as rhey used to be done in the olden days." This approach ro religion, xs well as the doctrine of Dievturi giving higher starus to narion than to God, has been criticized by Modris Slava (b. 1946), the leader of the Latvij"r Viedas Sadraudziba (Lawian Fellowship for Spiritual Knowledg.)-a theosophical circle with the aim of interprering Lawian (and more generally, Baltic) religion from a theosophical viewpoint. According to Slava, the spiritual life of a sociery has three hierarchical levels: spiritual knowledge (Vieda) on the rop, spiritual practice or religion (Lrsa) thereafter, and paganism or remnants of previously existing religious systems on the bottom. Through the adaptation of supranational spiritual knowledge ro specific national conditions, a national religion emerges. Slava concludes, however, that Dievturiba does not possess the requisite spiritual knowledg. and is therefore on the level of paganism. Because of this statement and later frictions, the rwo organiza- 1isn5-Dievturi and Latvijas Viedas Sadrau dzlba-have, despite initial intentions ro cooperare in the field of recreating Latvian/Baltic religion, distanced themselves from each other more and more. The fellowship of Lithuanian pagan faiths Senas is Zynys (The Old Sorcerer) has emerged in the 1990s as a circle cen- tered around Andielika TamaS-a conrroversial person claiming to be a successor of Baltic Selonian sorcerers. Some issues of the newsletter Senasis Zynys have been published in Lithuania, presenting the fellowship's vision of a Baltic worldview, religion, symbolism, and healing (Gaiua). The group has tried to register as a religious community at the Ministry of Justice, but so far with little success. TamaS has a group of followers in Lawia, roo, led by Uldis Zandbergs and closely related to another spiritual communiry. This related communiry is the center of spiritual culture known as Baltais Aplis (The \Mhite Circle). Since its founda- tion in 1991, the center has been led by the painrer Lilita PostaZa (b. 1941). Aiming ar the promotion of personal freedom and spiritual developmenr, they practice Hindu, Agni Yoga rituals, combining them with Baltic religious and magic ceremonies-solstice celebrations and offerings ro deities. Certain aspects of Baltic religion are presenr in several groups having no official status or institutionalized formpractitioners of differenr energy and healing arrs, paleoasrronomers, and environmentalists and the green movement. Particularly interesting is the Pokai$i phenomenon in Lawia. Pokaiqi Forest, locared close to the town of Dobele in south- ern Lawia, received public attention in the second half of 1990s due to the efforts of publicist and paleoasrronomer Ivars Viks (1933-2002), and of Rasma Rozrte, follower of the teaching of Babaji and an acrive member of Baltais Aplis. Pokaigi was claimed to be an ancient healing and ritual place, a doorway to Shambhala, providing intense radiation of cosmic energy. This hilly, forested spor with numerous srone piles, scattered in an areaof about four hundred hectares, has become a place of healing, worship, and pilgrimage nor only for Latvians but for visitors from other countries as well, more than a thousand of whom visit weekly in season. Snn Arso Saule. BlgLIoGRAPHY Biezais, Haralds. "Diev6s1i-nacionalie romantilgi-senlawie5i." Celi 1, no. 44 (1992): 43-59. BrastigS, Ernesrs. Dieutuyu cerokslis jeb teoforu katpismr Riga, Lat- via, 1932. BrastigS, Ernesrs. Tautai, Dieuam, Teuzemei. Nga, Lawia, 1993. Dardedzis, Jani s. Latuju dieuestlba: Iss parskats./ Laarian Religion: An Outline. New York, 1968. Glodenis, Donatas. "New and Non-Traditional Religious Movements in Lithuania." A paper presenred at the fourteenth international CESNUR conference "New Religiosiry in the 2lst century," August 29-31, 2000, Rig". Available from h ttp / /www. ces n u r. o rglco nfe re nce s I riga2} 00 / gl o de n i s h tm. KlotigS, Arnolds. "The Lawian Neo-Folklore Movement and the Political Changes of the Late Twentieth Century." World of Music 44, no. 3 (2002): 107-130. Krumina-Konkova, Solveiga. "Maybe Shambhala Is Here: Esoteric Quests in Lawia Today." A p"per presented at the CESNUR 2003 international conference "Religion and Democracyi An Exchange of Experiences berween East and \7esr," rrom h"p: t t : H . ..il ?'.,;,;Yor,",fft;1,#illlL Muktupavels, Valdis. "Baltu mitolof ija)' Sarunas 155. IV(2003)' 1 42- Pumpurs, Andrejs. LdiplEszi. Introduction and commenrs (in Latvian) by Jazeps Rudzitis. Riga, Lawia, 1988. Li"ile. "Archaic Folklore Elemenrs in Contemporary Everyday Life." In Contemporary Folklore: Changing world wew and Tradition, edited by Mare K6iva, pp. 79-85. Tarru, Esronia, 1995. Saivars, Juris. "Ka atbildet dievturiem." Mantojums L (L997): 49RamoSkaite-sverdioliene, 90. E,NCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION, SECOND EDITION BALTIC RELIGION: HISTORY OF Modris. "The Situation of Spiritual Culture and Problems in Lawia" (in Lawian). Viedas Vestis 3 (199I): L-2. Slava, !crvs, Juozas. "Continuation of the Kriaislnstitution" (in Lithuanian) . Liaudies kuhura (2003) : 12-20. | I :i n ktnas, Jona s. Baltry ti k ij imas : Lietuuiry p asaulij auta, p ap ro iiai, apeigos, denhlai. ';i-:e Vilnius, 2000. nch, Piotr. "Neopaganism in Central-Eastern EuroPe." Available from http: //vinland. org/heath enl pagancee I . Vnrols MurruPAvELS (2005) 3.\ITIC RELIGION: HISTORY OF STUDY --::rugh the concepts of pre-Christian Baltic religion have - : : reen system atized, they can be reconstructed using sever,- i.: irces that contain pre-Christian elements. These sources - : ,Je : artifacts found in archaeological digs; folklore texts' - : anicular Lawian and Lithuanian formulaic folk songs' and magic incantations; written texts, such as medi:. :r -fironicles; records of witch trials from the sixteenth cen::. the first half of the eighteenth century; church visita:.cords; written accounts of travelers; geograPhical : ::',.-:.:rions of the Baltic territories; and archaic elements re._,: language, in particular in toponyms and hy.- : * ::-;s. l:re earliest written records that provide information ,-r', -: :he Baltic pre-Christian religion are found in Germa',,,,*, :< i,,'ritten during the first centu{y Cr by the Roman his- .: Publius Cornelius Tacitus, who mentions that the -:: i ierm coined by him to refer to the "people of the '"\orshiped the mother of God (Lat., matrem deum :"-, * 'i ; ",it,,'q,',.''@ ''tiir,'!'). The Anglo-Saxon traveler Wulfstan visited the ' '* i .:r seashore berween the years 887 and 901, and his deii-, "' " : , :r of that journey offers various items of information ,i,r,', - ::.: Prussian concepts of death and burial. There are :::*r ;i:ronicles that also provide significant, although not *.:ically recorded, material about the early religious " .:'::: For instance, Adam of Bremen (d. 1081) in his iii'"' " "":"'i , ;::* ':r:: ' ;- -.;:r has supplied testimony of the existence of fortune'::'-' ":C prophets among the Baltic peoples. Relatively ,;;' '"' :ir"'-'* *'l rll ltr ::; ('s il::lllil ] the first quarter of the centuy, which describe various historic events in -: "::Ce Lettis), written during -.-,:. '-.,:"r: T;:;,#";i:"i:;' 1,::;;:; *: i ; :. -s occurring from 1180 to 1227. ;' ::e end of the rwelfth century, German merchants ii,tr:ll:'i*,:* :: .,,,irh Christian missionaries settled in Lawia. In u ,,,,;,. . , r .i*' ..:l#?TiHI;ff i? S:i:JTl:f:i?i#,'; i I -r colrlbat the pagan religion Practiced by the Balt ir - :.:-Ugrian peoples. At about the same time, Chrisii;,uiiii' r-::,., - - : bv sword of another Baltic population, the Prus- ,uurlru iriiltiii"rri lasted for several cent"ti.t. A significant in.. source for Prussian religious concepts is Petrus de -: : Chronicon terrAe Prussiae (Chronicle of the land .,:-rLit ,ill.,l""*.,-,, . ',r,,rirt'::' ""d -- P EDIA OF RELIGION, SECOND EDITION of Prussia, 1326), STUDY 767 xs well as Preussische Chronik (Prussian in the nineteenth centulf) by and other historical (d. Chronicles 1530). Grunau Simon chronicles, published only sources name the major Prussian deities: Swaikstiks (the sun god), Perkuns (the god of thunder), Puskaitis (the god of the foterts), and Pekols (the god of the netherworld and animals). Petrus de Dusburg's Chronicnn mentions rzmow, the principal Prussian sanctuary, which was also worshiped and recognized as the most important in Lithuania and Lawia, parr of Livonia. From these chronicles we learn that the oakencircled sanctuary was ruled over by the Prussian high priest, called Kriue kriuaitis, and that the Prussians burned one-third of their spoils of war there as a sacrifice to their gods. Located in the center was an evergreen oak, in whose branches were located images of the three main deities. The traveler Ghillebert de Lannoy (1385-1414) was in Livonia from 1413 to 1 4L4 and wrote in his travel accounts, among other things, about the burial traditions of the Lawian Curonian tribe, specific ally that the dead were burned in a bonfire built of oak. If smoke climbed directly to heaven, the dead soul was said to travel directly to the gods, but if the smoke blew sideways, then the dead soul was lost. Information about the ways the Balts and the Finno- Ugrian tribe prophesized the future and discerned future events before critical moments in life is to be found in the Henrici chronicon Liuonia. Using these same methods the Latgallians (a Lawian tribe) made their decision to become Christians according to the Russian or Latin PrecePts, and in a similar fashion the Zemgallians, also known as the Semigallians, and Curonians of Latvia, sought answers from their pagan gods about the outcome of their battles. Another ancient form of fortune-telling is described in the Reimchronih (Rhy-ed chronicles; c.I250-1300), where a Lithuanian milirary leader, finding himself captive, discovers the fate of his soldiers in the field by gazrng at an animal's shoulder blade as if at some sort of film screen. In his history of Poland, the Polish chronicler Ioannes maprovides Dlugoszius (or Johannes Dlugosz, 1415-1480) Following deities. and rituals terial about Lithuanian pagan the style that was popular at that time in Europe, Dlugosz does nor call the Lithuanian deities by their Lithuanian names, but, depending on their function, assigns to them their respective Greek and Roman names-Vulcanus, J,tPiter, Diana, Silvanus, and Aesculapius. In 1589, Salomon Henning (1528-1589), the duke of Courland and Gotthard Ketler's advisor in spiritual matters, wrote that the Lawians of Courland (Kurzeme) and Semigallia (Zem*ale) worshiped as deities the sun, the stars, and such animals as the toad. Henning also wrote that the people themselves had the abiliry to turn into werewolves. He describes an incident that he himself witnessed in which the counrry folk fed milk to toads and snakes until they grew fat and swollen; when they were chopped in two, milk flowed from their bodies. Old women then came running, wailing and screaming that their "mother of milk" had been killed.