Saturday 31 May 1941

Damage caused by four high-explosive bombs dropped by German aircraft on the North Strand area of Dublin City during the early morning hours of 31 May 1941. The casualties were many: 28 dead and 90 injured, with 300 houses damaged or destroyed. The Irish Red Cross provided emergency shelter for people made homeless by the bombing at the Mansion House and in parish halls throughout the city. This is known as the North Strand Bombing

Anglo/Iraq War: The end is at hand at Baghdad for the Iraqi government on 31 May 1941. With the Rashid Ali government and the Grand Mufti both having fled to Persia (taking refuge in the Japanese legation), the surrender is left to the Mayor of Baghdad and his delegation. The Mayor meets the British at the Washash Bridge along with British Ambassador Sir Kinahan Cornwallis, who has been confined to the British Embassy all month.

The British decide not to occupy Baghdad, which is a very practical decision due to the small strength (1200) of British forces in the vicinity. The British invite Prince 'Abd al-Ilah to return to the city. As part of the armistice, both sides release prisoners (except for German and Italian POWs of the British). The British allow the Iraqi troops to return o their barracks with their equipment.

Without an effective government, Baghdad descends into an orgy of looting and attacks. The government heretofore has protected the city's Jewish Quarter, but now that protection is gone. About 120 Jewish inhabitants perish and 850 are injured before the British and the incoming (returning) government restore order.

Without flyable planes, the German military mission (Sonderkommando Junck) departs for Syria on foot (the last arriving 10 June). The eight or so Italian Fiat CR-42 fighters of 155th Squadriglia still operational at Kirkuk fly to Syria, thence to Rhodes (two are destroyed by the Italians as unusable).

In the Reich, Reichsmarschall Hermann Goering  makes a lame attempt to explain the Iraq disaster to Hitler and Foreign Minister Joachim Ribbentrop:

They don't know anything about aviation out there, and airlifting fuel would have been pointless and costly.

It is a feeble excuse for the utter failure of the Luftwaffe in Iraq. The British have managed to win in Iraq precisely because of its adroit use of airpower. The failed Iraq campaign probably never was a winnable proposition for the Axis due to the inherent British advantages in the region (large numbers of Indian troops close at hand, for instance), but Germany could have made a better showing and thereby curried stature within the Arab world.

"Lieutenant General Bernard Freyberg VC, commanding officer of the British forces on Crete, gazes over the parapet of his dug-out in the direction of the German advance, May 1941." © IWM (E 3020E). Freyberg leaves Crete on a Sunderland flying boat in the early hours of 31 May 1941.

European Air Operations: In the early morning hours, the Luftwaffe bombs Dublin at 02:00. There are 28 killed, 87 seriously injured and hundreds made homeless. The Irish lodge a diplomatic protest with London, who characterizes the incident as a navigational error caused by high winds. The Luftwaffe also bomb Liverpool and areas along the Mersey and the Bristol area during the night, so there is some plausibility to the German denial of intent as those areas are not too distant from Dublin.

May 1941 marks the end of the Blitz or at least the most effective and devastating phase of it. The Luftwaffe is busy moving aircraft to Poland in order to support future operations in the Soviet Union. British civilian losses for the period September 1940 - May 1941 inclusive, which do include some military personnel on leave and the like, are estimated to total 39,678 dead and 46,119 injured.

At Black Tarset Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, four people, including a seven-year-old girl and an eleven-year-old Boy Scout, succumb to gas fumes emanating from a bomb crater. Two firemen (Larry Young and Leading Fireman Bruce) descend into the crater to rescue them. Young manages to retrieve the bodies and also rescue Bruce, who passes out from the fumes. Larry Young receives the George Medal for his gallantry and Bruce is commended. One of the victims, Auxiliary Fireman Wanless, earns a posthumous commendation.

Londoners wearing gas masks during a gas drill in Richmond Surrey, 31 May 1941. The Blitz is over, but nobody knows that.

East African Campaign: The British are mopping up throughout various areas of Abyssinia. Middle East Commander General Archibald Wavell also is preparing a plan of attack against French Somaliland. Next on the docket is an assault on the last Italian port on the Red Sea Assab. Planned for mid-June, this will be Operation Chronometer.

Battle of the Atlantic: It is a big day for the U-boat fleet. A massive presence of U-boats has been sent into the Atlantic in support of (now sunk) battleship Bismarck and heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen, and today the move pays off - though it is fairer to say that the U-boat fleet sinkings are simply time-shifted due to the dispositions rather than there being any net increase over what would normally have taken place.

U-106 (Kptlt. Jürgen Oesten), on its extended second patrol out of Lorient, spots an unescorted freighter north of the Cape Verde Islands. Oesten pumps one torpedo into 6843-ton British freighter Clan Macdougall, the first at 03:31, the second at 03:45. There are two deaths and 85 survivors who make it to the islands.

U-69 (Kptlt. Jost Metzler), on its third patrol out of Lorient, penetrates the harbor of Accra, Ghana and fires a torpedo at 5445-ton British freighter Sangara. The Sangara sinks in 33 feet of water, and her bow remains visible. The Sangara will be salvaged in 1943 (refloated, cargo recovered and sold) and returned to service in 1947.

U-107 (Kptlt. Günther Hessler), on its second patrol out of Lorient, is operating near Freetown, Sierra Leone when it spots 5664-ton British freighter Sire. Hessler hits Sire on the starboard bows with a torpedo, and the Sire sinks in ten minutes. There are three deaths, while the 46 survivors (including the master) are picked up by HMS Marguerite.

SS Gravelines, sunk by U-147 on 31 May 1941.

U-147 (Oblt. Eberhard Wetjen), on its third patrol out of Bergen, is operating northwest of Bloody Foreland, Ireland in the shipping lanes when it spots 2491 ton British freighter Gravelines. The Gravelines was part of Convoy HX-127 but fell behind for some reason and convoys don't slow down for stragglers. A torpedo splits the Gravelines in half, though the forward part of the ship remains afloat and later is towed to the Clyde, beached at Kames Bay, and scrapped in 1942. There are 11 deaths, including the master, and 25 survivors who are picked up by escort HMS Deptford and taken to Liverpool.

U-204 (Kptlt. Walter Kell), on its first patrol out of Kiel, is operating in the Denmark Strait (northwest of Dyrafjordur, Iceland) when it spots 16 Icelandic fishing boat Holmsteinn. Kell decides not to waste a torpedo on it, and also wants to disable its wireless before the position can be broadcast, so surfaces and sinks it with gunfire. All four aboard perish.

U-38 (Kptlt. Heinrich Liebe), on its extended ninth patrol out of Lorient and operating off Liberia, hits independent 6029-ton Norwegian freighter Rinda with two torpedoes at 00:24. There are five deaths immediately, including the master, and more when the ship sinks before the boats can be launched. There are 18 survivors. The ship's sinking is noted by the rescue of ship's cat Rinda, who is found swimming after the ship sinks by the men in the lifeboat, which the survivors manage to right. Rinda serves out the war on the rescue ship, HMS Pict.

German heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen spends its last full day at sea in the Atlantic, heading toward Brest with engine trouble. Despite numerous Royal Navy warships in the vicinity and RAF patrols, nobody spots it.

US Navy Task Group 1, led by the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown (CV-5), departs from Bermuda on a two-week neutrality patrol. It will cover over 4500 miles (7424 km). Yorktown carries VF-41, VS-41 and VS-42, and VT-5.

For the month of May 1941, total Allied shipping losses in the Battle of the Atlantic fall slightly, from 616,469 tons to 486,796 tons. This is primarily due to a steep drop in losses to surface raiders, from 91,579 tons to 15,002 tons, and to the Luftwaffe, from 323,454 tons to 146,302 tons. U-boat losses actually rise, from 249,375 tons to 325,492 tons.

"New Zealand soldiers from 19th Battalion on board an Australian destroyer (either HMAS Nizam or HMAS Napier) following their evacuation from Crete, c. 31 May 1941." (New Zealand History).

Overall, merchant shipping losses in May 1941 are a total of 119 Allied ships with 436,544 tons in the Atlantic, and 20 Allied ships with 74,498 tons elsewhere in European waters. On the other hand, the Axis loses 20 ships with 74,498 tons in the Mediterranean. Royal Navy losses are heavy due to the loss of HMS Hood in the Atlantic and a bunch of warships in the waters around Crete.

There is 1 U-boat sunk in the Atlantic (U-110, briefly captured), Arctic or Baltic, and 32 serviceable U-boats are on duty in the Atlantic. The Italians continue to maintain a strong submarine presence out of Bordeaux, but, while they make occasional sinkings, generally their patrols are much less efficient in terms of enemy aircraft sunk that Kriegsmarine craft.

Commodore L.W. Murray RCN is appointed Commander of the Newfoundland Escort Force (NEF). He reports to Commander-in-Chief, Western Approaches, Admiral Sir Percy Noble in Liverpool.

Convoy OB 329 departs from Liverpool, Convoy WS 8X (Winston Special) departs from the Clyde bound for Freetown and thence Capetown. WS 8X is escorted by the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious, showing its importance - it includes large transports Duchess of Bedford (20,123 tons) and Waiwera (10,800 tons), among other ships.

Royal Navy tug HMS Dart is commissioned.

Canadian corvette HMCS Sudbury is launched at Kingston, Ontario.

U-502 (Kptlt. Jürgen von Rosenstiel) is commissioned, U-435 is launched, U-291 and U-617 are laid down.

Soviet submarine SC-411 is launched.

"Evacuation: The troops being served with tea on the quayside after disembarking at an Egyptian port. Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Freyberg VC ordered the evacuation to commence on 28 May 1941. 16,500 were rescued, including 2000 Greeks. The rest were left dead or prisoners in German hands." 31 May 1941 © IWM (E 3295).

Battle of the Mediterranean: The British evacuation from Crete begins winding down as the Luftwaffe's domination over the waters south of the island increases. The capture of new airfields at Heraklion (Candia), Retimo (Rethymno), and elsewhere raises the Luftwaffe's power to new heights, and the RAF is powerless to prevent extremely accurate Junkers Ju 87 Stuka attacks on warships during daylight hours. The problem for the Royal Navy is that, while they can make it to the key embarkation ports such as Sfakia during darkness, they can't get clear of the island before dawn - and Luftwaffe pilots are early risers.

During the night of 31 May/1 June, about 4,000 men are taken off. These are the final evacuations from Sfakia. Light cruiser HMS Phoebe leads the evacuation contingent there. They are covered by a large force including cruisers Calcutta and Coventry. The Luftwaffe damages destroyer Napier, one of the ships at Sfakia.

There are 16,511 men land at Alexandria on 31 May 1941 from Crete. However, this is just a fraction of the thousands of British and Dominion troops still on the island, let alone thousands of Greek soldiers. Many of the Allied soldiers barely escaped from the mainland during the Germans' Operation Marita, and now they find themselves caught in the same kind of trap on Crete. A small number can be taken out by two Sunderland flying boats, but only 54 senior officers (including General Freyberg) make it out that way.

A British soldier stands by a cave on Crete being used as an air-raid shelter. Many British Commonwealth troops left behind after the evacuation would make use of such caves to avoid capture (© IWM (E 3022E)).

The tables on Crete turn - the RAF now is the air force that bombs Maleme and Heraklion during the night.

The Germans and Italians seize a large number of ships at Suda Bay:

7258 ton British freighter Araybank (damaged, taken to Trieste)
6343 ton British freighter Dalesman (beached, taken to Trieste)
6397 ton Greek freighter Nicolauou Ourania, beached but refloated and renamed Nikolaus for German use
7073 ton British tanker Olna (beached, but refloated and used).

The Italians have a case of friendly fire when one of their bombers accidentally drops a bomb on Italian torpedo boat Pleiadi near Tobruk. The master runs it aground and eventually is written off.

In Malta, it is a quiet day in the air. However, the ruins of the building that housed the former Courts of Justice fall into the city's main street. This blocks Kingsway until the street can be cleared.

"Evacuation: A wounded soldier being brought ashore on a stretcher at an Egyptian port after the evacuation from Crete. A total of 16,500 were rescued, including 2000 Greeks. The rest were left dead or prisoners in German hands."  31 May 1941 © IWM (E 3284).

War Crimes: On or around 31 May 1941, the courts-martial reach verdicts of at least three men (the commanding officer, a regimental sergeant major and a sergeant) aboard HMT Dunera. Held at Chelsea Barracks in London on 26-27 May 1941, the secret proceedings are given no media attention and no record of the proceedings have survived. The Dunera transported refugees from England to Australia under fantastically abysmal conditions during June/September 1940.

Predatory actions alleged against the crew and those aboard to look after the 2700 refugees aboard include savage beatings and theft. One refugee jumped overboard. Many aboard the vessel are Jews fleeing continental Europe, and it is believed that some already had been in concentration camps.

The courts-martial hold three men guilty. These include Major William Patrick Scott, the ship's master, who is severely reprimanded. His regimental sergeant major is jailed for 12 months.

Not enough is known about the Dunera Chelsea Barracks proceedings to affix firm dates to matters related to them. Note that other relevant dates are 18 February 1941, when a decision to hold a court of inquiry is confirmed, and 13 May 1941, when the issuance of a report of the court of inquiry is confirmed. References are made to the proceedings in the 24 February 1941 Commons Official Report and the 17 January 1979 records of the House of Lords.

General Freyberg on the cover of Illustrated London News, 31 May 1941.

The latter report confirms regarding the Dunera incident that it is:

clear that a court of inquiry was held. No details are given about its composition, though it is recorded that only one internee was available to give evidence to it. This is the only available evidence relating to the holding of the inquiry, and it must be assumed that the full record of the proceedings was subsequently destroyed in accordance with the rules about disposal of public records applicable at the time.

This Dunera incident is a rare incident of a warring power prosecuting its own military personnel for improper and abusive conduct during World War II. While the Germans did this at times, it was rare despite many occasions when it most certainly was warranted. The Wehrmacht had standing orders at various times and places throughout the war to be given "leave to not prosecute" soldiers for war crimes.

As a coda to this sad chapter, many of the HMT refugees ultimately returned to England after the war. A sizeable fraction remained in Australia and began new lives there. All traces of the camp where they were interned have disappeared save the access road and a memorial plaque.

On Crete, the temporary commander of Crete General Kurt Student responds to demands from his Fallschirmjäger by publishing an order authorizing reprisals against the local population. Many German troops are incensed at military actions taken against them by Greek civilians on the island and want revenge. This order plants the seeds for long-lasting hatred between Cretan civilians and Germans that extends long past the war.

The reprisals are to consist of shooting, fines, burning villages or even extermination of the male population. Several senior officers leave the conference in protest of the order, but it does go into effect and reprisals are taken. This will lead to charges made against General Student after the war.

"Evacuation: Women and children, civilian refugees from the fighting come ashore at an Egyptian port after their evacuation from Crete. A total of 16,500 were rescued including 2000 Greeks." 31 May 1941 © IWM (E 3288).

Spy Stuff: German Lt. Col. Edwin Scholl confides to Richard Sorge in Tokyo that 170 to 190 German divisions are massed on the Soviet border and the invasion will begin on June 15.

POWs: Lieutenant Peter Allan of the Queens Own Cameron Highlanders, who escaped from the Colditz Castle POW camp in a mattress carried by French Army POWs on 10 May 1941, makes it to Vienna. He had attempted to escape for Switzerland but had insufficient rations, so headed east to Vienna. Allan had walked into the US consulate there asking for help to reach Budapest and neutral Hungary. After the consul refused (there are German staff who witness the encounter), Allan went across the street and fell asleep in a park. Frozen by the night air, Allan crawled to a nearby house and surrendered. He is taken to a hospital, then back to Colditz today.

US Military: The US Army Air Corps assigns the P-40 Warhawk fighters of 22nd and 23rd Fighter Squadrons to St. Croix Airfield, US Virgin Islands.

 Minor changes are ordered for naval uniforms. Henceforth, the eagle is to face to the left for the Seaman Branch, Boatswain Mate, Turret Captain, Signalman, Gunners Mate, Fire Controlman, Quartermaster, Mineman and Torpedoman's Mate.

Parade magazine, 31 May 1941.

Soviet Government: The government issues a decree permitting the children of traitors to be charged upon reaching the age of 15.

Switzerland: Rationing of coffee, tea, and cocoa is instituted.

Belgium: The government begins expropriating the property of Jewish residents.

A memorial built on Crete on the outskirts of Canea by Germans in honor of their fallen during Operation Mercury. The memorial stood intact into the 21st Century - the bird ("Evil bird" to locals) has fallen off, though.

German Homefront: The Church complains that the government's encouragement of children to leave cities for special country camps is an attempt to create secular "education by the state," which it implies involves brainwashing. Hitler Youth leader Artur Axmann is in charge of the camps.

British Homefront: Preston North End beat Arsenal 2-1 in the Cup Final replay.

Rationing of eggs begins. Rationing of Fish and milk tightens.

American Homefront: Isolationist Senator Hiram W. Johnson (California) makes a radio broadcast for the America First Committee. He notes that the US now is "at the brink of war," which he attributes to President Franklin Roosevelt breaking a long string of promises to keep the country out of the war. He cites advocates for war as:

a smattering of good citizens, the vociferous little puppets of J. P. Morgan and Co., a large part of the press, practically all the columnists, the newspaper correspondents, all crying for war with Germany and against Hitler.

He admits that support for Britain is popular, but "with the proviso that it should be 'short of war.'"

"Walking wounded British troops disembarking at a port in Egypt after the evacuation of Crete, 31 May 1941." © IWM (E 3282).

May 1941

May 1, 1941: British Hold Tobruk
May 2, 1941: Anglo-Iraq War
May 3, 1941: Liverpool Hammered
May 4, 1941: Hitler Victory Speech
May 5, 1941: Patriots Day
May 6, 1941: Stalin In Command
May 7, 1941: May Blitz
May 8, 1941: Pinguin Sunk
May 9, 1941: U-110 Captured
May 10, 1941: Hess Flies Into History
May 11, 1941: The Hess Peace Plan
May 12, 1941: Tiger Arrives Safely
May 13, 1941: Keitel's Illegal Order
May 14, 1941: Holocaust in Paris
May 15, 1941: Operation Brevity
May 16, 1941: Blitz Ends
May 17, 1941: Habbaniya Relieved
May 18, 1941: Croatia Partitioned
May 19, 1941: Bismarck at Sea
May 20, 1941: Invasion of Crete
May 21, 1941: Robin Moore Sinking
May 22, 1941: Royal Navy Destruction Off Crete
May 23, 1941: Crete Must Be Won
May 24, 1941: Bismarck Sinks Hood
May 25, 1941: Lütjens' Brilliant Maneuver
May 26, 1941: Bismarck Stopped
May 27, 1941: Bismarck Sunk
May 28, 1941: Crete Lost
May 29, 1941: Royal Navy Mauled Off Crete
May 30, 1941: Sorge Warns, Stalin Ignores
May 31, 1941: British Take Baghdad

June 1941

June 1, 1941: Farhud Pogrom
June 2, 1941: Massacres on Crete
June 3, 1941: Kandanos Massacre
June 4, 1941: Kaiser Wilhelm Passes Away
June 5, 1941: Death in Chungking
June 6, 1941: Hitler's Commissar Order
June 7, 1941: Commandos Strike at Pessac
June 8, 1941: British Invade Syria and Lebanon
June 9, 1941: Litani River Battle
June 10, 1941: British Take Assab
June 11, 1941: Hitler Thinking Beyond Russia
June 12, 1941: St. James Agreement
June 13, 1941: Lützow Damaged
June 14, 1941: Latvian June Deportations
June 15, 1941: Operation Battleaxe
June 16, 1941: The Old Lion
June 17, 1941: British Spanked in North Africa
June 18, 1941: Turkey Turns Its Back
June 19, 1941: Cheerios Introduced
June 20, 1941: Birth of US Army Air Force
June 21, 1941: Damascus Falls
June 22, 1941: Germany Invades Russia
June 23, 1941: A Soviet KV Tank Causes Havoc
June 24, 1941: Kaunas and Vilnius Fall
June 25, 1941: Finland Declares War
June 26, 1941: Bombing of Kassa
June 27, 1941: Encirclement At Minsk
June 28, 1941: Minsk Falls
June 29, 1941: Brest Fortress Falls
June 30, 1941: Mölders Becomes Top Ace

2020

Tuesday 10 September 1940

The remains of a double-decker city bus in the City of London. September 10, 1940.

Overview: There is no question that Germany has the initiative on 10 September 1940. It has a free hand with Great Britain - Germany can attack it directly, or it can attack the Empire indirectly through its overseas possessions and military infrastructure. Since Italy now is taking on the latter task with its developing attack on Egypt from Libya, that presumably frees the Wehrmacht to make a maximum effort against England directly and finish it off once and for all.

However, the German high command is full of hopes and dreams, scattered objectives that have no coherent relationship to one another. Their own estimation of German power is sky-high - though only for land-based forces - and this leads to a situation akin to a child with too many toys with which to play. The plethora of choices induce a numbing effect which prevents success with any of the choices.

Recent successes in the field justify German confidence to a point: Germany has spent 20 years trying to defeat France, and now it is done. The army (Heer) always has been the heart of German military strength. However, Germany has gone from a standing start to its current military posture in just seven years due to the extreme restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles (and really less time than that, since Hitler only gradually ramped up his military effort over the several years after he took power in 1933). Thus, Germany is powerful, but its power is only relative to the countries it has defeated, which all to one extent or another have been easy prey due to the surprise of the German onslaught. There are other world powers remaining that far, far outclass Germany in military potential. In sports terms, the Wehrmacht has a strong starting team composed of recent acquisitions, but its bench is not deep. This fact, however, eludes the German elite, blinded by quick, cheap successes with its elite units.

The British also have wild-card advantages that will take time to play out, but eventually can trump any effort by Germany. For starters, the Americans are fast becoming de facto if not de jure allies. The United States military potential dwarfs anything that Germany ever can achieve. The Germans do not recognize any time pressure aside from the seasons, but time is their greatest enemy: the more threatening their posture toward US ally Great Britain, the sooner actual US intervention which would make a German victory over England impossible.

If Germany is to defeat Great Britain, it must do so quickly, taking advantage of the lingering effects of the surprise factor that led to its victories to date. In other words, it must attack before the US and Great Britain work through their diplomatic issues to pose a united - and unbeatable - front. Another factor in the balance is Vichy France, which is quite unstable in its political alliance with Germany and could at any time cause huge distractions for the Wehrmacht. A third factor is Italy, which is led by a regime whose rhetoric is not matched by military ability. Internal problems there also would greatly decrease Axis pressure on Great Britain's enormously important positions in the Mediterranean. The German position is powerful, but it is in large part built on an eroding edifice, not an expanding one as the German hierarchy sees it.

Thus, since it is still at war with powerful Great War enemy Great Britain, having it on the ropes should lead German leadership to the logical conclusion that the Wehrmacht's first priority is to finish the English off before taking on any new exertions, and do it now. That unquestionably should be the top military priority. An objective analysis suggests that this is achievable as of 10 September 1940 given proper focus and effort: Germany can defeat Great Britain, although it may take horrendous losses. However, from this point forward, there is a huge difference between an objectively wise military strategy and what Germany actually does.

Winston Churchill inspecting bomb crater in London, 10 September 1940 (Bridgeman Art Library).

German Military: Adolf Hitler previously has set 10 September 1940 as his date for deciding whether or not to approve Operation Sealion, the invasion of England. Now that the day has arrived, he postpones his decision until the 14th. Since Hitler has promised his service chiefs 10 days from his approval to the actual invasion date, that moves the earliest possible start date for Operation Sealion from 20 September to 24 September, with actual landings on the 25th.

Hitler's main requirement for approving Operation Sealion is that air superiority is achieved over England. The Luftwaffe came extremely close to achieving that by 6 September. However, the decision taken in early September to switch attacks from RAF infrastructure to major population centers, implemented as of 7 September, has degraded the Luftwaffe's burgeoning air superiority. By now, the Luftwaffe has had enough time to complete its mission against Great Britain according to the original timetable, but the RAF remains intact. The seasons are about to change, requiring a quick final decision on Operation Sealion.

Meanwhile, the Wehrmacht is busy increasing the number of panzer divisions. Hitler, obsessed with the Soviet Union, orders a doubling of the ten existing panzer divisions before the invasion of the USSR. The Wehrmacht does this in different ways: usually by taking units from existing divisions and building around them; and sometimes by converting infantry divisions into panzer divisions. For instance, around this time the 15th Panzer Regiment is taken from the 5th Panzer Division and forms the core of the new 11th Panzer Division, based in Poland; and the 2nd Infantry Division is reorganized completely and becomes the 12th Panzer Division, based at Stettin.

This process radically changes the Panzerwaffe. Whereas panzer divisions previously have had one tank regiment, one separate tank battalion, and one or two infantry regiments, the new structure of the typical panzer division (there are variations) is changed so that each now has one tank regiment and two motorized regiments. These changes are not all bad: in some ways, they make the panzer divisions more mobile and efficient. However, they show that the Wehrmacht is preparing, not for an invasion of England - there are plenty of panzers to cover that already - but for events in the East.

Reichsmarschall Hermann Goering appears at times to be the only member of the High Command actually interested in defeating Great Britain. Admiral Raeder, stating the obvious, writes that "There is no sign of the defeat of the enemy's Air Force over southern England or the Channel areas." Of course, Raeder has no faith in the Kriegsmarine's ability to support an invasion and would be happy to blame Goering's Luftwaffe for cancellation of Operation Sealion rather than attempt an invasion and have his entire fleet sunk out from under him.

Goering continues fine-tuning Luftwaffe operations on an almost daily basis. Today, he authorizes Pirateneinsatze, or Pirate Attacks, which involve solo or small-scale attacks by specially trained bomber crews in iffy weather conditions against British aircraft factories. Elite formations Epr.Gr 210 and ZG 26 are assigned this task and placed under the control of Sperrle at Luftflotte 3. However, Goering's ruinous (for the German side) attacks on London continue.

Winston Churchill inspecting bomb damage in Battersea, South London, 10 September 1940.

British Military: Faced with scores of ships lying half-sunk at London ports, the Admiralty bans all ocean-going vessels from London ports for the remainder of the year.

Italian Military: The Italian Commando Supremo begins transferring the Greek Expeditionary Corps (40,310 men, with 7728 horses, 701 vehicles, and 33,535 tons of material) from Brindisi to Albania. This is in preparation for an upcoming invasion of Greece, which Mussolini is keeping secret not only from the Allies but from his military partner Hitler.

Battle of Britain: It is around this time that Fleet Street newspaper writers - who came up with the term "Blitzkrieg" - shorten it to "Blitz" to describe the bombing campaign against London.

The day is rainy and overcast over much of northwestern Europe. It gives the RAF another day to recover, and the Luftwaffe only makes a few isolated penetrations during the day. Reconnaissance Dornier Do 215s operate sporadically, and there is an incident today where one fights with a Spitfire and both go down (the Spitfire to a forced landing).

After dark, the bombing raids resume. Aside from London, where 150 bombers drop bombs, the attacks focus on the western half of Great Britain, from Liverpool south to Wales and over to Bristol. Within London, the bombers damage the docks, the City of London (East Maternity Hospital burns), and Brentwood (hit by 1000 incendiaries), among other areas. Despite the rain, huge fires break out across the city.

Nurses salvage equipment from their hospital, September 1940.

A delayed-action bomb explodes in the northwest wing of Buckingham Palace, seriously damaging it. King George reveals later that his view at the time is that this is of tremendous benefit to the war effort because it shows shared sacrifice between the uppermost and lowest classes of society.

The Corpo Aereo Italiano (CAI), the Italian contribution to the Battle of Britain, forms in Belgium under the command of Generale sa (Air Marshal) Rino Corso-Fougier. The force includes both bombers and fighters, along with a large transport force of a dozen Caproni 133Ts, one Savoia-Marchetti S.75, and nine Ca164s. In all, the Italians have 200 aircraft ready to enter combat. The planes are largely obsolete and are limited to daylight operations due to limited crew training. The Luftwaffe establishes close liaison with the CAI, but it operates independently. The entire force is under the command of 1a Squadra Aerea di Milano.

It is fair to say that many recognize from the start that the Italian equipment is not up to the standards of the Channel Front, and the Luftwaffe really doesn't need the help. The planes would do much more good in the Mediterranean, particularly supporting Italian operations in North Africa. However, Mussolini wants to appear as an equal partner to Germany so that Italy will get a larger share of the (inevitable) war spoils.

The Manchester Guardian, 10 September 1940.

European Air Operations: RAF Bomber Command raids Berlin again. Hits are made on the Reichstag (still gutted and unusable since the 1933 fire which burnt it out) and Potsdamer Railway Station. Bomber Command makes other raids on barge concentrations all along the Channel coast, from France to Holland, against the German coastal guns at Cap Gris Nez, Brussels, rail installations in Duisberg, and north German ports Bremen and Wilhelmshaven. The major Luftwaffe field at Eindhoven receives a visit from Blenheims which destroys 8 Heinkel He 111s and damages three more.

Battle of the Atlantic: The Luftwaffe bombs and sinks the 4332-ton Norwegian freighter Eli about 12 miles (22km) off the Skerryvore Lighthouse in western Scotland. There are 28 survivors and 2 crew perish.

British submarine HMS Sturgeon spots U-43 (Kptlt. Wilhelm Ambrosius) transiting from its port in Bergen, Norway and fires torpedoes at it, but misses. British submarines have taken to lying in wait outside the harbor, knowing that U-boats transit the area on their way to and from their stations in the Atlantic.

German battleship Bismarck gets more target practice, firing off half a dozen 3.7cm anti-aircraft shells without hitting anything.

In the Channel, three British destroyers (HMS Malcolm, Wild Swan, and Veteran) depart Harwich for a patrol off Ostend, where there are reports of an enemy convoy. It is a fairly typical offensive sweep, and if the reports are true, there could be some action during the night.

A major British troop convoy, AP 3, departs from Liverpool. It consists of 8 transport ships (converted liners) carrying 6050 troops to the Middle East, along with two freighters. There is a large escort consisting of half a dozen destroyers. The first stop is Freetown. This is the last part of Operation Apology, reinforcement of the Middle East/Asian Command.

Convoy MT 165 departs from Methil, Convoy FS 277 departs from the Tyne, Convoy OB 211 departs from Liverpool, Convoys SC 4 and SHX 72 depart from Sydney, Canada, Convoy BN 5 departs from Bombay.

U-105 (Kapitänleutnant Georg Schewe) is commissioned.

Battle of the Mediterranean: The Italian 10th Army continues assembling and slowly slogging toward the Egyptian frontier, which it has not yet reached (accounts vary on when it actually crosses the frontier, and it really doesn't matter in the endless deserts anyway). The main striking force, the Maletti Group composed of the Italian armor, has great difficulty with the desert conditions, suffering numerous equipment breakdowns and getting lost in the desert. The Italian armor retreats, and the British sow mines in their path and do whatever else they can to harass them.

The Regia Aeronautica attacks Matruh and Khartoum, while the RAF attacks the Italian bases and harbors in eastern Libya where the Italian invasion force is massing. The RAF also attacks Massawa, Asmara, and Dessie.

The Vichy French flotilla which left Toulon on 9 September continues its journey to Dakar, which requires passage through the Straits of Gibraltar. The French finally inform the British Naval Attaché in Madrid that the ships are going to pass by Gibraltar, but still the British do nothing. During the night, the flotilla approaches Gibraltar, but the British do not know where they are yet. The presence of the three Vichy French cruisers in the Atlantic is not actually prohibited by any previous communications between London and Vichy - the two countries are not officially at war, and England previously has said that the French could keep their warships in the Caribbean since that would keep them out of the hands of the Germans - but it would seriously complicate the upcoming British Operation Menace if they head south to Dakar.

At Malta, a French crew takes General de Gaulle's representative Commandant Robert back to Tunisia. The day's poor weather extends all the way south to the Mediterranean, so the airmen barely make it back (and cause an air raid alert when they do). Otherwise, the foul weather prevents any attacks.

Damage to royal property, 10 September 1940.

Battle of the Pacific: Having completed an epic transit across the north of Russia with the help of Soviet icebreakers, German raider Komet is operational in the Pacific.

Spy Stuff: Danish citizen Wulf Schmidt parachutes into Oxon, England as a spy for the Abwehr. He is known to the Germans as Agent Leonhard. The German spy who had parachuted in a few days previously and been caught, Gösta Caroli, turned him in, and Schmidt is captured immediately. Schmidt quickly agrees to become a double agent (known to the British as Agent Tate) for MI5 under Operation Double Cross.

German/Hungarian Relations: Hitler meets with the Hungarian ambassador.

US Military: The cruiser USS Wichita departs Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for its last stop on its "Show the Flag" mission to Latin America.

The Greenslade Board, reviewing the new British bases in the Atlantic, makes port at Norfolk.

China: The Chinese Communists, operating independently of Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist regime, launches its "Hundred Regiments Offensive." This is a guerilla operation against infrastructure in Japanese-occupied Hebei and Shansi provinces.

The King and Queen pose in front of damage to Buckingham Palace, 10 September 1940.

September 1940

September 1, 1940: RAF's Horrible Weekend
September 2, 1940: German Troopship Sunk
September 3, 1940: Destroyers for Bases
September 4, 1940: Enter Antonescu
September 5, 1940: Stukas Over Malta
September 6, 1940: The Luftwaffe Peaks
September 7, 1940: The Blitz Begins
September 8, 1940: Codeword Cromwell
September 9, 1940: Italians Attack Egypt
September 10, 1940: Hitler Postpones Sealion
September 11, 1940: British Confusion at Gibraltar
September 12, 1940: Warsaw Ghetto Approved
September 13, 1940: Zeros Attack!
September 14, 1940: The Draft Is Back
September 15, 1940: Battle of Britain Day
September 16, 1940: italians Take Sidi Barrani
September 17, 1940: Sealion Kaputt
September 18, 1940: City of Benares Incident
September 19, 1940: Disperse the Barges
September 20, 1940: A Wolfpack Gathers
September 21, 1940: Wolfpack Strikes Convoy HX-72
September 22, 1940: Vietnam War Begins
September 23, 1940: Operation Menace Begins
September 24, 1940: Dakar Fights Back
September 25, 1940: Filton Raid
September 26, 1940: Axis Time
September 27, 1940: Graveney Marsh Battle
September 28, 1940: Radio Belgique Begins
September 29, 1940: Brocklesby Collision
September 30, 1940: Operation Lena

2020

Saturday 7 September 1940

Fires on the docks light up ships. London dockyards, 7 September 1940. (AP Photo).

Battle of Britain: While "The Blitz" is often used as a sort of generic synonym for the Battle of Britain. In fact, it is a separate, though related, affair. The Battle of Britain often is assigned the start date of 10 July 1940 and involves air and naval attacks on all parts of Great Britain. The Blitz, by which we mean focused Luftwaffe attacks on London, begins only on 7 September 1940 (though with preliminary attacks commencing as early as 22 August 1940). This is known as the start of "Phase III" of the Battle of Britain, a joint day/night offensive against London that lasts for several weeks.

The British government has issued the code word "Cromwell" to all of its commands. This means that an invasion is expected on short notice. All local British forces are placed on high alert. At the main base of Scapa Flow, the fleet is brought to 1-hour's notice, and the crews of the destroyers are kept at action stations throughout the night. HMS Repulse leads a patrol out of Scapa Flow headed for Iceland.

The Surrey Commercial Dock, London. 7 September 1940. (AP Photo/Staff/Worth).

The Blitz: After his big broadcast speech on the evening of the 6th announcing the Luftwaffe's change in strategy, listened to by many in England as well (those who understand German, anyway), Reichsmarschall Hermann Goering assembles his cronies at Cap Blanc Nez. From there, they can watch the armada of Luftwaffe planes heading for England. Perhaps to accommodate his schedule, the bombers get a late start. It isn't until almost noontime that any activity occurs, and this only by Bf 109s acting as fighter bombers. There's no hurry, the battle is won already anyway - according to the Reichsmarschall.

These first Messerschmitts drop their loads on RAF Hawkinge and Dover. The RAF sends up No. 66 Squadron, but it basically just monitors the attack and does little to intervene. It loses two planes to mechanical difficulties - a sign of the strain that the RAF has been under. They crash-land on the way back to base.

Early in the afternoon, the bombers finally get in the air and head across toward London. They are from Kesselring's Luftflotte 2 and Stumpf's Luftflotte 5 (KG 26 and 30 transferred south from Norway). The British radar stations pick them up at 15:40 and follow them across the Channel. It is a raid of about 1100 aircraft which includes almost 400 medium bombers, about 200 Bf 110s carrying bombs, and an escort of 650 Bf 109s.

The bombers cross the coastline and then break up into different formations, as usual. Typically in the past, this has meant attacks on separate airfields. Fighter Command reacts accordingly, getting fighters into the air over their own stations. However, this time they all head south toward London. Even now, Air Vice Marshal Keith Park at 11 Group assumes that the targets are airfields, and he plans his fighter defenses accordingly. Park gets 20 Squadrons into the air over the airfields and the Thames estuary. Leigh-Mallory at 12 Group has plenty of time to assemble his "Big Wing," but they still are assembling when the Luftwaffe appears over London.

The first bombs drop on the southern side of the Thames, around the entrance to London's dockland and the docks near Woolwich Arsenal. Bombing accuracy is good, as the weather is fine and the RAF fighters are elsewhere. The Harland & Wolff shipbuilding factory, a munitions factory at Woolwich, the Queen Victoria docks, the King George V docks, the Royal Albert Docks, the Millwall docks, the Wapping docks, the St. Katherine's Docks, and the entire surrounding area is hit with devastating effect. The Woolwich Arsenal blows up after its stored gunpowder ignites. Several ships in port are hit, with several sinking and almost two dozen damaged. The entire area is dry due to the late-summer heat, and soon everything is on fire. The fires rage close to London Bridge, but it is spared.

Dornier Do 17 bombers over London, 7 September 1940.

The East End then gets hit. This is a mixed residential/commercial area. Areas hit include Canning Town, East Ham, West Ham, Poplar, Silvertown, Stratford, Wapping, and Whitechapel. The Germans use incendiary bombs that work well on the dry wood of the buildings in the slums around these areas. The East End docks are hit over and over and soon are a massive blaze.

The RAF reacts, but as the first wave of bombers leaves, another arrives. This time, Leigh-Mallory's "Big Wing" is ready, but they get mixed up with the bombers that have already dropped their loads and are scurrying back to France. Thus, the fighter defense does little to prevent further raids on London.

The attacks continue after dark. At 20:22, another wave of about 250 bombers crosses the Kent coastline, this one from Sperrle's Luftflotte 3. Unescorted, they head straight for the burning docklands along the Thames, which serve as a beacon visible for miles. They drop a further 333 tons of bombs and 13,000 incendiaries.

A still from camera-gun film taken from a Supermarine Spitfire Mark I of No. 609 Squadron RAF, flown by Flying Officer T Nowierski. Ahead is a formation of Dornier Do 17Zs of KG3 south-west of London at approximately 5.45 pm on 7 September 1940. Tracer bullets from the intercepting Spitfires can be seen traveling towards the enemy aircraft which are heading back to their base after bombing East London and the docks.

Goering makes another broadcast to the German people in the evening. The day's losses in the air favor the RAF - about 40-50 Luftwaffe losses versus around 25-30 British fighters (figures vary wildly by source) - but the Blitz is now a reality. There are 430-448 civilian deaths, 1337 other serious casualties, serious damage to the industry, and countless people made homeless.

The RAF airfields and other installations, though, are largely untouched and get a chance to begin recovering from the against them in recent weeks. Deadly as the day has been, it is the beginning of the RAF's recovery, much like a cancer patient receiving his or her first chemotherapy. It also is the first day of the rot that begins eating away at the Luftwaffe's substance.

There are many acts of heroism during this first day of the Blitz. Albert Ernest Dolphin, a porter at the Emergency Hospital, South Eastern Hospital, New Cross, London saves the life of a nurse when a wall begins to fall on her, costing his own. He posthumously earns the George Cross, a civilian award equivalent to the Victoria Cross. He is listed on a memorial mural in Lewisham Shopping Centre, a true hero of the Battle of Britain.

The Luftwaffe once again loses a number of valuable pilots, including a number of aces. The German fighter pilots blame this on having to act as escorts to the bombers. The fighters are much slower than the bombers, and it takes continual effort to remain above them and to mimic their movements.

Kommodore Major Mölders of JG 51 downs a Spitfire over London for his 34th victory, the most in the Luftwaffe. Oblt. Helmut Wick of 6./JG 2 gains his 25th victory by shooting down a Spitfire. Major Hannes Trautloft of Stab./JG 54 gets his seventh victory, a Hurricane over Maidstone. Numerous other pilots get multiple victories during the day, as the Experten improve with a daily dose of practice.

Oblt. Gordon Gollob joins II,/JG 3 on the Kanalfront after a stint at Rechlin.

Oblt. Helmut Lent joins the night fighter unit at Deelen, Holland, 6,/NJG 1.

The mills at the Victories Docks (below at left) show damage wrought by the Luftwaffe attacks of 7 September 1940. (AP Photo).

European Air Operations: RAF Bomber Command, no doubt reacting to the advisory about an invasion likely within three days that the government issued on 6 September, focuses most of its attention on the Channel ports. They are full of barges assembled for the cross-channel invasion. These raids are raised to heroic proportions in the later collection of stories in the book "Their Finest Hour." The crews get much satisfaction watching their bombs drop amongst the barges and watching pieces of them fly into the air. Other attacks are made on the Ruhr industrial valley, such as on the Krupps factory.

Battle of the Atlantic: It is a bad day for the British at sea. The Germans try out new wolfpack tactics that pay quick dividends.

U-boat U-65 (Kapitänleutnant Hans-Gerrit von Stockhausen), having alerted U-47 (Kapitänleutnant Günther Prien) to the location of Convoy SC 2 about 80 miles west of Malin Head in the Outer Hebrides, gets to watch as Kplt Prien works his magic. Beginning in the early morning hours, he insinuates U-47 within the convoy on the surface and then has his pick of targets. This tactic, extremely bold, negates the advantage that the British escorts have with their ASDIC (sonar) equipment. Of course, it also leaves the submarine vulnerable to surface fire, but in the massive confusion caused by his attack, Prien is able to make a clean getaway.

First, U-47 targets 5155-ton British sugar freighter Neptunian. After missing with two torpedoes at 03:36 and 03:45, Prien scores a hit at 04:04. The ship capsizes seven minutes later. All 36 aboard perish.

The Neptunian sinks on 7 September 1940.

Rather than disperse, a planned maneuver at times of attack, the convoy resorts to zig-zagging. This makes Prien's job more difficult, but he keeps at it.

Next, Prien targets 5303-ton British freighter José de Larrinaga, which is carrying scrap metal and linseed oil. This ship has the same name as a ship sunk by U-boats in 1917, and it meets the same fate. Torpedoed at 05:15, it breaks in two after eleven minutes. All 40 crew perish.

U-47 then torpedoes and sinks 5155-ton Norwegian wheat freighter Gro at 05:33. This ship also has the same name as a ship sunk in 1917, and also meets the same fate. This ship also breaks in two and sinks within ten minutes. Eleven of the crew perish, 21 others escape in a lifeboat and are picked up by another freighter on the 10th

With daylight approaching, Prien then makes a clean getaway with over 15,000 tons more of shipping under his belt. However, the gathering wolfpack is not done with Convoy SC 2 just yet.

German S-boats S-33 and S-36 torpedo and sink 5799-ton Dutch freighter Stad Alkmaar just east of Lowestoft, Suffolk. The ship is traveling with Convoy FS 273. Some sources say that everybody survives, others that 14 crew perish.

The Luftwaffe attacks on the docks of London catch a number of ships there. While only a few are sunk (and later refloated), about 20 others are damaged.

The Luftwaffe bombs and sinks British 6007-ton special purposes vessel HMS Inkosi at the Royal Albert Dock in London. The Inkosi is a converted refrigerated ship. Sinking in shallow water, she can be salvaged.

The Luftwaffe also bombs and sinks 5985-ton special purposes ship HMS Inanda at the Royal Albert Dock in London. Sinking in shallow water, she can be salvaged.

The Luftwaffe bombs and sinks British tug Beckton at the Beckton Gas Works in London.

The Luftwaffe bombs and sinks 7906-ton Dutch freighter Abbekerk in London. Sunk in shallow water, she can be salvaged and repaired. This is just one incident in an eventful war for the Abbekerk.

British trawler Salacon hits a mine and sinks about 6 miles southeast of Spurn Point, Yorkshire. Four men survive, while eight others perish.

British 687 ton armed yacht HMY Rhodora collides with 505-ton cargo ship Ngatira in the Bristol Channel near Cardiff and sinks.

Kriegsmarine patrol boat Niendorf hits a mine and sinks off the Pas de Calais.

British naval trawler HMT Abronia, in use as a minesweeper, sinks in the River Thames for unknown reasons. There are five deaths. Sinking in shallow water, she can be salvaged.

A crater at Elephant & Castle made on 7 September 1940. (AP Photo).

Battle of the Mediterranean: At Malta, there is a large raid on Grand Harbour at 12:30 that is very accurate. It targets Vittoriosa and the dock area nearby. The raid is conducted by 11 SM 79 bombers escorted by 24 CR 42 biplane fighters. There are four civilian deaths, a mother and her three young children of ages 1-5. The Italians lose one or two bombers, with two defending Hurricanes damaged.

A bomb sinks the tug HMT Hellespont at Surgery Wharf, Sheer Bastion, but is salvageable. Other vessels also are badly damaged. Some civilian workers dig an unexploded bomb out of the Dockyard canteen at great risk to themselves and carry it away from the area, which it would have destroyed. Overall, it is one of the most effective Italian raids to date.

Romania: Former King Carol II makes good his escape from Romania as Iron Guard members take potshots at his train. He heads through Yugoslavia for his ultimate destination, Switzerland, where his fortune (the national treasury) is at his sole disposal.

Paraguay: After President Marshal Jose Felix Estigarribia perishes in a plane crash during a tour of the Paraguayan interior, he is succeeded by Colonel Higinio Morínigo.

Vichy France: The Petain government continues its arrests of former leaders during the Battle of France. Today, it takes into custody Édouard Daladier, Paul Reynaud and Maurice Gamelin. They are interned at Château de Chazeron for the time being.

Dornier Do 17 KG76 over West Ham, London, September 7, 1940.

September 1940

September 1, 1940: RAF's Horrible Weekend
September 2, 1940: German Troopship Sunk
September 3, 1940: Destroyers for Bases
September 4, 1940: Enter Antonescu
September 5, 1940: Stukas Over Malta
September 6, 1940: The Luftwaffe Peaks
September 7, 1940: The Blitz Begins
September 8, 1940: Codeword Cromwell
September 9, 1940: Italians Attack Egypt
September 10, 1940: Hitler Postpones Sealion
September 11, 1940: British Confusion at Gibraltar
September 12, 1940: Warsaw Ghetto Approved
September 13, 1940: Zeros Attack!
September 14, 1940: The Draft Is Back
September 15, 1940: Battle of Britain Day
September 16, 1940: italians Take Sidi Barrani
September 17, 1940: Sealion Kaputt
September 18, 1940: City of Benares Incident
September 19, 1940: Disperse the Barges
September 20, 1940: A Wolfpack Gathers
September 21, 1940: Wolfpack Strikes Convoy HX-72
September 22, 1940: Vietnam War Begins
September 23, 1940: Operation Menace Begins
September 24, 1940: Dakar Fights Back
September 25, 1940: Filton Raid
September 26, 1940: Axis Time
September 27, 1940: Graveney Marsh Battle
September 28, 1940: Radio Belgique Begins
September 29, 1940: Brocklesby Collision
September 30, 1940: Operation Lena

2020