Thursday 1 May 1941

General Erwin Rommel with the 15th Panzer Division between Tobruk and Sidi Omar. Rommel sometimes used armored cars but preferred staff cars because they were more mobile and convenient. This would cost him later in the war (National Archives 1941).

Operation Marita: With mainland Greece occupied by the Germans on 1 May 1941, the focus shifts to Crete. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill sends a lengthy cable to Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, chief of the Mediterranean Fleet, in which he congratulates the Royal Navy for the way it "succored the Army and brought off four-fifths of the entire force" from the mainland. He also notes:

It is now necessary to fight hard for Crete, which seems soon to be attacked heavily, and for Malta as a base for flotilla actions against the enemy's communications with Libya.

Churchill sends a much briefer cable to his Middle East Commander, General Archibald Wavell, merely appending his cable to Cunningham and noting "Feel sure you are waiting to strike a blow." An old sea dog, Churchill naturally favors the Royal Navy over the army, but it also is clear from his communications that he hates to lavish praise on Wavell (and his subordinates) for what are likely personal reasons.

Italian airborne troops continue occupying the Greek islands of Cephalonia, Ithaca, and Zante.

Iraqi War: The Iraqis have demanded that the British at Habbaniya Airfield west of Baghdad surrender. The British do not reply. The ultimatum will expire in the early morning hours of 2 May. The British prepare to sortie out of their airfield fortress against the Iraqis, who have set up 28 artillery pieces on a plateau overlooking the airfield to the south. There are small Iraqi attacks near the airfield at Rutba. Air Vice-Marshal Harry Smart is instructed personally by Churchill to defend his position: "If you have to strike, strike hard. Use all necessary force."

The May Day parade in Kuibyshev on May 1, 1941 (Vladimir Samartsev).

European Air Operations: The Luftwaffe begins a major campaign against Liverpool, which is the main port through which Great Britain communicates with the outside world. This will continue for the next seven nights and wound or kill 3000 people. The Germans also accomplish their true goal of strangling tonnage going into the port, at least temporarily.

The Luftwaffe sinks British freighter Europa and ammunition transporter Malakand during the raid on Liverpool.

Churchill's secretary, John Colville, notes in his diary after a tour of the area that "Plymouth has been cruelly laid waste in the last fortnight." The Luftwaffe has attacked Plymouth for five nights running, but at least the attacks had lessened in severity as they continued. Now, it is Liverpool's turn. The War Cabinet minutes note that it is "disturbing" that "the Press had drawn attention to an unofficial nightly exodus from Plymouth into surrounding districts." The same pattern is likely to occur in Liverpool.

The Luftwaffe combines the day and night fighter commands into a unified command structure, but FLAK units remain independently controlled by local air headquarters (Luftgaukommandos). Colonel Josef Kammhuber is in charge of coordinating FLAK, searchlight and radar units and is a genius at creating an organization (though a bit shakier on overall military strategy). Kammhuber is in the process of coordinating Reich air defenses into a unified structure later known as the Kammhuber Line. This works fairly well under the circumstances that prevail during the early part of the war.

RAF Bomber Command conducts a sweep off the Dutch coast with 22 planes, but there are no incidents.

Ofw. Erich Rudorffer of I./JG 2, with nineteen aerial victories, is awarded the Ritterkreuz.

U-34 (right), a training boat, 1 May 1941. If you look very closely, you will see that it's operational emblem is a picture of an elephant stepping on Winston Churchill, probably in reference to Churchill's time as First Lord of the Admiralty.

East African Campaign: While there have been some small attacks recently in western Abyssinia on heavily defended Italian positions, the rainy season begins and halts the most further operations until mid-June. The Duke of Aosta, a favorite of the King of Italy, is trapped in Amba Alaga, Abyssinia with 7000 troops, but has maximized his possibilities with prudent withdrawals into defensible positions. The East African 22nd Infantry Brigade, advances south from Addis Ababa, capturing Mount Fike in Galla-Sidamo.

On 1 May 1941, the Germans confiscate bicycles at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. This is done both to help their own troops (many of whom use bicycles rather than walk) and to deprive the Dutch people of this means of mobility (ANP Historisch Archief Community).

Battle of the Atlantic: The 5583-ton British freighter Nerissa, attacked by U-552 (K.Kapt. Erich Topp) yesterday just before midnight, sinks. It takes 83 crew and 124 passengers with it. There are 23 crew and 51 passengers rescued. See also events of 1 May 1941.

U-103 (Viktor Schütze), on its fourth patrol, is off the coast of West Africa when it torpedoes and sinks 1494 ton British freighter Samsø. This is the start of a string of success in the area for U-103. The Samsø sinks slowly, taking 50 minutes, and only one crewman perishes. The rest of the crew makes it to Los Island, French Guinea, on 3 May.

The Luftwaffe bombs and sinks 329-ton minesweeping trawler Jean Frederic off Start Point. There is one death. Another ship, 200-ton balloon barrage vessel Saturnus, is declared a total loss due to damage sustained. Both vessels have Dutch crews.

British 2950-ton freighter Sea Fisher hits a mine and is beached with the assistance of two tugs. The ship is given temporary repairs and eventually makes it to Middlesborough on 5 May.

Royal Navy patrol boat 534-ton Loch Oskaig captures 3317-ton French freighter Cap Cantin near the entrance to the Mediterranean and takes it to Gibraltar.

Royal Navy patrol boat Cavina captures 6466-ton Italian tanker Sangro, a blockade runner, in the same general vicinity as the Loch Oskaig's capture.

Royal Navy patrol boat HMS Corinthian captures 350-ton French three-masted schooner Martin Pecheur. The ship is sent to Gibraltar with a prize crew.

Royal Navy destroyer HMS Juno sustains damage when a depth charge explodes prior to launch. One man is killed and 15 others are wounded.

Portugues schooner Santa Quitéra founders off the Grand Banks. All 40 men are rescued.

Royal Navy destroyers HMS Adrias and Haydon are laid down.

USN submarine USS Grenadier is commissioned, and light fleet carrier USS Independence is laid down, along with destroyers Bancroft, Beatty, Endicott, Kendrick, Laub, McCook and Tillman.

U-163 and U-164 are launched, and U-568 is commissioned. At this stage of the war, increases to the U-boat fleet are far outpacing losses.

Maurine Zollman, a John Powers model (photo by John Rawlings).

Battle of the Mediterranean: The German/Italian offensive against Tobruk continues, and makes some progress. The Germans reorient the axis of attack by the panzers from the southeast to the east but run into a minefield and antitank fire. Paulus, nominally in charge, already is ready to give up, but Major General Rommel tries to enlarge his small bridgehead with an attack to the southeast toward Bir el Medauar. The British respond by sending their own tanks to block them, and a major battle takes place. The British lose five tanks, but blunt the German attack, and the Australian infantry counterattacks. This attack also is repulsed, leaving the Germans within the Tobruk perimeter but unable to expand it as the day ends.

The following Italian infantry, meanwhile, which was supposed to follow the panzer in, is still dealing with isolated Australian outposts that have been overrun but still refuse to surrender. Overall, the battle is trending toward the British, but they have lost ground when they have very little to spare. Operations are hampered during the morning by fog. This combat operation, incidentally, is sometimes called the Battle of Ras el Medauar.

The Luftwaffe, of course, fiercely supports the German attack. Hans-Joachim Marseille, escorting German Stuka dive bombers to Tobruk, shoots down his 10th and 11th kills, two British Hurricane fighters.

General Wavell, from his headquarters in Cairo, is quick to put out a press release about the defense of Tobruk which is refreshingly candid for a military communique. He notes:

An extremely violent battle ignited Wednesday night around Tobruk. After a vigorous bombardment lasting several hours, German and Italian infantry attacked the Tobruk fortifications, deploying heavy tanks and flamethrowing tanks simultaneously. Early this morning another attack ensued by large numbers of German Stuka dive bombers which dropped heavy calibre bombs on the defence installations. Until 10:00 A.M. the British garrison succeeded in preventing any breach in the Tobruk defences. After that, a strong panzer force successfully penetrated the outer perimeter along a 2-mile front. British and Australian troops are at this moment engaged in hand-to-hand fighting in the defensive installations outside the city.

The presence of flamethrower tanks at this early stage of the war is a bit unusual, as the Wehrmacht and British did not become enamored with them until later. They apparently are Italian L3 tanks of the Ariete Division, small tanks that tow their flamethrower fuel in a separate armored trailer.

The RAF attacks shipping in the Benghazi harbor and sinks 1533-ton Italian freighter Serdica.

HMS Upholder torpedoes and sinks German freighter Arcturus just south of the Kerkennah Islands, Tunisia. This is part of a convoy returning from North Africa to Italy.

HMS Upholder also torpedoes and sinks German freighter Leverkusen in the same vicinity as the Arcturus south of the Kerkennah Islands.

Two Royal Navy submarines go missing in the Mediterranean during this general period of time - HMS Undaunted (operating near Tripoli) and Usk (the Strait of Sicily). Causes of their loss are unknown. Submarine Truant has sustained damage from minelaying and is sent from Malta to Gibraltar.

German 1819-ton freighter Larissa hits a mine and sinks in the Gulf of Volos.

Winston Churchill orders another operation to run an aircraft carrier into the Mediterranean from Gibraltar and fly off some Hawker Hurricanes to Malta. Such operations have had mixed success to date, with losses of several planes that apparently ran out of fuel. This projected operation is tentatively slated for late May at the earliest.

At Malta, the Luftwaffe attacks continue, and the attacks include bombings and minelaying. The Germans sink 1373-ton freighter Polinice, but the ship is later raised for salvage. There is one civilian death. HMS Jersey hits a mine in Valetta Harbor and later sinks during a raid.

The Italian Navy sends a large force, including three light cruisers, to lay mines north of Tripoli.

German Military: Generalleutnant August Krakau takes command of the German 7th Mountain Division, replacing Robert Martinek. Kapitän zur See Friedrich Hüffmeier took command of cruiser Köln.

US Military: Rainbow 5, the plan for US military responses to an attack, is completed by the Joint Army-Navy Board. It calls for a defensive strategy that entails the surrender of the Philippines. Admiral Hart in the Philippines, acting on optimistic advice from the Navy Department, tells his staff that they will have at least two days of warning prior to the outbreak of hostilities. Commander H D Linder, RNethN arrives in Manila to serve as Hart's liaison with the powerful Dutch naval forces in the East Indies (Indonesia).

Admiral Ernest J. King takes command of the Atlantic Fleet.

Lieutenant Colonel William P. T. Hill takes command of the newly built  Marine Barracks of New River, North Carolina.

Japanese Military: Aircraft carrier Kaga is put in drydock in Sasebo for refit, while freighter Kasuga Maru begins conversion to an escort carrier at the same port.

The May Day parade in Moscow, 1 May 1941.

Soviet Military: Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin gives a routine May Day speech which reflects growing rumblings beneath the placid peacetime surface. Stalin's remarks probably are not directed at his current ally Germany, but, in retrospect, they seem to fit what he has in store for them:

The Red Army is ready, in the interests of the socialist state, to ward off every blow struck by the imperialists. The international situation is full of unexpected events. In such a situation the Red Army must step up its defensive readiness.

The German military attache in Moscow notes that the Red Army has begun calling up recruits in the lowest age cohort six months earlier than usual. The Soviets also orders that foreign diplomats may no longer travel freely, but must be escorted.

British Military: General Percival leaves Great Britain to take up his new command in Singapore by air. It is a risky passage via Gibraltar, Malta, Egypt, and India.

US War Bonds go on sale today.

British Government: There is a major shakeup within the ministries. Lord Brabazon becomes the new Minister of Aircraft Production, and a new Ministry of War Transport is established that combines the old ministries of shipping and transport. Industrialist Frederick Leathers, who gets a peerage for his effort, will preside over the new Transport ministry. Lord Beaverbrook becomes Minister of State.

Visiting Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies confides in his diary that he is "desperately afraid of the future in Great Britain." Menzies is scheduled to return home on 3 May, but notes that Lord Beaverbrook "thinks [it] absurd that I should go back to Australia!" There is definite sentiment among those opposed to Churchill's conduct of the war that Menzies would be a good replacement for Churchill as Prime Minister of Great Britain.

Holocaust: Gross-Rosen concentration camp (German: Konzentrationslager Groß-Rosen), set to become one of the largest camps, becomes an independent camp.  It is in Groß-Rosen, Lower Silesia, Germany (later Rogoznica, Poland). Gross-Rosen had been begun in the summer of 1940 as a satellite camp of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp.

SS Karsik (formerly the German Soneck), 1 May 1941, a well-traveled 2191 ton ship of World War II (Australian War Memorial, ID Number: 303479)

Partisans: Joseph Broz "Tito" issues a call for armed resistance to the Germans and Italian occupiers. He is an avowed communist. This is partly in response to mass killings being undertaken at this time by the Pavelic Ustashi government.

US Homefront: Orson Welles' "Citizen Kane" is released in the US, with its world premiere at the Palace Theater in New York. It will be nominated for nine Academy Awards and win for Best Original Screenplay (Welles and Herman Mankiewicz). The making of "Citizen Kane" is an oft-retold saga all of its own, with William Randolph Hearst repeatedly trying to quash its release to no avail. "Citizen Kane" is widely regarded as one of the best films ever made, and can fairly be said to the high point of Welles' long and inventive career. Audience reception upon its release, however, is muted.

The Esposito Brothers, who stand accused of murder near the Empire State Building, are convicted of two counts of murder after one minute of deliberation. A photographer happened to be nearby and captured stunning images of the incident. The brothers' attempt to plead insanity as their defense fails. However, the case greatly expands the use of the insanity defense.

General Mills introduces its new cereal Cheerioats. The name eventually will become Cheerios, and the cereal remains a steady seller for many decades.

US Defense Savings Bonds and Stamps, better known as war bonds, go on sale.



April 1941

April 1, 1941: Rommel Takes Brega
April 2, 1941:Rommel Takes Agedabia
April 3, 1941: Convoy SC-26 Destruction
April 4, 1941: Rommel Takes Benghazi
April 5, 1941: Rommel Rolling
April 6, 1941: Operation Marita
April 7, 1941: Rommel Takes Derna
April 8, 1941: Yugoslavia Crumbling
April 9, 1941: Thessaloniki Falls
April 10, 1941: USS Niblack Attacks
April 11, 1941: Good Friday Raid
April 12, 1941: Belgrade and Bardia Fall
April 13, 1941: Soviet-Japanese Pact
April 14, 1941: King Peter Leaves
April 15, 1941: Flying Tigers
April 16, 1941: Battle of Platamon
April 17, 1941: Yugoslavia Gone
April 18, 1941: Me 262 First Flight
April 19, 1941: London Smashed
April 20, 1941: Hitler's Best Birthday
April 21, 1941: Greek Army Surrenders
April 22, 1941: Pancevo Massacre
April 23, 1941: CAM Ships
April 24, 1941: Battle of Thermopylae
April 25, 1941: Operation Demon
April 26, 1941: Operation Hannibal
April 27, 1941: Athens Falls
April 28, 1941: Hitler Firm about Barbarossa
April 29, 1941: Mainland Greece Falls
April 30, 1941: Rommel Attacks

Thursday 1 August 1940

Hawker Hurricane of 56. Sqn "Punjab" in low pass - RAF North Weald, August 1940.

Battle of Britain: Hitler on 1 August 1940 issues Fuhrer Directive No. 17, "For the Conduct of Air and Sea Warfare Against England." It elaborates on the previous Fuhrer Directive of 16 July which set forth specific preconditions for Operation Sea Lion (Unternehmen Seelowe). The Directive's main difference is that it places the sole emphasis on the Luftwaffe to:

overpower the English Air Force with all the forces at its command, in the shortest possible time.

The strategy (for the moment) is to focus all attacks on the Royal Air Force, its installations and production facilities. Interestingly, it calls for scaled-back attacks on the southern ports "in view of our own forthcoming operations." The implication is that Hitler wants to keep the English ports in that area operational so that the Kriegsmarine can use them during the invasion. The priority of attacks on English naval units "may be reduced."

The overall tone of the Directive is that the entire outcome of the proposed invasion lies with air superiority. Once you gain that, everything else falls into place. Gone is the gibberish about sealing off both ends of the English Channel with mines, picayune details about where landings will take place, and so forth. While German doctrine during the Battle of England is widely derided, this is an extremely modern tactical perspective that remains in place today - and this is the doctrine's first application in history.

Hitler does hedge his bets in one key regard. He states, rather ominously:

I reserve to myself the right to decide on terror attacks as measures of reprisal.

To date, London and other large cities largely have been spared (save for production facilities and bombing errors). However, the clear implication of this phrase is that London will become a target should the air superiority campaign falter. There is a large body of thought, and not just in Germany, that terror bombing of large cities alone will force a government to sue for peace. Evidence on this as of 1 August 1940 is inconclusive, as the Luftwaffe terror bombing of places like Warsaw and Rotterdam did not by themselves force immediate surrenders by the bombed governments. However, those bombings were in fact closely followed by surrenders - which may or may not have been coincidences.

Another way of looking at this phrase is that, once the bombings of London commence, Hitler has given up on the invasion. This may be bad news for the citizens of the large cities being bombed, but is good news in a strategic sense - for those that survive.

Within the German government, this directive is seen by the Naval command (OKL) as Hitler "siding with the Luftwaffe." However, even they concede in the OKL war diary that "it will be necessary to wait until the first phase of the air operation is over" before the navy can start transporting troops. The reality is that airpower is entering "the next level" of importance at this point in history, and indeed any navy - while vitally important in and of itself - must have air cover to survive.

Not contained in the Directive is a tacit understanding, not formalized but "understood," that the Luftwaffe will have to make serious progress within the first week of a full-scale attack for a 1940 invasion to be feasible. Despite the supposed "start" of the Battle of Britain on 10 July, the Luftwaffe still has not brought all of its power to bear in a focused attack. That campaign is still in the planning stages.

It already is highly likely that the invasion will have to be postponed to 1941, as the summer months are drifting away. However, British aircraft production is above that of Germany, and the submarine blockade of England is proving to be extremely porous. Battles of attrition and production never play to Germany's strengths against a strong and capable adversary with a solid industrial base. Time for one big heave of the dice.

On 1 August 1940, RAF acting F/L Paterson C "Pat" Hughes leaves No. 234 Squadron RAF to set up No. 247 Squadron at RAF Roborough. This is the only unit operating the Gladiator Mk II during the summer and autumn - yes, the RAF flew biplanes during the Battle of Britain. The same day, and perhaps related, he marries Kay Brodrick, whom he had met and begun dating at RAF Leconfield and who likens him to Errol Flynn (there is a definite resemblance).

As the day begins, there is an overnight mist over the coastal regions which aborts most Luftwaffe minelaying operations. When the mist clears up in the morning, Luftwaffe bombers head out to the Channel to attack two convoys off the Yorkshire coast, "Arena" and "Agent." RAF Nos. 607 and 616 Squadrons scramble. There is a brief exchange of gunfire, but the bombers are a fast Junkers Ju 88 and Dornier Do 17, and they high-tail it back to France. The Ju 88 may have been shot down, and an RAF Spitfire is damaged.

During the afternoon, a large Luftwaffe force heads for Dungeness. RAF No. 145 Squadron scrambles to intercept them off the coast. Both sides lose a plane, the RAF a Hurricane (the pilot is lost) and the Luftwaffe a Henschel Hs 126. One of the Junkers Ju 88s is damaged and the pilot eventually perishes after making it back to base.

Things really heat up around 15:30 when large forces of bombers intrude over the Essex coastline. About 30 Heinkel He 111s and Dornier Do 17s make it to Norwich unnoticed and bomb the railway and Boulton-Paul Aircraft Works there. There also is damage in nearby industries. There are six deaths and 60 other casualties. The Luftwaffe later loses one or two Dornier Do 17s. The lack of interception is perhaps due in part to Fighter Command being distracted by another operation over Cherbourg.

The RAF mounts a rare daylight raid against a Luftwaffe base at Cherbourg after reconnaissance shows a large fighter buildup there. Blenheim bombers of RAF No. 56 Squadron attack the airfield there and the Luftwaffe rises to meet them. The RAF causes damage to the field, but a wild melee develops over the airport. The British lose several bombers - the Luftwaffe awards five claims. While the RAF destroyed and damaged some aircraft on the field, the vital ingredient - eliminating enemy pilots - was missing. Overall, the attack showed that attacking the Luftwaffe at its strength is unwise at this point.

At night, there is a friendly fire incident. A British night-fighter of RAF No. 29 Squadron shoots down an "enemy" plane that turns out to be a No. 1 Group Fairey Battle.

During the night, the Luftwaffe drops pamphlets which contain the text of Hitler's 19 July "Last Appeal to Reason" speech. This is the first propaganda drop since the fall of France. The RAF bombs the Leeuwarden, Holland, Dortmund, and Haamstede airfields, as well as oil installations in northwest Germany. It sends 62 bombers against the Ruhr.

Today is an excellent illustration of how number-counting losses during the Battle of Britain is prone to bias. Many accounts disregard or at least under-count the British Blenheim losses over Cherbourg, while counting any Luftwaffe aircraft that leaves the battle streaming smoke as a loss (many such damaged planes make it back to base). Overall, the losses for the day are about even. However, you will see histories state that the ratio is something like a 9-1 ratio of Luftwaffe to RAF losses.

Lt. Günther Rall, Staffelkapitän of 8./JG 52, is promoted to Oberleutnant. Rall is a top Luftwaffe ace.

Adolf Galland of JG 26 is awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross (Ritterkreuz). He has the top victory total in the Luftwaffe at this point.

Prinz Eugen at its launching in 1938. It now is ready for battle.

Battle of the Atlantic: In a rare battle between submarines, U-34 (Kapitänleutnant Wilhelm Rollmann) torpedoes and sinks HMS Spearfish in the North Sea 180 miles southwest of Stavanger, Norway. On its way back to base after a successful patrol - now much more successful - U-34 uses its only remaining torpedo. One man, able seaman William V. Pester, survives and becomes a POW. U-34 is on its last patrol before converted to shore-side duties.

After a long chase and two misses with torpedoes, U-59 (Kptl. Joachim Matz) torpedoes and sinks 1981 ton timber freighter Sigyn about 70 miles northwest of Tory Island in the southwest approaches at 03:45. All 23 onboard survive.

Dutch submarine O-21 spots U-60 on its way back to Bergen. It fires two torpedoes, but both miss. Another submarine, O-22, also spots U-60, which is oblivious to all the attention it is receiving but is too far away to attack.

U-25 (Kapitänleutnant Heinz Beduhn) is lost around this time in the North Sea, likely by hitting a mine. All 49 onboard perish. When submarines run into mishaps, they often just disappear forever.

The Luftwaffe attacks convoy FN 239 about a dozen miles off of Flamborough Head, Yorkshire and damages British freighters Gothic and Highlander for the loss of two planes.

The Luftwaffe also operates just off of the south coast of Ireland and damages freighter Kerry Head.

Destroyer HMS Fearless collides with patrol boat Flying Wing off of the Mull of Kintyre, causing damage that needs repair. The damage will put it out of action for a couple of months.

The Italian Royal Navy sets up a submarine base (BETASOM) in Bordeaux, France to support operations in the Atlantic south of Lisbon.

Kriegsmarine heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen is commissioned, along with destroyer Z27.

The destroyer USS Niblack (DD 424,  Lt. Commander Edward R. Durgin) is commissioned.

British submarine HMS Tuna (Lt. Commander Maurice K. Cavenagh-Mainwaring) and destroyer HMS HMS Cattistock (L 35, Lt. Commander Robert A. Ewing) are commissioned.

U-96 is launched (Kapitänleutnant Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock).

U-25.

Battle of the Mediterranean: The RAF bombs the Italian airbase at Asmara, an ammunition dump at Bardia, Libya and an oil refinery at Massawa.

In a rare incident, Italian destroyer Vivaldi spots a British submarine south of Sardinia and heads straight for it. The destroyer manages to ram British submarine HMS Oswald and capture its crew. There are 55 survivors who become POWs, 3 men perish.

Italian submarine Goffredo Mameli spots 1041 ton Greek freighter Roula off Crete, surfaces, and sinks it with its deck gun.

Operation Hurry and Operation Spark are in progress. Hurry is a massive fleet operation to ferry a dozen Hurricanes to Malta on the carrier Ark Royal. Spark is a diversionary operation off of Minorca. In addition, a diversionary sortie by Admiral Cunningham's fleet based at Alexandria is at sea, composed of a Force A and a Force B. The latter returns to Alexandria today when battleship Malaya has a mechanical issue, but Force A remains at sea to divert attention from the vulnerable carrier force heading eastward. As the day ends, the Ark Royal is still out of range of Malta but closing quickly.

Another convoy is en route to Malta. It is headed around Africa and through the Suez Canal carrying heavy anti-aircraft guns. Governor Dobbie on Malta informs the War Office that he needs men to man the guns, not just the guns themselves because of the limited population on the island.

Battle of the Indian Ocean: German raider Atlantis captures Norwegian freighter Talleyrand and sinks it, taking the crew prisoner.

Spy Stuff: After their stay near Lisbon, the Duke and Duchess of Windsor depart for the Bahamas, where the Duke is the new Governor-General. While he was expecting the courtesy of at least a British destroyer, instead he is placed on US ocean liner Excalibur.

Switzerland: Commander-in-chief Guisan continues his martial tone. He gives a radio speech in which he reiterates the country's neutrality and vows to "defend the passage of the Alps to the end." While the Germans have made some small gestures toward the country such as closing the border, they have not indicated any interest in subduing Switzerland.

Japan: The Japanese government releases more of the British citizens it has arrested on espionage charges.

Japanese Foreign Minister Yōsuke Matsuoka coins the phrase "The Great East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere" during a press interview. This simply gives a name to Japan's obvious imperialist ambitions which are cloaked in the phrase "Asia for Asiatics." Another euphemism is "New Order in Asia."

As if to emphasize its overseas ambitions immediately, the Japanese government demands additional rights in French Indochina.

Free France: Charles de Gaulle appeals to French Canadians for their support.

United States: The US Navy establishes the Alaskan Sector within the 13th Naval District.

Soviet Union: In a speech to the Supreme Soviet, Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov reaffirms the USSR's neutrality. He also, however, is quite satisfied with the recent acquisition of the Baltic States and indicates that future acquisitions to restore the full pre-World War I extent of the Russian empire are under consideration.

British Homefront: Petrol is rationed and new car sales are banned. A solution? Electric cars! Government figures show that the number of such registrations in June zoomed to 79, and they are becoming popular in Australia, too. Electric cars, of course, are a very old idea from the turn of the century. They have the advantage of being small and fitting into tiny parking spots.



The Führer and Supreme Commander
of the Armed Forces

Führer Headquarters,
1st August 1940.
10 copies

Directive No. 17 For the conduct of air and sea warfare against England

In order to establish the necessary conditions for the final conquest of England, I intend to intensify air and sea warfare against the English homeland. I, therefore, order as follows :

1. The German Air Force is to overpower the English Air Force with all the forces at its command, in the shortest possible time. The attacks are to be directed primarily against flying units, their ground installations, and their supply organizations, but also against the aircraft industry, including that manufacturing antiaircraft equipment.

2. After achieving temporary or local air superiority the air war is to be continued against ports, in particular against stores of food, and also against stores of provisions in the interior of the country.

Attacks on south coast ports will be made on the smallest possible scale, in view of our own forthcoming operations.

3. On the other hand, air attacks on enemy warships and merchant ships may be reduced except where some particularly favorable target happens to present itself, where such attacks would lend additional effectiveness to those mentioned in paragraph 2, or where such attacks are necessary for the training of aircrews for further operations.

4. The intensified air warfare will be carried out in such a way that the Air Force can at any time be called upon to give adequate support to naval operations against suitable targets. It must also be ready to take part in full force in 'Undertaking Sea Lion'.

5. I reserve to myself the right to decide on terror attacks as measures of reprisal.

6. The intensification of the air war may begin on or after 5th August. The exact time is to be decided by the Air Force after the completion of preparations and in the light of the weather.

The Navy is authorized to begin the proposed intensified naval war at the same time.

signed: ADOLF HITLER

Joe Dimaggio on the cover of Life, 1 August 1940.

July 1940

July 1, 1940: Vichy France
July 2, 1940: Arandora Star
July 3, 1940: Operation Catapult at Mers El Kébir
July 4, 1940: Romania In Crisis
July 5, 1940: The Five Freedoms
July 6, 1940: Hitler's High Point
July 7 1940: Dakar And Ringo
July 8, 1940: Tea Rationing in England
July 9, 1940: Battle of Calabria
July 10, 1940: Battle of Britain Begins
July 11, 1940: "Nous, Philippe Petain"
July 12, 1940: Enter Laval
July 13, 1940: German Surface Raiders Attack!
July 14, 1940: Bastille/Mourning Day
July 15, 1940: Tallest Man Dies
July 16, 1940: Plans for Sea Lion
July 17, 1940: Burma Road Closed
July 18, 1940: FDR Runs Again
July 19, 1940: Last Appeal To Reason
July 20, 1940: First Night Fighter Victory
July 21, 1940: Soviets Absorb Baltic States
July 22, 1940: First RAF Night Fighter Victory
July 23, 1940: Invasion False Alarm
July 24, 1940: The Meknés Incident
July 25, 1940: Black Thursday for RAF
July 26, 1940: Capture The Duke?
July 27, 1940: What's Up, Doc?
July 28, 1940: Destroyers Pulled From Dover
July 29, 1940: Barbarossa On The Burner
July 30, 1940: Hitler Delays Sealion
July 31, 1940: Bloody Wednesday of Olkusz

August 1940

August 1, 1940: Two RN Subs Lost
August 2, 1940: Operation Hurry
August 3, 1940: Italians Attack British Somaliland
August 4, 1940: Dueling Legends in the US
August 5, 1940: First Plan for Barbarossa
August 6, 1940: Wipe Out The RAF
August 7, 1940: Burning Oil Plants
August 8, 1940: True Start of Battle of Britain
August 9, 1940: Aufbau Ost
August 10, 1940: Romania Clamps Down On Jews
August 11, 1940: Huge Aerial Losses
August 12, 1940: Attacks on Radar
August 13, 1940: Adler Tag
August 14, 1940: Sir Henry's Mission
August 15, 1940: Luftwaffe's Black Thursday
August 16, 1940: Wolfpack Time
August 17, 1940: Blockade of Britain
August 18, 1940: The Hardest Day
August 19, 1940: Enter The Zero
August 20, 1940: So Much Owed By So Many
August 21, 1940: Anglo Saxon Incident
August 22, 1940: Hellfire Corner
August 23, 1940: Seaplanes Attack
August 24, 1940: Slippery Slope
August 25, 1940: RAF Bombs Berlin
August 26, 1940: Troops Moved for Barbarossa
August 27, 1940: Air Base in Iceland
August 28, 1940: Call Me Meyer
August 29, 1940: Schepke's Big Day
August 30, 1940: RAF's Bad Day
August 31, 1940: Texel Disaster

2020

Saturday 27 July 1940

Bugs Bunny is born today, 27 July 1940.

Battle of Britain: The weather clears sufficiently on 27 July 1940 for most air operations, though a persistent cloud layer hangs over everything with scattered rainstorms. The Luftwaffe resumes its massive attacks against the Channel convoys. Today, 50 Stukas find Convoy "Bacon" and sink destroyers HMS Codrington and Wren, the latter off Aldeburgh (Suffolk).

General Wolfram von Richthofen's Fliegerkorps VIII is in the air and over the convoy by 09:45. There are several convoys in the vicinity, two forming up in the Thames estuary. Heinkel He 111s of KG 53 join the attack and sink the Wren (37 deaths) of the 18th Destroyer Flotilla whilst also damaging HMS Montrose (lost her bow, had to be towed to Harwich).

The RAF gets several squadrons in the air (RAF Nos. 145, 238, and 609) to defend. The RAF shoots down at least one Stuka and Bf 109, with additional possible victories, at a cost of one Spitfire from 609 Squadron.

The Luftwaffe launches massive attacks against Dover as well. There, HMS Codrington goes down and destroyer HMS Walpole is badly damaged. The attack is notable because, for the first time, Bf 109s are equipped with bomb racks that enable them to operate as ground-attack ("Jagdbomber" or "Jabo") fighter-bombers. This type of raider is particularly dangerous because, once the German fighters drop their bombs, they can basically out-run the pursuing RAF fighters back to France - unlike the much-slower Stukas.

The Admiralty concedes defeat and withdraws all destroyers from Dover. This accomplishes a prime objective for Operation Sea Lion, but it is only a benefit if followed up properly - the Admiralty can always bring the destroyers back. The withdrawal places more weight on the RAF to defend convoy ships against both Luftwaffe and German torpedo boat attacks. In addition, the damage to Dover port itself is mounting, and Fighter Command makes protecting it a top priority. Protecting the forward airfields at Manston and Hawkinge becomes more vital than ever.

There are a few more raids during the day, including an attack on Belfast and scattered attacks on shipping. During the night, the Luftwaffe attacks Swansea Docks, Upton-upon-Severn, and Kidwelly (Carmarthen). The Luftwaffe also conducts minelaying operations around Portland and elsewhere on the Channel coast.

The RFA War Sepoy, which has been converted into a blockship at Dover after its extensive damage on the 19th by the Luftwaffe, is still very visible. The Luftwaffe pilots see it and, perhaps thinking it is still operational, pound it repeatedly.

Total losses for the day are said to be four Luftwaffe planes and one RAF plane.

The Luftwaffe gets a little more coordinated by the appointment of a "fighter leader" of Luftflotte 2, the main formation facing England. Luftflotte 2 has the following fighter formations in action:

• JG 3
• JG 26
• JG 51
• JG 52
• JG 54
• ZG 26

Generalmajor Theo Osterkamp takes on the job, giving up his leadership of JG 51. Major Werner Mölders takes over command of JG 51, and Mölders is replaced as Gruppenkommandeur of III./JG 53 by Hauptman Harro Harder.

European Air Operations: RAF Bomber Command sends 15 bombers to attack various targets in Holland and northwestern Germany, primarily shipping facilities, oil depots and airfields.

RAF Fighter Command begins evaluating the first prototype Beaufighter IF fighters.

Battle of the Atlantic: U-34 (Kapitänleutnant Wilhelm Rollmann) continues stalking convoy OB 188, which is now about 350 miles out into the Atlantic west of Scotland. To add to its totals of the 26th, the U-boat torpedoes and sinks 5,260-ton British freighter Sambre at 02:58 and 10,364-ton British tanker Thiara at 03:13. There are 25 dead on the Thiara, while 36 survive; everybody on the Sambre (48 crew) survives.

British freighter Salvestria hits a mine and sinks in the Irish Sea.

British corvette HMS Clematis (K 36, Commander York McLeod Cleeves) is commissioned.

Convoy OB 190 departs from Liverpool, Convoy HG 40F departs from Gibraltar, Convoy HX 61 departs from Halifax.

U-73 is launched.

The crew of U-73, launched today at Bremer Vulkan of Bremen-Vegesack, Germany.

Battle of the Mediterranean: Malta needs better air defenses, so Whitehall begins plans to send a dozen heavy guns and ten light anti-aircraft batteries to the island via the Suez Canal. Operation Hurry, the convoy past Gibraltar into the Mediterranean, is confined to the transport of Hurricane fighters and is not carrying any extraneous materials. The ships are not intended to actually dock at the island, but rather to fly the Hurricanes off once within range.

The Italians send a reconnaissance raid over the island at 11:10, losing a fighter to anti-aircraft fire. At 16:40, a couple of Short Sunderland flying boats on patrol find some enemy fighters and shoots down three of the Italian planes. One of the Sunderlands is damaged but makes it back to base.

The incessant air raids are seriously affecting productivity in the dockyard. The government begins pondering moving some operations underground so that the workers do not have to stop for each air raid alert, many of which are either false alarms or for enemy planes that wind up not attacking.

German/Spanish Relations: While there is not much enthusiasm on the Spanish side, the two countries' military staffs begin preliminary planning for Operation Felix: the invasion of Gibraltar. Taking Gibraltar would effectively bottle up the Mediterranean and force all British ships to take the long way around Africa to supply British forces in Egypt.

German/Bulgarian Relations: Adolf Hitler meets with the Bulgarian Premier and Foreign Minister at Berchtesgaden. Hitler tells them that he supports their claim on Romania in southern Dobruja province.

Italian/Romanian Relations: The Romanian Premier and Foreign Minister, having talked with Hitler on the 26th, meet with Mussolini and Italian Foreign Minister Ciano in Rome.

British/Japanese Relations: The Japanese detain eleven British citizens. Such detentions invariably result in diplomatic protests.

An illustration from the 27 July 1940 "The Illustrated London News" about German bombings.

German Resistance: Another victory parade for the defeat of France is scheduled for today in Paris. Count FritzDietlof von der Schulenberg, a member of the German Resistance, later claims to have had plans to shoot Hitler at the event. In addition, Captain Graf Schwerin Von Schwanenfeld, Major Hans Alexander Von Voss, and Captain Graf Von Waldersee have plans to both shoot Hitler and also toss a grenade at him. Hitler, however, cancels the parade.

Italian Government: Mussolini sets his eyes on expanding his African empire. He and Commando Supremo decide to invade British Somaliland on 3 August. Coordinating with Vichy France, which now is a nominal ally, Mussolini has them withdraw French forces from the key Jirre pass into the country.

British Government: The Admiralty appoints a board of inquiry to look into the reasons why destroyer HMS Effingham hit a rock and sank on 18 May 1940 while performing escort duties near Bodø, Norway.

Barrage balloons and Home Guard observers now cover London. The balloons are raised from parks and other open spaces.

The government imposes a curfew in the restricted zone on the south coast: everyone must be indoors from one hour after sunset to one hour before sunrise. Cars are allowed only one headlight, the other must be covered.

Australian Government: Australian radio reports that 125,000 men have volunteered for the Royal Australian Air Force.

US Government: President Roosevelt, Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox, and Naval Affairs Committee chairman Carl Vinson board the presidential yacht Potomac for a trip to the Norfolk Navy Yard.

Colonel George S. Patton, Jr. takes command of the 2nd Armored Brigade at Fort Benning.

Japanese Government: Prime Minister Konoye's government continues its militaristic stance by deciding to establish military ties with Germany and Italy.

Latin America: The Pan-American conference in Havana, Cuba results in an agreement to protect any European colonies in the region that are attacked by Axis forces. This is known as the Act of Havana.

British Homefront: The Illustrated London News publishes a pictorial guide to German bombing and how to survive it. This is quite timely, because, while London has not yet been bombed, it soon will be.

Francis Albert Sinatra in 1940.

American Homeland: It is a big day for Warner Bros: Bugs Bunny is born. Warner Bros releases "A Wild Hare," directed by Tex Avery. Bugs Bunny gets a chance to introduce his classic catchphrase, "What's up, Doc?", which Avery says was just a typical saying back home in Texas, nothing special at all. The short is nominated for an Academy Award (but loses). Earlier incarnations of Bugs actually appeared in several shorts starting in 1938, but everyone considers "A Wild Hare" to be Bugs' debut as his ultimate character. This is the wabbit's second meeting with Elmer Fudd, who hunts him down in "A Wild Hare," unsuccessfully of course.

Incidentally, while he is not yet given a screen name, Bugs in fact already has been named by his creator, though nobody knows it yet. Ben "Bugs" Hardaway first started drawing a generic rabbit in 1938 and, without thinking about it too much, filed him under "Bugs' Bunny" - as in, his own drawing of a rabbit. The name stuck, and is first used in Bugs' next film in 1941, "Elmer's Pet Rabbit."

Bugs Bunny as a US Marine in "Super-Rabbit" (1943).

Bugs Bunny becomes iconic during World War II for his wiseguy, purely American attitude. He represents freedom and is embraced by Allied servicemen worldwide - and not just Americans. Bugs Bunny later is the official mascot of Kingman Army Air Field in the U.S. and of the 530 Squadron, 380th Bombardment Group of the Royal Australian Air Force, among other outfits. The US Marines make Bugs an honorary Master Sergeant because, at the end of Super-Rabbit (1943), Bugs wears the dress blues of the United States Marine Corps.

In other Hollywood news, Warner Bros. releases the classic "They Drive By Night" starring Humphrey Bogart, George Raft and Anne Sheridan.

Also, Billboard Magazine publishes its first list of top records for the week (there have been other services charting how records perform, but this is the beginning of the "Billboard Top 100"). Topping this initial list is Tommy Dorsey and His Orchestra's "I'll Never Smile Again." It features Frank Sinatra singing vocals with the Pied Pipers. The song was written by a Canadian woman, Ruth Lowe, who had just lost her husband on the operating table.

So, if you ever wondered what was Frank Sinatra's first mega-hit, you've come to the right place! It indeed was "I'll Never Smile Again" with the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra and The Pied Pipers. This is Sinatra's fourth chart appearance. "I'll Never Smile Again" will stay atop the chart for 12 weeks, and Sinatra will re-record "I'll Never Smile Again" in 1965.


July 1940

July 1, 1940: Vichy France
July 2, 1940: Arandora Star
July 3, 1940: Operation Catapult at Mers El Kébir
July 4, 1940: Romania In Crisis
July 5, 1940: The Five Freedoms
July 6, 1940: Hitler's High Point
July 7 1940: Dakar And Ringo
July 8, 1940: Tea Rationing in England
July 9, 1940: Battle of Calabria
July 10, 1940: Battle of Britain Begins
July 11, 1940: "Nous, Philippe Petain"
July 12, 1940: Enter Laval
July 13, 1940: German Surface Raiders Attack!
July 14, 1940: Bastille/Mourning Day
July 15, 1940: Tallest Man Dies
July 16, 1940: Plans for Sea Lion
July 17, 1940: Burma Road Closed
July 18, 1940: FDR Runs Again
July 19, 1940: Last Appeal To Reason
July 20, 1940: First Night Fighter Victory
July 21, 1940: Soviets Absorb Baltic States
July 22, 1940: First RAF Night Fighter Victory
July 23, 1940: Invasion False Alarm
July 24, 1940: The Meknés Incident
July 25, 1940: Black Thursday for RAF
July 26, 1940: Capture The Duke?
July 27, 1940: What's Up, Doc?
July 28, 1940: Destroyers Pulled From Dover
July 29, 1940: Barbarossa On The Burner
July 30, 1940: Hitler Delays Sealion
July 31, 1940: Bloody Wednesday of Olkusz

2020

Friday 26 July 1940

Officers of the 11th Hussars use a large umbrella to give shade during a halt, while out patrolling on the Libyan frontier, 26 July 1940. The vehicle is a Morris CS9 armored car, which would be quite hot in the mid-day sun.

Battle of Britain: Poor flying weather returns on 26 July 1940, with a low cloud ceiling and heavy rain. Operations over England are limited, and the few that are sent are turned back by RAF interceptors.

The few attacks that do get through cause little damage. At first light, a lone wolf attacker bombs Mayfield and Hastings.

A large formation of Bf 109s flying south of the Isle of Wight is intercepted by Hurricanes of RAF No. 601 Squadron. The German planes shoot down a Hurricane and damage another but sustain damage to several of their own planes.

Another raid on Portland is turned back around noontime, with the Luftwaffe losing a Bf 109 from II,/JG 27 and one from III,/JG27.

During the afternoon, another large force of Luftwaffe planes approaches the Isle of Wight, but again is turned back. The RAF is maintaining standing patrols in the area which are effective.

After dark, the Luftwaffe sent over several solo raiders. The Bristol Aeroplane Company at Filton, Bristol proper, some Channel shipping, Kent and Brentwood, Essex all suffer some damage.

German E-boats are not troubled by the weather and attack a convoy off of Shoreham. They sink 821 ton British freighter Lulonga, 1,013 ton cargo ship Broadhurst, and 646 ton freighter London Trader.

Losses for the day are light, with the Luftwaffe losing three fighters and the RAF a Hurricane.

Some help for the weary RAF planes arrives in the form of Canadian-built Hurricanes manned by Canadian pilots.

The Admiralty prohibits ships from venturing past Dover during daylight hours due to the strain that such convoys are putting on resources.

F/O Derek H Ward of No 87 Squadron RAF with a Hurricane Mk I LK-M deployed to RAF Hullavington to extend the night defenses. The aircraft was flown by P/O John R "Johnny" Cock on the night of 26 July 1940 to score his sixth victory. In one of the first successful nocturnal interceptions performed by No 10 Group, the 22-year-old Australian succeeded in knocking out a mine-laying He 111 in the glare of Bristol's searchlights.

European Air Operations: RAF Bomber Command sends a risky daylight raid against the Dortmund power station. Operations during the daylight hours are more precise, but they invite fighter interception and more accurate anti-aircraft fire. Today, though, the weather is so poor that it is almost like bombing at night anyway. Not much damage is done.

Other RAF raids are launched on airfields in Holland at Amsterdam/Schiphol and Waalhaven. Attacks are made on Hamm and Ludwigshafen. Night raids are launched on ports such as Cherbourg, St. Nazaire, and Nantes.

RAF Bomber Command sends a dozen planes on minelaying operations during the night.

The Axis raids Gibraltar during the night without causing much damage at all.

Air Intelligence reports that the German high command is concerned about RAF raids on Germany because they are causing substantial damage. Delayed action bombs also are causing concern.

The NY Times highlights the decision by President Roosevelt to ban the sale of oil and scrap metal to Japan. The ship referred to in the headline is the  Meknés, which sank on the night of 24/25 July.

Battle of the Atlantic: The convoy escorting the partially repaired Gneisenau back to Kiel is rounding Stavanger, Norway when it is spotted by the British submarine HMS Thames. It fires a torpedo at the ship that instead hits torpedo boat Luchs which unexpectedly crosses in between at extremely close range to the submarine, blowing it up. The Thames is never heard from again and is assumed to have been destroyed by depth charges or by hitting a mine shortly after this incident. Another possibility is that the nearby explosion of the torpedo itself caused some kind of damage to the submarine, or the sinking Luchs fell on it.

U-34 (Kapitänleutnant Wilhelm Rollmann) sinks 9,337-ton British liner Accra about 320 miles west of Ireland at 14:47. There are 465 survivors and 35 perish. The Accra is with Convoy OB 188, so picking up the survivors happens quickly.

U-34 also torpedoes 4,359-ton British freighter Vinemoor in the same convoy. Everybody on board, 32 crew, survives, and the ship is wrecked and sinks on the 27th.

British 1,189 ton cargo ship Haytor strikes a mine in the North Sea and sinks.

Convoy OA 190 departs from Methil, Convoy OG 39 departs from Liverpool.

Battle of the Mediterranean: The RAF bombs the Italian airfield at Derna, Libya, damaging or destroying half a dozen aircraft. The Italians bomb Mersa Matruh, causing four casualties, and armored cars at Sidi Rezegh.

A raid on Malta at 02:37 causes damage at Valletta, Grand Harbour, Marsa Creek, Kirkop, and RAF Ta Silch. The bombs hit a power station which puts the local electrical supply out of operation.

At Malta, hotels now are advertising that passersby may shelter in them during air raids.

The Italian Stefani news agency asserts that Malta has been destroyed as a British military base, though it remains active as an airbase.

Spy Stuff: German Foreign Minister Joachim Ribbentrop remains hopeful that he can use the Duke and Duchess of Windsor as pawns in negotiations with the British. Under orders from Hitler, he dispatches SS officer Walter Schellenberg to the neutral city of Lisbon, Portugal to see if the pair, who have refused Ribbentrop's attempts to have them return to German voluntarily, can be kidnapped. Schellenberg hopes to lure the couple back to Fascist Spain, where presumably Franco will play along and arrest them on some pretext. Schellenberg begins spreading rumors that the British secret service has orders to kill the couple due to their pro-German leanings.

The Duke and Duchess are staying near Estoril while they await passage to the Duke's new posting as Governor-General of the Bahamas. They are in a villa owned by the banking brothers, Espirito Santos. They have been traveling in a small party of three cars, a trailer and a truck. It is unclear at this point if the Royal Navy will send a destroyer to take them, or they will fly the Clipper. Their presence in Portugal is well-known around the world and news of them appears in society pages everywhere.

The crew of a Bristol Blenheim Mk IV of No. 40 Squadron exit their aircraft at Wyton, July 1940.

German/Romanian Relations: Hitler concludes his talks with the Romanian Premier and Foreign Minister, who then leave for Rome to see Mussolini. A topic of conversation is two Romanian tankers detained in Port Said by the British. Hitler also advises them to give Hungary the territory it wants.

German/Bulgarian Relations: Next on Hitler's diplomatic list are the Bulgarian Premier and Foreign Minister, who arrive in Salzburg ready to make the drive up to Berchtesgaden.

League of Nations: Joseph Avenol, the French Secretary-General of the League of Nations, resigns effective at the end of August. He is considered sympathetic to Vichy France. The League of Nations itself has dwindled to about 100 employees of all kinds as Avenol has sanctioned the firing of the British employees.

Soviet Government: General Golikov becomes Deputy Chief of the General Staff (Stavka), while General Nikolai Vatutin becomes Head of the Operations Directorate.

British Government: Home Guard chief Sir Alan Brooke confides that he is growing pessimistic about the prospects of heading off an invasion. The power of the Royal Navy, in his opinion, diminishes greatly in value as the Luftwaffe becomes more ascendant.

Brooke, of course, is right. The feasibility of a successful German landing with the forces available is probably at its height during this period. However, on the German side, Hitler's preconditions for Operation Sea Lion as set forth in his Fuhrer Directive of 16 July are not being met. Those preconditions, such as sealing off the English Channel with mines, are extremely unrealistic in any event, but they underscore the fact that nobody in the Wehrmacht really wants to make the attempt. One problem is that the German invasion plan envisages a landing where the British are strongest, in the south, rather than in the north where perhaps Scapa Flow could be neutralized with a quick assault and a sustainable beachhead grabbed nearby.

At the heart of the matter, Hitler's complete ignorance about naval operations and unbridled German pessimism about the Kriegsmarine's abilities is the ultimate barrier to any attempt. It is easier to simply punt and wait for the completion of the battleships Tirpitz and the Bismarck and perhaps the aircraft carriers, with the shaky assumption that they will make a difference, rather than risk everything on a weak navy and a Luftwaffe which is showing distinct weaknesses operating over the Channel. Meanwhile, the British are scrambling successfully to upgrade their defenses with each passing day, though the RAF's attrition remains a serious matter.

Australia: The government forms the Royal Australian Air Force Nursing Service (RAAFNS).

China: The Japanese have been so successful at cutting off supply routes over the Himalayas and through French Indochina that the Nationalists resort to trading with the Soviet Union. This requires using pack mules and camels to cross the roadless deserts.

Latin America: Light cruiser USS Phoenix (CL 46) departs from Callao, Peru, ending its "Show the Flag" mission. It returns to base.

American Homefront: "Pride and Prejudice," starring Greer Garson and Laurence Olivier, is released. While the film is very well received by critics, it produces a loss of $241,000 for MGM. There is criticism that Garson is too old for the part and that the entire thing has been "Hollywoodized" by changing the time period of the original Jane Austen novel and overly compressing the narrative.

Future History:  Mary Jo Kopechne is born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. She becomes famous in 1969 when she perishes in a car accident while driving with future Senator Ted Kennedy.

RAF Fordson tractor towing a bomb trolley at No. 10 Operational Training Unit, RAF Abingdon, Berks. 26 July 1940.

July 1940

July 1, 1940: Vichy France
July 2, 1940: Arandora Star
July 3, 1940: Operation Catapult at Mers El Kébir
July 4, 1940: Romania In Crisis
July 5, 1940: The Five Freedoms
July 6, 1940: Hitler's High Point
July 7 1940: Dakar And Ringo
July 8, 1940: Tea Rationing in England
July 9, 1940: Battle of Calabria
July 10, 1940: Battle of Britain Begins
July 11, 1940: "Nous, Philippe Petain"
July 12, 1940: Enter Laval
July 13, 1940: German Surface Raiders Attack!
July 14, 1940: Bastille/Mourning Day
July 15, 1940: Tallest Man Dies
July 16, 1940: Plans for Sea Lion
July 17, 1940: Burma Road Closed
July 18, 1940: FDR Runs Again
July 19, 1940: Last Appeal To Reason
July 20, 1940: First Night Fighter Victory
July 21, 1940: Soviets Absorb Baltic States
July 22, 1940: First RAF Night Fighter Victory
July 23, 1940: Invasion False Alarm
July 24, 1940: The Meknés Incident
July 25, 1940: Black Thursday for RAF
July 26, 1940: Capture The Duke?
July 27, 1940: What's Up, Doc?
July 28, 1940: Destroyers Pulled From Dover
July 29, 1940: Barbarossa On The Burner
July 30, 1940: Hitler Delays Sealion
July 31, 1940: Bloody Wednesday of Olkusz

2020