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Military Expediency: A Determining Factor in the Japanese Policy Regarding Burmese Independence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 April 2011

Won Z. Yoon
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Extract

Military consideration had been given top priority by the Japanese policy-makers in formulating policy towards Burma immediately prior to and after the outbreak of the Pacific War. This was evident in their decision to establish military administration in Burma in March 1942, and in granting independence to the Burmese in August 1943. These decisions, however, had an adverse effect for Japan during the war years, since they were largely responsible for turning the Burmese against Japan.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , Volume 9 , Special Issue 2: Japan and the Western Powers in Southeast Asia , September 1978 , pp. 248 - 267
Copyright
Copyright © The National University of Singapore 1978

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References

1 Japan, Gaimusho (Ministry of Foreign Affairs), Nihon Gaiko Nenpyo Narabi ni Juyo Bunsho (Major Documents of the Japanese Government and Chronological Tables Pertaining to Japan's Foreign Relations) (Tokyo, 1965), II, 560–61Google Scholar. Hereafter cited as Japan, Nihon Gaiko Nenpyo. See also Japan, Boeicho, Boei Kenshujo, Senshi Shitsu (Defense Agency, Defense Training Institute, Office of War History), Biruma Koryaku Sakusen (Military Operations for the Conquest of Burma) (Tokyo, 1967), p. 14. Hereafter cited as Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen.

2 Japan, Nihon Gaiko Nenpyo, II, 544.

3 Ibid., pp. 560–61; Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, p. 14.

4 Yoon, Won Z., Japan's Scheme for the Liberation of Burma: The Role of the Minami Kikan and the “Thirty Comrades” (Athens, Ohio, 1973), pp. 16–21Google Scholar. Also see Suzuki Keiji's account in Maung, Maung, Aung San of Burma (The Hague, 1962), pp. 55–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Izumiya, Tatsuro, Biruma Pokuritsu Hishi (A Secret History of Burmese Independence Movement) (Tokyo, 1967), pp. 23–30Google Scholar.

5 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, pp. 10, 117; Suzuki's account in Maung op. cit., p. 57; Izumiya, op cit., pp. 34–35.

6 Izumiya, op. cit., p. 26; Sawamoto, Rikichiro, “Nihon de Mita Biruma-gun no Oitachi” (The Birth of the Burma Defense Army Viewed from Japan) (Tokyo 1958), pp. 27–29Google Scholar. Sawamoto's work is an unpublished manuscript prepared for the Office of War History, Defense Agency.

7 See Izumiya, op. cit., pp. 39–57, 73–77; Suzuki's account in Maung, op. cit., p. 57; Sugii, Mitsura, Minami Kikan Gaishi (An Unofficial History of the Minami Kikan) (Rangoon, 1944), pp. 11–15, 52–54Google Scholar.

8 Ibid., pp. 24–32; Izumiya, op. cit., p. 45.

9 Japan, Nihon Gaiko Nenpyo, II, 554–55.

10 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, pp. 48–51. See also Hattori, Takushiro, Dai Toa Senso Zenshi [A Complete History of the Greater East Asia War] (Tokyo, 1968), pp. 225–27Google Scholar. The S.A.A., with its headquarters in Saigon, and responsible to the I.G.H.Q., commanded the whole military operation in Southeast Asia and the South West Pacific during the Pacific War.

11 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, p. 117.

12 Ibid., p. 124; Sugii, op. cit., pp. 61–65.

13 Izumiya, op. cit., pp. 122–23.

14 For the Order of Battle of the B.I.A., see Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, pp. 124–25.

15 Ibid., pp. 129–30; Sugii, op. cit., pp. 67–98.

16 Japan, Nihon Gaiko Nenpyo, II, 576–77.

17 Ishii Akiho, Nampo Gunsei Nikki (Journal of the Military Administration in the South) (Tokyo, 1957), pp. 4, 95, 107–8. Hereafter, cited as Nampo Gunsei Nikki. Col. Ishii Akiho's previous assignments were as follows: In Oct. 1922, he was appointed Army 2nd Lt. upon his graduation from the Military Academy. Graduating from the War College in Dec. 1932, he was appointed Staff Officer of the 16th Army Division. In Dec. 1935, he was assigned to the Army General Staff Headquarters in Tokyo, and then in Aug. 1937, he was sent to the China Garrison Army to serve as its Staff Officer. In August of the following year, he was transferred to the North China Area Army to assume Staff Officer's post. In Aug. 1939, he was sent back to Tokyo, where he worked at the Military Affairs Bureau in the War Ministry. In Oct. 1941, he was promoted to Colonel, and a month later, he was appointed as Senior Staff Officer of the S.A-A. He served at that post until 6 Jan. 1943, when he was transferred back to Tokyo to assume the post of Military Instructor at the War College. Akiho, Ishii, Ishii Akiho Taisa Kaisoroku (Memoirs of Col. Ishii Akiho) (Tokyo, 1954), p. 1Google Scholar.

18 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, p. 123.

19 Izumiya, op. cit., p. 195; Ohta, Tsunezo, Biruma ni Okeru Nihon Gunseishi no Kerikyu (A Study of the History of the Japanese Military Administration in Burma) (Tokyo, 1967), p. 342Google Scholar.

20 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, p. 128.

21 Ibid., pp. 118–20, for the complete text of the “Plan for the Burma Operation”. For English translations of the text, see Document No. 1 in Trager, Frank N. (ed.) and Yoon, Won Z. (trans.), Burma: Japanese Military Administration: Selected Documents, 1941–1945 (Philadelphia, 1971), pp. 27–33Google Scholar.

22 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, pp. 118, 121–22.

23 Ibid., pp. 505–6.

24 Ibid., pp. 122–23.

25 Sugii, op. cit., pp. 74–76.

26 Ishii, Nampo Gunsei Nikki, p. 90.

27 For the complete text of the governing policy of the 15th Army, see Japan, Rikugun, Biruma Homengun (Japanese Army, Burma Area Army), Biruma Gunseishi Fuhyo (A History of Military Administration in Burma, app.) (Tokyo, 1943), app. no. 24, Hayashi Shudan Senryochi Tochi Yoko, issued by Lt. Gen. lida Shojira, Commander of the 15th Army, on 15 Mar. 1942, pp. 61–65. Hereafter cited as Japan, Biruma Gunseishi Fuhyo. For English translations of the text, see Trager, op. cit., Document no. 6, pp. 45–52.

28 Ibid. See also Ishii, Nampo Gunsei Nikki, p. 90.

29 Ibid.

30 Ibid., p. 91.

31 Ibid., p. 7.

32 Ibid., p. 91.

33 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, p. 129.

34 Ibid., p. 506; See also Japan, Biruma Gunseishi Fuhyo, app. 3, Gunseibu Fukumu Kitei (Regulations of Duties of the Military Administration Department), issued by the M.A.D., 15 Mar. 1942, pp. 6–7. For English translations of the text, see Trager, op. cit., Document no. 7, pp. 52–54.

35 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, p. 506, Maj.-Gen. Isayama Haruki was succeeded on 1 Dec. 1942 by Lt.-Gen. Naka Eitaro, the New Chief of Staff of the 15th Army.

36 Ibid., pp. 508–9. See also Japan, Biruma Gunseishi Fuhyo, app. 92, Biruma Gunseikambu Shokuinhyo (List of Personnel of the Military Administration Headquarters in Burma), pp. 258–81.

37 As they marched into Burma, the B.I.A. continued the task of recruiting, and by Mar. 1942, its strength had grown to 10,000. Sugii, op. cit., p. 65.

38 Izumiya, op. cit., pp. 188–89.

39 Aung San's account in Maung, op. cit., p. 5.

40 Aung San's speech at the City Hall, 29 Aug. 1945, Ibid., p. 38.

41 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, pp. 30–31. Thakin Tun Oke was one of the “Thirty Comrades”.

42 Ibid.

43 Ibid., pp. 122–23. See also Japan, Rikugun, Biruma Homengun (Japanese Army, Burma Area Army), Biruma Gunseishi (A History of Military Administration in Burma) (Tokyo, 1943), p. 30. Hereafter cited as Japan, Biruma Gunseishi.

44 Ibid., pp. 30–31.

45 Ibid., p. 83.

46 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, p. 450; Ishii, Nampo Gunsei Nikki, pp. 98–99. Suzuki was transferred to the Headquarters of the Konoe Division. Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, p. 450.

47 Japan, Biruma Gunseishi Fuhyo, app. 20, Gunmei Dai-ju-ni-go, Gyoseifu Kaicho ni kansuru Shudan Meirei (Military Order no. 12, Army Group Order Concerning the Opening of the Central Executive Administration), issued by the Commander of the 15th Army, on 1 Aug. 1942, pp. 54–55; app. 23, Gyoseifu no Soshiki Yoryo (Summary of Organizing the Central Executive Administration), pp. 58–59.

48 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, p. 530.

49 Ohta, op. cit., pp. 354–56.

50 For a detailed description on the British offensive on Arakan, see Kirby, S. Woodburn (ed.), History of the Second World War: The War Against Japan (London. 1959), II, 253–68Google Scholar.

51 Ibid., pp. 269–90.

52 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, pp. 528–30. It must be noted here that the ardent Indian nationalist, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, aided by the Japanese, established on 24 Oct. 1943, the Free India Provisional Government in Singapore. On the following day, the pro-Japanese India Government declared war on the United States and Great Britain, and ordered his Indian National Army to march into India to liberate its fatherland from British rule. Hattori, op. cit., p. 455; see also Maw, Ba, Breakthrough in Burma: Memoirs of a Revolution, 1939–1946 (New Haven, 1968), pp. 348–59Google Scholar.

53 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, pp. 518–19. Lt.-Gen. Tsukada was transferred and was replaced by L.t-Gen. Kuroda in July 1942. Ibid.

54 Ibid.

55 Ishii, Nampo Gunsei Nikki, p. 95.

56 Ibid., pp. 103–4

57 Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, p. 541.

58 Ibid., p. 542. See also Ba Maw, op. cit., p. 325.

59 For the full text of the Treaty of Alliance between Japan and Burma, see Japan, Nihon Gaiko Nenpyo, II, 586–87. For English translations of the text, see Trager, op. cit., Document no. 38, p. 152.

60 The Burma Area Army was established on 27 Mar. 1943, and subsequently, the 15th Army was placed under the command of the Burma Area Army. Hattori, op. cit., pp. 422–23.

61 For the complete text of the Japan-Burma Secret Military Agreement, see Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, p. 544. For English translations of the text of the treaty, see Trager, op. cit., Document no. 39, p. 153.

62 The full text of the agreement may be found in Japan, Biruma Koryaku Sakusen, pp. 544–45. For English translations of the agreement, see Trager, op. cit., Document no. 40 pp. 154–55.

63 Ibid.

64 IMT 406, “Interrogation of Ba Maw”, p. 8.

65 Nu, Burma Under the Japanese: Pictures and Portraits (London, 1954), p. 87Google Scholar.

66 Ibid., pp. 79–80.

67 IMT 406, “Interrogation of Ba Maw”, p. 8.

68 Ba Maw, op. cit., p. 335.

69 The Army Young Resistance Group, an anti-Japanese resistance group, was formed sometime in June 1942, by 19 B.D.A. officers, among whom Bo Aung Gyi and Bo Maung Maung were the leaders. Than, Ba, The Roots of the Revolution (Rangoon, 1962), p. 43Google Scholar.

70 Maung, Maung, Burma's Constitution (The Hague, 1959), p. 62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

71 Nu, op. cit., p. 104; Ba Than, op. cit., p. 49.

72 Butwell, Richard, U Nu of Burma (Stanford, 1963), p. 44Google Scholar.

73 Ohta, op. cit., p. 445.

74 Ba Than, op. cit., p. 105.

75 Ba Maw, op. cit., pp. 333–35.

76 Hattori, op. cit., p. 605. Gen. Slim estimates the figure of casualties at 65,000. See Slim, op. cit., p. 314.

77 Donnison, op. cit., p. 344.

78 Tamura, op. cit., pp. 352–54.

79 Ba Than, op. cit., p. 58.