The most marked taxonomic difference in the indoor and outdoor dust mycobiomes was the predominance of yeasts and molds inside the daycare centers.
Saccharomyces was by far the most abundant genus in our study and had a clear affinity for indoor environments. Based on the taxonomic annotation, what appears to be
Saccharomyces paradoxus was clearly the most abundant fungal OTU in our data set. Compared to
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the mesophilic yeast
S. paradoxus has a more northern distribution (
32). In addition to its natural habitats,
Saccharomyces may partly be derived from food but has also been found as one of the most abundant genera in the human gut (
33) and on children’s skin (
34). Other true yeasts, such as
Debaryomyces and
Candida (2 among the top 50), also had a clear affinity for indoor environments in the studied daycares.
Candida and
Debaryomyces are among the most widespread genera associated with external (skin) and internal (mouth and digestive tract) parts of the human body (
35). It is well documented that
Candida is particularly associated with children and can in some cases cause oral thrush (massive
Candida growth in the mouth and throat) in the first years of life (
36). The lipophilic basidiomycete yeast
Malassezia, a widespread genus on human skin (
18), and
Rhodotorula, another basidiomycete yeast associated with the human body (
35), were also prevalent in the studied daycares.
Malassezia as well as
Candida are known to be associated with inflammatory skin disorders such as seborrheic dermatitis and atopic dermatitis in childhood as well as adulthood (
37,
38). However,
Malassezia most often has a commensal role, as it is widespread on healthy skin. For instance, 11 of the 14 known
Malassezia species were associated with different parts of the skin of 14 healthy adults (
20), indicating that human skin is colonized with a wide range of
Malassezia species. On children’s skin, a dominance of the species
Malassezia globosa has been observed (
18), which was among our most abundant OTUs according to the taxonomic annotation (99.3% match to the reference sequence). We hypothesize that the yeasts dominating the indoor daycare mycobiomes are mainly derived from different parts of the human body. The high density of children and close physical contact may lead to the easy and fast transmission of yeasts in daycares, possibly explaining the increased concentrations of these species indoors.
In addition to the indoor enrichment of yeasts, several extremotolerant molds, such as
Mucor,
Penicillium,
Aspergillus, and
Wallemia, were also abundant in the indoor environment. These genera are widespread and prevalent in most indoor environments (
13,
24,
39) and grow rapidly on organic materials. All of these taxa are sometimes detected on and in the human body as well (
18).
Cladosporium, another abundant mold in indoor environments, was prevalent in both indoor and outdoor samples and might largely be dispersed from outdoor sources. Although no direct cause-effect relationship has been established, some of these mold taxa were abundant in houses with children with allergies and respiratory diseases (
15,
40). However, precautions have to be taken when interpreting the DNA metabarcoding data quantitatively. Our DNA metabarcoding analysis does not inform about absolute quantities but provides proportional data, which may lead to spurious patterns. For example, if relatively small amounts of fungal DNA occur in the indoor compared to the outdoor samples, outdoor taxa that are able to spread indoors will occur with high relative abundances here and appear as fungi with a preference for indoor conditions. In line with this, several obviously outdoor OTUs, like
Melampsoridium betulinum (100% BLAST match),
Melampsora epitea (98.7%), and
Ustilago nunavutica (100%), were among the most prevalent indoor fungi. Quantitative analyses, such as quantitative PCR (qPCR), will be helpful to better separate and identify the sources of the indoor fungi.