Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Are Programmatic Alternatives Disappearing? The Quality of Election Manifestos in 21 OECD Countries Since the 1950s

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Democracy and Crisis

Abstract

Programmatic alternatives at elections are a crucial part of any healthy democracy. If parties offered the same program, voters would have no real choice between policy alternatives. It is said that electoral programs are becoming more and more similar, which might indicate fewer differences between parties. In this chapter, we analyze this symptom of an alleged crisis of democracy by studying four aspects of the quality of parties’ programmatic supply: the differentiation of positions, their visibility, their clarity, and the heterogeneity of priorities. On the basis of quantitative content analysis of party election manifestos collected by the MARPOR project, we are able to study the programmatic quality of 2103 manifestos, from 279 different parties and 371 elections in 21 OECD countries between 1951 and 2011. The chapter focuses on the three most prominent conflict dimensions: the socioeconomic conflict, the sociocultural conflict, and the center-periphery conflict. While the diversity and visibility of party positions have changed little, the clarity of party positions has increased over the last few decades. Only the heterogeneity of party priorities has decreased and even then only slightly. Contrary to the assertion that parties no longer differ in their programs, our investigation of the quality of election manifestos suggests there is little evidence of a deterioration in programmatic quality.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    With one exception, parliamentary elections were held in Turkey every three to 4 years between 1950 and 2011. The longest interruption of the regular election cycle between 1977 and 1983 due to military intervention lasted just under 5 years.

References

  • Adams, J. (2012). Causes and electoral consequences of party policy shifts in multi-party elections: Theoretical results and empirical evidence. Annual Review of Political Science, 15(1), 401–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Albright, J. J. (2010). The multidimensional nature of party competition. Party Politics, 16(6), 699–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ansalobehere, S., Rodden, J., & Snyder, J. M. (2008). The strength of issues: Using multiple measures to gauge preference stability, ideological constraint, and issue voting. American Political Science Review, 102(2), 215–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, R., Jolly, S., & Polk, J. (2012). Complexity in the European party space: Exploring dimensionality with experts. European Union Politics, 13(2), 219–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartolini, S. (1999). Collusion, competition and democracy: Part I. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 11(4), 435–470.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartolini, S. (2000). Collusion, competition and democracy: Part II. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 12(1), 33–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, D. (1962). The end of ideology. New York, NY: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benoit, K., & Laver, M. (2006). Party policy in modern democracies. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benoit, K., & Laver, M. (2012). The dimensionality of the policy space: Epistemological and methodological considerations. European Union Politics, 13(2), 194–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bornschier, S. (2010). The new cultural divide and the two-dimensional political space in Western Europe. West European Politics, 10(3), 419–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, C., Niewbeerta, P., & Manza, J. (2006). Cleavage-based voting behaviour in cross-national perspective: Evidence from six post-war democracies. Comparative Political Studies, 28(4), 88–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunsbach, S., John, S., Volkens, A., & Werner, A. (2011). Wahlprogramme im Vergleich. In J. Tenscher (Ed.), Superwahljahr 2009. Vergleichende Analysen aus Anlass der Wahlen zum Deutschen Bundestag und zum Europäischen Parlament (pp. 41–64). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunsbach, S., John, S., & Werner, A. (2012). The supply side of second order elections: Comparing German national and European election manifestos. German Politics, 21(1), 91–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Budge, I. (1993). Parties, programs and policies: A comparative and theoretical perspective. The American Review of Politics, 14, 695–716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Budge, I., & Farlie, D. (1983). Explaining and predicting elections: Issue effects and party strategies in twenty-three democracies. London: Allen & Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Budge, I., Klingemann, H.-D., Volkens, A., Bara, J., Tanenbaum, E., Fording, R. C., Hearl, D. J., Kim, H. M., McDonald, M., & Mendez, S. (2001). Mapping policy preferences. Estimates for parties, electors, and governments 1945–1998. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Budge, I., Robertson, D., & Hearl, D. (Eds.). (1987). Ideology, strategy and party change. Spatial analysis of post-war election programmes in 19 democracies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cochrane, C. (2011). The asymmetrical structure of left/right disagreement. Left-wing coherence and right-wing fragmentation in comparative party policy. Party Politics, 19(1), 104–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daalder, H. (2002). Parties: Denied, dismissed, or redundant? A critique. In R. Gunther, J. R. Montero, & J. J. Linz (Eds.), Political parties. Old concepts and new challenges (pp. 39–57). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Dalton, R. J. (1985). Political parties and political representation: Party supporters and party elites in nine nations. Comparative Political Studies, 18(3), 267–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dalton, R. J. (1996). Citizen politics. Public opinion and political parties in advanced industrial democracies (2nd ed.). Chatham, NJ: Chatham House Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalton, R. J. (2002). Parties without partisans: Political change in advanced industrial democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Dalton, R. J., Farrell, D. M., & McAllister, I. (2011). Political parties and democratic linkage. How parties organize democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Dalton, R. J., Flanagan, S. C., & Beck, P. A. (1984). Political forces and partisan change. In R. J. Dalton, S. C. Flanagan, & P. A. Beck (Eds.), Electoral change in advanced industrial democracies (pp. 452–476). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Vries, C., & Hobolt, S. B. (2012). When dimensions collide: The electoral success of issue entrepreneurs. European Union Politics, 13(2), 246–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Vries, C., & Marks, G. (2012). The struggle over dimensionality: A note on theory and empirics. European Union Politics, 13(2), 185–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Downs, A. (1957). An economic theory of democracy. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Druckman, J. N. (2004). Political preference formation: Competition, deliberation, and the (Ir) relevance of framing effects. American Political Science Review, 98(4), 671–686.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckstein, H. (1968). Party systems. In D. L. Sills (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social sciences 17 (pp. 436–453). New York, NY: McMillan and Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elff, M. (2013). A dynamic state-space model of coded political texts. Political Analysis, 21(2), 217–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eulau, H. (1987). The congruence model revisited. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 12(2), 171–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, G. (2010). Models, measures and mechanisms: An agenda for progress in cleavage research. West European Politics, 33(3), 634–647.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, G., & de Graaf, D. (2013). Political choice matters: Explaining the strength of class and religious cleavages in cross-national perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, M. N., Mackie, T. T., & Valen, H. (Eds.). (1992). Electoral change. Responses to evolving social and attitudinal structures in western countries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franzmann, S. (2008). Programmatische Heterogenität und ideologische Polarisierung in den europäischen Parteiensystemen, contribution to the Joint Session of the Deutschen Vereinigung für Politische Wissenschaft (DVPW), the Österreichischen Gesellschaft für Politikwissenschaft (ÖGPW), and the Schweizerischen Vereinigung für Politische Wissenschaft (SVPW) “Die Verfassung der Demokratien,” 21–23 November 2008, University Osnabrück.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franzmann, S., & Kaiser, A. (2006). Locating political parties in policy space. A reanalysis of party manifesto data. Party Politics, 12(2), 163–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D., & Klingemann, H.-D. (1995). Citizens and the state: A changing relationship? In H.-D. Klingemann & D. Fuchs (Eds.), Citizens and the state (pp. 1–23). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green-Pedersen, C. (2007). The growing importance of issue competition: The changing nature of party competition in Western Europe. Political Studies, 55(3), 607–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green-Pedersen, C., & Mortensen, P. B. (2010). Who sets the agenda and who responds to it in the Danish parliament? A new model of issue competition and agenda-setting. European Journal of Political Research, 49(2), 257–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, A., Evans, G., & Martin, J. (1994). The measurement of Core beliefs and values: The development of balanced socialist/laissez-faire and libertarian/authoritarian scales. British Journal of Political Science, 24(1), 115–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooghe, L., Marks, G., & Wilson, C. J. (2002). Does left/right structure party positions on European integration? Comparative Political Studies, 35(8), 965–989.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inglehart, R. F. (1977). The silent revolution: Changing values and political styles among western publics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inglehart, R. F., & Welzel, C. (2005). Modernization, cultural change and democracy. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Iyengar, S., & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters: Agenda-setting and priming in a television age. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, R. S., & Mair, P. (1995). Changing models of party organization and party democracy. Party Politics, 1(1), 5–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keil, S. I. (2003). Wahlkampfkommunikation in Wahlanzeigen und Wahlprogrammen. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keil, S. I. (2004). Parteiprogrammatik in Wahlkampfanzeigen und Wahlprogrammen 1957-2002: Und es gibt ihn doch—den (kleinen) Unterschied. In F. Brettschneider, J. van Deth, & E. Roller (Eds.), Die Bundestagswahl 2002. Analysen der Wahlergebnisse und des Wahlkampfes (pp. 353–388). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. M., & Fording, R. C. (2002). Government partisanship in western democracies, 1945–1998. European Journal of Political Research, 41(2), 187–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirchheimer, O. (1966). The transformation of the Western European party systems. In J. LaPalombara & M. Weiner (Eds.), Political parties and political development (pp. 117–200). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitschelt, H. (2000). Linkages between citizens and politicians in democratic polities. Comparative Political Studies, 33(6/7), 845–879.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klingemann, H.-D., Hofferbert, R. I., Budge, I., Keman, H., Pétry, F., Bergman, T., & Strom, K. (1994). Parties, policies, and democracy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klingemann, H.-D., Volkens, A., Bara, J., Budge, I., & McDonald, M. (2006). Mapping policy preference II: Estimates for parties, electors and governments in Eastern Europe, the European Union and the OECD, 1990–2003. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • König, T., Marbach, M., & Osnabrügge, M. (2013). Estimating party positions across countries and time—a dynamic latent variable model for manifesto data. Political Analysis, 21(4), 468–491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kriesi, H., Grande, E., Dolezal, M., Helbling, M., Höglinger, D., Hutter, S., & Wüst, B. (2012). Political conflict in Western Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Laver, M., & Budge, I. (Eds.). (1992). Party policy and government coalitions. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laver, M., & Garry, J. (2000). Estimating policy positions from political texts. American Journal of Political Science, 44(3), 619–634.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawson, K., & Poguntke, T. (Eds.). (2004). How political parties respond. Interest aggregation revisited. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lehmbruch, G. (1992). Konkordanzdemokratie. In M. G. Schmidt (Ed.), Lexikon der Politik, Die westlichen Länder (Vol. 3, pp. 206–211). München: C.H. Beck.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lijphart, A. (1989). From the politics of accommodation to adversarial politics in the Netherlands: A reassessment. West European Politics, 12(1), 139–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lijphart, A. (1999). Patterns of democracy: Government forms and performance of twenty-seven democracies. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipset, M. S., & Rokkan, S. (1967). Cleavage structures, party systems, and voter alignments. An introduction. In S. M. Lipset & S. Rokkan (Eds.), Party systems and voter alignments. Cross-national perspectives (pp. 1–64). New York, NY: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mair, P. (2008). The challenge to party government. West European Politics, 31, 211–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mair, P., Müller, W., & Plasser, F. (Eds.). (2004). Political parties and electoral change. Party responses to electoral markets. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mansergh, L., & Thomson, R. (2007). Election pledges, party competition, and policymaking. Comparative Politics, 39(3), 311–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcinkowski, F. (1998). Massenmedien und Politikinhalte. Empirische Fallstudie auf einem unterbelichteten Forschungsfeld. Duisburger Materialien zur Politik- und Verwaltungswissenschaft 19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marschall, S. (2011). Nutzer und Nutzen—Der Wahl-O-Mat zur Bundestagswahl 2009. In E. J. Schweitzer & S. Albrecht (Eds.), Das Internet im Wahlkampf (pp. 136–153). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Maurer, M. (2007). Fakten oder Floskeln? Die Inhalte der Wahlprogramme im Bundestagswahlkampf 2005 in der Tagespresse. Publizistik, 52(2), 174–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maurer, M. (2009). Wissensvermittlung in der Mediendemokratie: Wie Medien und politische Akteure die Inhalte von Wahlprogrammen kommunizieren. In F. Marcinkowski & B. Pfetsch (Eds.), Politik in der Mediendemokratie (pp. 151–173). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Merkel, W., Petring, A., Henkes, C., & Egle, C. (2008). Social democracy in power. The capacity to reform. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merz, N., & Regel, S. (2013). Die Programmatik der Parteien. In O. Niedermayer (Ed.), Handbuch Parteienforschung (pp. 212–238). Wiesbaden: Springer VS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montero, J. R., & Gunther, R. (2002). Introduction: Reviewing and assessing parties. In R. Gunther, J. R. Montero, & J. J. Linz (Eds.), Political parties. Old concepts and new challenges (pp. 1–38). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pappi, F. U. (2000). Zur Theorie des Parteienwettbewerbs. In M. Klein, W. Jagodzinski, E. Mochmann, & D. Ohr (Eds.), 50 Jahre Empirische Wahlforschung in Deutschland. Entwicklung, Befunde, Perspektiven, Daten (pp. 86–105). Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pappi, F. U., & Shikano, S. (2004). Ideologische Signale in den Wahlprogrammen der deutschen Bundestagsparteien 1980 bis 2002. Mannheim: MZES Mannheimer Zentrum für Europäische Sozialforschung.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierce, R. (1999). Mass-elite linkages and the responsible party model of representation. In W. E. Miller, R. Pierce, J. J. A. Thomassen, R. Herrera, S. Holmberg, P. Esaiasson, & B. Weßels (Eds.), Policy representation in western democracies (pp. 9–32). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rohrschneider, R., & Whitefield, S. (2007). Representation in new democracies: Party stances on European integration in post-communist Eastern Europe. Journal of Politics, 69(4), 1133–1146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Römmele, A. (2012). Electronic campaigning. In N. Kersting (Ed.), Electronic democracy. State of the art and future perspectives (pp. 103–124). Opladen: Leske + Budrich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rovny, J. (2012). Who emphasizes and who blurs? Party strategies in multidimensional competition. European Union Politics, 13(2), 269–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rovny, J., & Edwards, E. E. (2012). Struggle over dimensionality. Party competition in western and Eastern Europe. East European Politics & Societies, 26(1), 56–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sani, G., & Sartori, G. (1983). Polarization, fragmentation, and competition in western democracies. In H. Daalder & P. Mair (Eds.), Western European party systems. Continuity and change (pp. 307–340). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sartori, G. (1976). Parties and party systems. A framework for analysis. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, H. (2001). Politische Repräsentation in Europa. Eine empirische Studie zur Interessenvermittlung durch allgemeine Wahlen. Frankfurt am Main: Campus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, H., & Thomassen, J. J. A. (Eds.). (1999). Political representation and legitimacy in the European Union. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shikano, S., & Pappi, F. U. (2004). The positions of parties in ideological and policy space: The perception of German voters of their party system. Mannheim: MZES Mannheimer Zentrum für Europäische Sozialforschung.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stokes, D. E. (1963). Spatial models of party competition. American Political Science Review, 57, 368–377.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoll, H. (2010). Elite-level conflict salience and dimensionality in Western Europe: Concepts and empirical findings. West European Politics, 10(3), 445–473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomassen, J. J. A. (1991). Empirical research into political representation. A critical reappraisal. In H.-D. Klingemann, R. Stöss, & B. Weßels (Eds.), Politische Klasse und politische Institutionen. Probleme und Perspektiven der Elitenforschung. Dietrich Herzog zum 60. Geburtstag (pp. 259–274). Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Thomassen, J. J. A. (1994). Empirical research into political representation: Failing democracy or failing models. In M. K. Jennings & T. E. Mann (Eds.), Elections at home and abroad: Essays in honor of Warren E. Miller (pp. 237–264). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomassen, J. J. A. (1999). Political communication between political elites and mass public. The role of belief systems. In W. E. Miller, R. Pierce, J. J. A. Thomassen, R. Herrera, S. Holmberg, P. Esaiasson, & B. Weßels (Eds.), Policy representation in western democracies (pp. 33–58). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomassen, J. J. A. (Ed.). (2005). The European voter. A comparative study of modern democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Brug, W. (1999). Voters’ perceptions and party dynamics. Party Politics, 5(2), 147–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Volkens, A. (2003). Parteiendemokratie in Europa: Die Frage des Politikangebots. In H.-D. Klingemann, E. Roller, A. Volkens, B. Weßels, & J. Alber (Eds.), Entwicklung und Perspektiven der Demokratie in Ost und West. Final colloquium of the research unit institutions and social change with an introduction by Jürgen Kocka (pp. 23–28). Berlin: WZB Berlin Social Science Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkens, A. (2007). Strengths and weaknesses of approaches to measuring policy positions of parties. Electoral Studies, Special Symposium: Comparing Measures of Party Positioning: Expert, Manifesto, and Survey Data, 26, 108–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkens, A., Bara, J., Budge, I., McDonald, M., & Klingemann, H.-D. (Eds.). (2013). Mapping policy preferences from texts III. Statistical solutions for manifesto analysts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkens, A., & Klingemann, H.-D. (2002). Parties, ideologies, and issues. Stability and change in fifteen European party systems 1945–1998. In K. R. Luther & F. Müller-Rommel (Eds.), Political parties in the new Europe. Political and analytical challenges (pp. 143–167). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volkens, A., Lehmann, P., Merz, N., Regel, S., & Werner, A. Lacewell O. P., & Schultze H. (2013). The manifesto data collection. Manifesto project (MRG/CMP/MARPOR). Version 2013. Berlin: WZB—Berlin Social Science Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warwick, P. V. (1998). Policy distance and parliamentary government. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 23(3), 319–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warwick, P. V. (2002). Towards a common dimensionality in West European policy spaces. Party Politics, 8(1), 101–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, P., Farrell, D. M., & Holliday, I. (Eds.). (2002). Political parties in advanced industrial democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Democracy and Democratization, WZB Berlin Social Science Center, Berlin, Germany

    Andrea Volkens & Nicolas Merz

Authors
  1. Andrea Volkens
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nicolas Merz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicolas Merz .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. WZB Berlin Social Science Center and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany

    Wolfgang Merkel

  2. WZB Berlin Social Science Center, Berlin, Germany

    Sascha Kneip

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Volkens, A., Merz, N. (2018). Are Programmatic Alternatives Disappearing? The Quality of Election Manifestos in 21 OECD Countries Since the 1950s. In: Merkel, W., Kneip, S. (eds) Democracy and Crisis. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72559-8_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation