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Abstract
This article studies how Belgian and Dutch parties regulate demands for representation by women and ethnic minorities, and how this influences the representation of intersectional groups. We argue that demands for representation by multiple groups bring competition into play. Ethnic minorities have found it particularly difficult to integrate into electoral politics in Belgium where parties maintain a stricter hierarchy of gender over ethnicity. Dutch parties are somewhat more open, but more so for minority women than for minority men.
Notes
1. In this article, we use the term ethnic minorities to refer to newer migrant ethnic minorities that can be found in many contemporary European multicultural societies as the result of colonial history and/or international migration processes. We do not focus on ethnic groups that were already present in the state formation and to which political institutions have adapted.
2. Due to the Maastricht Treaty (1992) EU citizens have the right to vote and stand for local and European elections since 1999 in Belgium and since 1996 in the Netherlands. However, more strict voting rights were already granted to EU and non-EU immigrants in the Netherlands in 1985. Belgium granted voting rights for non-EU immigrants in 2004.
3. It should be stressed that the exact figures of ethnic minorities in the Belgian population differ between sources and that the percentages should be treated with caution.
4. It should be noted that the mean percentage of elected ethnic minorities in the respective parliaments over time is similar to (Belgium) or somewhat higher than (the Netherlands) the percentage of ethnic minority candidates. In (semi-)closed electoral systems such as Belgium or the Netherlands, this means that ethnic minority candidates are not placed near the bottom of the lists but are placed in positions where they can actually win.
5. Ethnic minority women candidates however tend to receive better places on candidate lists than minority men. Celis et al. (forthcoming) find that a gender imbalance exists among elected ethnic minorities in favour of minority women in Belgium. They link this to the fact that minority women fit better with party leaders' anticipation of voters' response to minority candidates, as well as with efforts to maintain a power balance within the party.
Additional information
Karen Celis is research professor at the Department of Political Science of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Her research interests include the political representation of groups (women, ethnic minorities, LBGT, age and class groups) and equality policy. She is co-convenor of the ECPR Standing Group on Gender and Politics and co-editor of The Oxford Handbook on Gender and Politics (Oxford University Press, 2013).
Silvia Erzeel is FRS—FNRS postdoctoral researcher at the Institut de Sciences Politiques Louvain-Europe, Université catholique de Louvain. Her research is mostly comparative in nature and focuses on changing patterns of political representation, party politics and diversity politics in Europe. Email: silvia.erzeel@uclouvain.be