Examining identity development among gay men of color
Corresponding Author
Chong-suk Han
Middlebury College
Correspondence
Chong-suk Han, PhD, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT 05753, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Chong-suk Han
Middlebury College
Correspondence
Chong-suk Han, PhD, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT 05753, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Within the past few decades, there has been an explosion of articles examining “gay identity.” Yet, much of this work continues to center on the experiences of gay White men or fail to adequately examine the process of identity development, even when “identity” is central to the discussion. This review outlines 4 theoretical perspectives used to explore gay men of color and identity development. Taken together, these 4 perspectives can offer a rich opportunity to explore the ways that gay men of color come to develop an identity that simultaneously addresses their racial and sexual identities. I argue that examining identity development among gay men of color can help sociology better understand the identity process and provide new insights into examining intersectionality by demonstrating that identities are not only intersectional but also contextual.
REFERENCES
- Alexander, W. H. (2004). Homosexual and racial identity conflicts and depression among African-American gay males. The Trotter Review, 16(1), 71–103.
- Anzaldúa, G. (1991). To(o) queer the writer: Loca, escrita y chicana. In B. Warland (Ed.), Inversions: Writing by dykes, queers, and lesbians (pp. 249–259). Vancouver, Canada: Press Gang.
- Ascencio, M. (2011). ‘Locas,’ respect, and masculinity: Gender conformity in migrant Puerto Rican gay masculinities. Gender & Society, 25(3), 335–354.
- Bailey, M. M. (2013). Butch queens up in pumps: Gender, performance, and ballroom culture in Detroit. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
10.3998/mpub.799908 Google Scholar
- Beam, J. (1986). In the life. New York, NY: Alyson Press.
- Bérubé, A. (2001). How gay stays White and what kind of White it stays. In B. B. Rasmussen, E. Klinenberg, I. J. Nexica, & M. Wray (Eds.), The making and unmaking of Whiteness (pp. 234–265). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
- Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Bowleg, L. (2013). “Once you've blended the cake, you can't take the parts back to the main ingredients”: Black gay and bisexual men's descriptions and experiences of intersectionality. Sex Roles, 68(11/12), 754–767.
- Bowleg, L. (2017). Intersectionality: An underutilized but essential theoretical framework for social psychology. In B. Gough (Ed.), The Palgrave handbook of critical social psychology (pp. 507–529). London: Palgrave.
10.1057/978-1-137-51018-1_25 Google Scholar
- Brown, E. (2005). We wear the mask: African American contemporary gay male identities. Journal of African American Studies, 9(2), 29–38.
10.1007/s12111-005-1020-x Google Scholar
- Burke, P. J., & Reitzes, D. C. (1981). The link between identity and role performance. Social Psychology Quarterly, 44(2), 83–92.
- Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. New York, NY: Routledge.
- Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that matter: On the discoursive limits of “sex”. New York, NY: Routledge.
- Cantú, L. (2009). In N. Naples, & S. Vidal-Ortiz (Eds.), The sexuality of migration: Border crossings and Mexican immigrant men. New York, NY: New York University Press.
- Carbado, D. W. (2013). Colorblind intersectionality. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 38(4), 811–845.
- Carrillo, H. (2004). Sexual migration, cross-cultural sexual encounters, and sexual health. Sexuality Research and social Policy, 1(3), 58–70.
10.1525/srsp.2004.1.3.58 Google Scholar
- Carrillo, H., & Fontdevila, J. (2014). Border crossing and shifting sexualities among Mexican gay immigrant men: Beyond monolithic conceptions. Sexualities, 17(8), 919–938.
- Carrillo, H., & Hoffman, A. (2017). “Straight with a pinch of bi”: The construction of heterosexuality as an elastic category among adult US men. Sexualities. Online first: 8 Feb. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460716678561
- Cass, V. C. (1979). Homosexual identity formation: A theoretical model. Journal of Homosexuality, 4(3), 219–235.
- Chan, C. (1989). Issues of identity development among Asian American lesbians and gay men. Journal of Counseling and Development, 68(1), 16–20.
- Cho, S., Crenshaw, K., & McCall, L. (2013). Toward a field of intersectionality studies: Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 38(4), 785–810.
- Cohen, C. J. (1996). Contested membership: Black gay identities and the politics of AIDS. In S. Seidman (Ed.), Queer theory/sociology (pp. 362–394). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
- Collins, P. H. (1990). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York, NY: Routledge.
- Colon, E. (2001). An ethnographic study of six Latino gay and bisexual men. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 12, 77–92.
10.1300/J041v12n03_06 Google Scholar
- Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43, 124–179.
10.2307/1229039 Google Scholar
- Cross, W. E. (1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African-American identity. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
- Dean, J. J. (2011). The cultural construction of heterosexual identities. Sociology Compass, 5(8), 679–687.
10.1111/j.1751-9020.2011.00395.x Google Scholar
- Decena, C. U. (2011). Tacit subjects: Belonging and same-sex desires among Dominican immigrant men. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
10.1215/9780822393900 Google Scholar
- Dickson, N., Paul, C., & Herbison, P. (2003). Same-sex attraction in a birth cohort: Prevalence and persistence in early adulthood. Social Science and Medicine, 56(8), 1607–1615.
- Dubé, E. M., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (1999). Sexual identity development among ethnic sexual-minority male youths. Developmental Psychology, 35(6), 1389–1398.
- Eguchi, S. (2011). Cross-national identity transformation: Becoming a gay ‘Asian-American’ man. Sexuality & Culture, 15(1), 19–40.
10.1007/s12119-010-9080-z Google Scholar
- Eguchi, S., & Asante, G. (2016). Disidentification revisited: Queer(y)ing intercultural communication theory. Communication Theory, 26(2), 171–189.
- Ellmers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (2002). Self and social identity. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 161–186.
- Epstein, S. (1994). A queer encounter: Sociology and the study of sexuality. Sociological Theory, 12(2), 188–202.
10.2307/201864 Google Scholar
- Ferguson, R. A. (2003). Aberrations in Black: Towards a queers of color critique. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
- Ferguson, R. A. (2005). Race-ing homonormativity: Citizenship, sociology, and gay identity. In E. P. Johnson, & M. G. Henderson (Eds.), Black queer studies: A critical anthology (pp. 52–617). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
10.1215/9780822387220-004 Google Scholar
- Gamson, J., & Moon, D. (2004). The sociology of sexualities: Queer and beyond. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 47–64.
- Ghaziani, A. (2011). Post-gay collective identity construction. Social Problems, 58(1), 99–125.
- Goffman, E. (1959). Presentation of self in everyday life. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
- Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on management of spoiled identities. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Grov, C., Bimbi, D. S., Nanín, J. E., & Parsons, J. T. (2006). Race, ethnicity, gender, and generational factors associated with the coming out process among gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals. The Journal of Sex Research, 4(2), 115–121.
10.1080/00224490609552306 Google Scholar
- Guittar, N. A., & Pals, H. (2014). Intersecting gender with race and religiosity: Do unique social categories explain attitudes toward homosexuality? Current Sociology, 61(1), 41–62.
- Guzmán, M. (2006). Gay hegemony/Latino homosexualities. New York, NY: Routledge.
- Han, C. (2007). They don't want to cruise your type: Gay men of color and the racial politics of exclusion. Social Identities, 13(1), 51–67.
10.1080/13504630601163379 Google Scholar
- Han, C. (2015a). No brokeback for Black men: Pathologizing Black male (homoe)sexuality through down low discourse. Social Identities, 21(3), 228–243.
- Han, C. W. (2015b). Geisha of a different kind: Race and sexuality in gaysian America. New York, NY: New York University Press.
10.18574/nyu/9781479831951.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Han, C., Rutledge, S. E., Bond, L., Lauby, J., & LaPollo, A. B. (2014). You're better respected when you carry yourself as a man: Black men's personal accounts of the down low ‘lifestyle’. Sexuality and Culture, 18(1), 89–102.
10.1007/s12119-013-9192-3 Google Scholar
- Heller, P. (2009). Challenges facing LGBT asylum-seekers: The role of social work in correcting oppressive immigration processes. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 21(2/3), 294–308.
10.1080/10538720902772246 Google Scholar
- Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. P. (1995). Black heterosexuals' attitudes toward lesbians and gay men in the United States. The Journal of Sex Research, 32(2), 95–105.
- Hunter, M. A. (2010a). All the gays are White and all the Blacks are straight: Black gay men, identity, and community. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 7(1), 81–92.
- Hunter, M. A. (2010b). The nightly round: Space, social capital, and urban Black nightlife. City & Community, 2(9), 165–186.
- Hutchinson, D. L. (2000). ‘Gay rights’ for ‘gay Whites’?: Race, sexual identity, and equal protection discourse. Cornell Law Review, 85, 1358–1391.
- Ibanez, G. E., Marin, B. V. O., Flores, S. A., Millett, G., & Diaz, R. M. (2009). General and gay-related racism experienced by Latino gay men. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(3), 215–222.
- Icard, L. (1986). Black gay men and conflicting social identities: Sexual orientation versus racial identity. Journal of Social Work and Human Sexuality, 4(1/2), 83–93.
10.1300/J291v04n01_10 Google Scholar
- Jackson, J. L. (2003). Harlemworld: Doing race and class in contemporary Black America. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
- Jamil, O. B., Harper, G. W., & Fernandez, M. I. (2009). Sexual and ethnic identity development among gay/bisexual/questioning (GBQ) male ethnic minority adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(3), 203–214.
- Johnson, E. P. (2001). “Quare” studies, or (almost) everything I know about queer studies I learned from my grandmother. Text and Performance Quarterly, 21(1), 1–25.
10.1080/10462930128119 Google Scholar
- Klein, K., Holtby, A., Cook, K., & Travers, R. (2015). Complicating the coming out narrative: Becoming oneself in a heterosexist and cissexist world. Journal of Homosexuality, 62(3), 297–326.
- Levine, M. P. (1998). Gay macho: The life and death of the homosexual clone. New York, NY: New York University Press.
- Lewis, G. B. (2003). Black–White differences in attitudes toward homosexuality and gay rights. Public Opinion Quarterly, 67(1), 59–78.
- Lewis, N. M. (2012). Remapping disclosure: Gay men's segmented journeys of moving out and coming out. Social & Cultural Geography, 13(3), 211–231.
- Loicano, D. K. (1989). Gay identity issues among Black Americans: Racism, homophobia, and the need for validation. Journal of Counseling and Development, 68(1), 21–25.
10.1002/j.1556-6676.1989.tb02486.x Google Scholar
- Magaña, J. R., & Carrier, J. M. (1991). Mexican and Mexican American male sexual behavior and spread of AIDS in California. The Journal of Sex Research, 28(3), 425–441.
- Malebranche, D. J., Fields, E. L., Bryant, L. O., & Harper, S. R. (2007). Masculine socialization and sexual risk behaviors among Black men who have sex with men: A qualitative exploration. Men and Masculinities, 12(1), 90–112.
- Manalansan, M. F. (2003). Global divas: Filipino gay men in the diaspora. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
- Manalansan, M. F. (2006). Queer intersections: Sexuality and gender in migration studies. International Migration Review, 40(1), 224–248.
- Mao, L., McCormick, J., & Van de Ven, P. (2002). Ethnic and gay identification: Gay Asian men dealing with the divide. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 4(4), 419–430.
- Martinez, J. A., & Hosek, S. G. (2005). An exploration of the down-low identity: Non-gay identified young African American men who have sex with men. Journal of the National Medical Association, 97, 1103–1112.
- McBride, D. A. (2005). Why I hate Abercrombie & Fitch: Essays on race and sexuality. New York, NY: New York University Press.
- McBride, D. A. (2007). Why I hate that I loved Brokeback Mountain. GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies, 13(1), 95–97.
- McCune, J. Q. (2008). “Out” in the club: The down low, hip-hop, and the architexture of Black masculinity. Text and Performance Quarterly, 28(3), 298–314.
- McCune, J. Q. (2014). Sexual discretion: Black masculinity and the politics of passing. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
10.7208/chicago/9780226096674.001.0001 Google Scholar
- McDonald, G. J. (1982). Individual differences in the coming out process for gay men: Implications for theoretical minds. Journal of Homosexuality, 8(1), 47–60.
- McIntosh, M. (1968). The homosexual role. Social Problems, 16(2), 182–192.
- Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
10.2307/3822971 Google Scholar
- Mock, S. E., & Eibach, R. P. (2012). Stability and change in sexual orientation identity over a 10-year period in adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(3), 641–648.
- Moore, M. R. (2015). LGBT populations in studies of urban neighborhoods: Making the invisible visible. City & Community, 14(3), 245–248.
- Moradi, B., Wiseman, M. C., DeBlaere, C., Goodman, M. B., Sarkees, A., Brewster, M. E., & Huang, Y. (2010). LGB of color and White individuals' perceptions of heterosexist stigma, internalized homophobia, and outness: Comparisons of levels and links. The Counseling Psychologist, 38(3), 397–424.
- Morales, E. S. (1989). Ethnic minority families and minority gays and lesbians. Marriage & Family Review, 14(3/4), 217–239.
10.1300/J002v14n03_11 Google Scholar
- Muñoz, J. E. (1999). Disidentifications: Queers of color and the performance of politics. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
- Nash, J. C. (2008). Re-thinking intersectionality. Feminist Review, 89(1), 1–14.
- Ocampo, A. C. (2012). Making masculinity: Negotiations of gender presentation among Latino gay men. Latino Studies, 10(4), 448–472.
10.1057/lst.2012.37 Google Scholar
- Operario, D., Han, C., & Choi, K.-H. (2008). Dual identity among gay Asian Pacific Islander men. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 10(5), 447–461.
- Orne, J. (2011). ‘You will always have to “out” yourself’: Reconsidering coming out through strategic outness. Sexualities, 14(6), 681–703.
- Parent, M. C., DeBlaere, C., & Moradi, B. (2013). Approaches to research on intersectionality: Perspectives on gender, LGBT, and racial/ethnic identities. Sex Roles, 68(11/12), 639–645.
- Pedulla, D. S. (2014). The positive consequences of negative stereotypes: Race, sexual orientation, and the job application process. Social Psychology Quarterly, 77(1), 75–94.
- Phinney, J. S. (1989). Stages of ethnic identity development in minority group adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 9(1/2), 34–49.
- Plummer, K. (1995). Telling sexual stories: Power, change, and social worlds. London, UK: Routledge.
10.4324/9780203425268 Google Scholar
- Purdie-Vaughns, V., & Eibach, R. P. (2008). Intersectional invisibility: The distinctive advantages and disadvantages of multiple subordinate-group identities. Sex Roles, 59(5/6), 377–391.
- Rivera-Servera, R. H. (2012). Performing queer Latinidad: Dance, sexuality, and politics. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
10.3998/mpub.2395967 Google Scholar
- Robinson, B. A., & Vidal-Ortiz, S. (2013). Displacing the dominant “down low” discourse: Deviance, same-sex desire, and craigslist.org. Deviant Behavior, 34, 224–241.
- Rutledge, S. E., Jemmott, J. B., O'Leary, A., & Icard, L. D. (2016). What's in an identity label? Correlates of sociodemographics, psychosocial characteristics, and sexual behavior among African American men who have sex with men. Archives of Sexual Behavior. Online first: 22 July. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-077605
- Shields, S. A. (2008). Gender: An intersectionality perspective. Sex Roles, 59(5/6), 301–311.
- Silva, T. (2017). Bud sex: Constructing normative masculinity among rural straight men who have sex with men. Gender & Society, 31(1), 51–73.
- Squires, C. R. (2011). N-word vs. f-word, Black vs. gay: Uncovering pendejo games to recover intersections. In M. G. Lacy, & K. A. Ono (Eds.), Critical rhetorics of race (pp. 65–78). New York, NY: New York University Press.
10.18574/nyu/9780814762226.003.0003 Google Scholar
- Stets, J. E., & Burke, P. J. (2000). Identity theory and social identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63(3), 224–237.
- Troiden, R. (1979). Becoming homosexual: A model of identity acquisition. Psychiatry, 42, 362–373.
- Troiden, R. (1989). The formation of homosexual identities. Journal of Homosexuality, 17, 43–73.
- Verloo, M. (2006). Multiple inequalities, intersectionality and the European Union. European Journal of Women's Studies, 13(3), 211–228.
- Villicana, A. J., Delucio, K., & Biernat, M. (2016). “Coming out” among gay Latino and gay White men: Implications of verbal disclosure for well-being. Self and Identity, 15(4), 468–487.
- Ward, J. (2008). White normativity: The cultural dimensions of Whiteness in a racially diverse LGBT organization. Sociological Perspectives, 51(3), 563–586.
- Ward, J. (2015). Not gay: Sex between straight White men. New York, NY: New York University Press.
10.18574/nyu/9781479860685.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Winder, T. J. A. (2015). “Shouting it out”: Religion and the development of Black gay identities. Qualitative Sociology, 38(4), 375–394.