1. Introduction
Due to global consumer culture, consumers the world over have increasingly homogeneous needs and tastes that are not based on their own unique cultures and customs [
1,
2]. These global consumers are a new class of consumers who show similar lifestyles, purchasing patterns and consumer preferences worldwide as the barriers to trade between countries are lifted and market openings accelerate [
3]. Although there are cultural differences, they are emerging as a very important consumer class in the global market because they obtain information through online activities and overseas trips and experience homogenous consumption patterns while experiencing various cultures. Therefore, research on SGCC (susceptibility to global consumer culture) is currently underway to explain how global consumers understand and accept the symbolic meaning of global brands [
4].
Given these trends, global consumer culture theory (GCCT) has become influential in international business and marketing [
5]. Advocates of this theory argue that the globalization of markets has led to the existence of a global consumer culture in which many consumers share consumption values regardless of their residential countries [
6]. Moreover, the global consumer class that aims to participate in the global consumer culture is increasing in each country, including Korea [
7,
8], and as a result, GCCT has become influential in global consumer culture. In accordance with GCCT, Zhou, Teng and Poon [
4] expanded and verified a scale to measure consumers’ susceptibility to global consumer culture (SGCC) across cultures, which is composed of three dimensions: conformity to consumption trends, quality perception and social prestige.
Globalization of a company is difficult if its globalization efforts do not increase the consumer’s global brand awareness in the market [
9]. In this regard, global companies must understand the impact of their marketing efforts on consumer acceptance of global products. Recent scholars have argued that global companies’ marketing efforts should be measured using the SGCC scale and analyzed for their impact on consumer and corporate performance because understanding consumers’ global consumption trends can be a source of competitive advantage, which leads to firm growth [
2,
4,
9,
10].
SGCC is defined as the consumer’s desire or tendency to purchase and use global brands [
4] and is being accelerated by the development of SNS (Social Networking Service) with the recent development of the Internet, which not only affects the emotional attachment to the brands they use [
11] but also affects consumers’ willingness to commit and sacrifice to the brand [
12].
Commitment to a brand refers to an intentional behavior in which consumers want to have a lasting relationship with the brand in the future. Once commitment is made, a strong conviction determines a concrete attitude toward the brand, which makes it difficult to switch to a competitive brand [
13,
14]. Emotional commitment, which appears as a positive attitude, is generally an important factor influencing loyalty expressed through positive word of mouth and repurchase based on psychological intimacy and trust [
15,
16]. Behavioral engagement not only has a direct and powerful impact on loyalty but also plays a role in reinforcing brand-support behavior, such as brand advocacy and brand-supportive behavior, even if it cannot lead to buying behavior [
12].
On the other hand, the consumption trend of domestic consumers is increasing the awareness of and preference for domestic cosmetics due to the influence of the Korean Wave and building product images through quality, design and story formation of domestic cosmetics companies. As the importance of eco-friendly products with low carbon emissions increases, consumer safety demand for cosmetics is also becoming more pronounced. As such, human- and environment-oriented consumption is a trend, and companies are also striving for sustainable management by putting a great deal of resources into green product production, environmental advertising and green marketing [
17].
Since consumer demand for organic and natural personal care products is increasing, there is a growing interest in botanic cosmetics containing natural and botanical ingredients [
18]. Botanic cosmetics are made of natural and botanical ingredients from plants (herbs, roots, flowers, fruits, leaves or seeds) [
19]. Botanic cosmetics can also be referred to as green cosmetics, herbal cosmetics and organic cosmetics [
20]. According to Shi [
21], more than 75% of the cosmetics market is made up of natural ingredients derived from plants. Marketing trends are moving towards healthy lifestyles, and the cosmetics industry is turning to natural cosmetics suitable for healthy living [
22], so much so that the global botanic cosmetics market is predicted to grow to USD 48.04 billion by 2025 [
23].
Therefore, this study provides practical implications for companies to execute more efficient marketing strategies for global botanic cosmetic brands based on susceptibility to global consumer culture (SGCC), a variable that affects global cosmetics consumers’ commitment and loyalty to botanic cosmetics. The attempts of this study can identify key motivations as to why cosmetic consumers commit to the brand or the firm.
In addition, this research examines the moderating role of purchase experience and compares the differentiating effects on SGCC (conformity to consumer trend, social prestige, quality perception), commitment (emotional and behavioral) and loyalty toward botanic cosmetic brand according to the frequency of purchasing experience (see
Figure 1). Consumer’s purchase experience influences the perceived value of a product differently based on differences in familiarity and previous knowledge of a product [
24]. However, few studies empirically examine comparisons of SGCC, commitment or loyalty between non-purchasers and purchasers. In order to establish an effective marketing strategy, it is important to compare consumers who have purchased botanic cosmetics with those who do not to identify the various consumption values and product attitudes that may affect purchase intention or repurchase intention. Thus, it will be beneficial for marketers to identify how a consumer’s previous purchase experience influences the relationship between SGCC, commitment and loyalty.
The significance of this study is threefold. First, this study examines the link between SGCC and emotional and behavioral commitment using GCCT. Some studies have suggested that SGCC can be used for global positioning by using global consumers’ perception of global brands (e.g., Akaka and Alden [
25]; Alden, Steenkamp and Batra [
26]), but few studies have been conducted on the effect of SGCC on outcome variables such as commitment and loyalty. In addition, some studies (e.g., Akaka and Alden [
25]) demanded the need to study whether perceptions of SGCC are perceived differently by consumers of cultures other than Western cultures. From this point of view, it is practically meaningful to study the effect of SGCC perception of foreign botanic cosmetics on commitment and loyalty in the Korean market, where the demand for botanic cosmetics is increasing. Second, this study explains the commitment–loyalty link mechanism using the behavioral commitment construct. Behavioral commitment refers to true current behavior, promises and sacrifices (Gutiérrez, Cillán and Izquierdo, 2004, p. 355) [
27]. Some studies [
27,
28] have called for a need to investigate the effect of emotional commitment on behavioral commitment and loyalty. This research responds to these calls and tries to clarify how emotional commitment generated by the perception of SGCC continuously affects consumers’ expenditure or sacrifice and, as a result, affects loyalty. Lastly, this study concerns treatment of purchase experience as a moderator. Based on the belief adjustment model [
29] and reasoned action theory [
30], purchase experience explains how consumers adjust their beliefs about SGCC perception [
31] and increase their familiarity with the purchasing process [
32].
4. Results
4.1. Sample Characteristics
The demographic characteristics of 365 respondents used in this study are as shown in
Table 1. Among the respondents, the genders comprised 86% women and 14% men. Married individuals accounted for 62.5% of respondents, while single people accounted for 37.5%. The age groups were divided as follows: thirties (50.4%) showed the most, followed by forties (27.1%), twenties (13.4%), fifties (7.9%) and sixties or older (1.1%). In terms of education, holders of 4-year college degrees (67.4%) was the highest, followed by holders of postgraduate degrees (13.7%), holders of 2-year college degrees (13.4%) and high school graduates (5.5%). As for jobs, management/office workers (51.5%) were the most common, followed by housewives (20.8%), professional/technical workers (14.0%), sales/service workers (2.5%), college students (4.4%) and others (1.9%). Monthly household incomes were, from most frequent to least frequent, 2 to 3 million won (22.7%), 3 to 4 million won (16.7%), 4 to 5 million won (14.0%), 1 to 2 million won (8.8%), 6 to 7 million won (8.2%), 7 to 8 million won (4.7%), less than 1 million won (4.4%), more than 10 million won (3.8%), 9 to 10 million won (3.0%) and 8 to 9 million won (62.7%). In order to measure the purchasing experience, this study surveyed the number of times the respondents purchased cosmetics in the last year. Looking at the number of cosmetic purchases in one year, 4 purchases accounted for 14.5%, 5 purchases for 14.2%, followed by 6 (12.3%), 3 and 10 purchases (10.4%).
Several socio-demographic variables such as gender, age, and monthly income can be tested as moderating variables. However, in the case of the gender variable, the number of male (n = 51) respondents was too small compared to females (n = 314), so gender was excluded. We only found that age (under 40- vs. 40-year-old or older group) played a moderating role in the relationship between conformity to consumption trend and emotional commitment (p < 0.05) and could not find that monthly income played a moderating role in the constructs. The findings show that our proposed model using pool data does not have any serious problems to explain this model and to draw deep implications.
4.2. Measurement Reliability and Validity
In this study, the unidimensionality of each construct consisting of multiple items of SGCC (conformity to consumer trends, social prestige, quality perception), emotional commitment, behavioral commitment and loyalty was analyzed using SmartPLS 3.0 [
133,
134]. First, the reliability was confirmed using Cronbach’s α and composite reliability (CR). As shown in
Table 2, Cronbach’s α for the subdimensions of SGCC, conformity to consumer trends, social reputation and quality perception were 0.897, 0.919, 0.839, and CR values were 0.924, 0.949, 0.893. Cronbach’s α for emotional and behavioral commitment was 0.827, 0.820 and the CR values were 0.920, 0.917, which exceeded the generally required standard of 0.70. Cronbach’s α for loyalty was also 0.854, and the CR value was 0.932, indicating that there was no problem in reliability.
The validity was verified by dividing into convergent validity and discriminant validity. As shown in
Table 2, the factor loadings of each factor were 0.70 or more, and the AVE values were 0.50 or more, confirming the convergence validity of each construct. To check discriminant validity, there was discriminant validity among the constructs if the square root of AVE in the Fornell–Larcker criterion was greater than the correlation value. As shown in
Table 3, the square root of the AVE was larger than the correlation coefficient, and the square of the correlation between the paired constructs was smaller than the AVE’ therefore, discriminant validity among the constructs was proved. In addition, as a result of examining the HTMT (heterotrait–monotrait) representing the heterotrait–monotrait ratio of the correlations, as shown in
Table 4, it appears as 0.287–0.835 (
p <
0.01), which had discriminant validity [
135]. Meanwhile, the VIF value is 1.442–2.833, so the common method bias was not a problem.
4.3. Structural Model
In this study, SmartPLS 3.0 was used to evaluate the research model [
95,
134,
136,
137]. PLS (partial least squares) is an analysis method suitable for research to maximize explanatory power of endogenous variables, that is, to maximize variance explanatory power or to minimize structural errors. In this study, the model was evaluated in the following way. First, the explanatory power and predictive relevance were examined.
Second, the predictive relevance was determined by R
2, a coefficient of determination representing the explanatory power of endogenous variables. In this study, emotional commitment was 0.392 (39.2%), behavioral commitment was 0.33 (33.3%), and loyalty was 0.390 (39.0%), higher than 0.10 (10%) as suggested by Falk and Miller [
138]. Although R
2 of the behavioral commitment was somewhat low, R
2 of emotional commitment and loyalty was gradually becoming stronger, indicating that there is no problem with the explanatory power of endogenous variables.
Third, the construct cross-validated redundancy (Q2), which represents the redundancy of endogenous variables, was used as the predictive relevance index. If this value is greater than 0, it is judged that there is predictive relevance. Emotional commitment was 0.304, behavioral commitment was 0.369, and loyalty was 0.327, which met this criterion. The standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), indicating the intensity of model prediction of endogenous variable, was 0.056, which was less than.1 or 0.08, so the intensity of model prediction was found to be at an acceptable level.
Next, the model fit was determined by multiplying the average value of R
2 and communality, and the goodness of the model analysis result was evaluated as a square root; in general, the average value of the communality was used the same as the AVE [
139,
140]. As a result of the analysis, GoF = 0.562(√(0.399 × 0.793) was shown, which was higher than the standard of GoF (small: 0.10, medium: 0.25, large: 0.36). Finally, the value of normed fit index (NFI) was 0.801, indicating an unacceptable level. However, using the value of NFI is not recommended because it does not penalize for model complexity and its use is rare [
141].
4.4. Hypothesis Testing
The results of analyzing the structural relationships affecting susceptibility to global consumer culture (conformity to consumer trend, social prestige and quality perception), emotional commitment, behavioral commitment and loyalty are shown in
Table 5.
H1 and H2 analyze the impact of conformity to consumer trend on emotional commitment and behavioral commitment. The test result shows that conformity to consumer trends is found to have a significant effect on emotional commitment (β = 0.266, t-value = 3.060, p < 0.01) and has no significant effect on behavioral commitment (β = 0.034, t-value = 0.412, p = n.s.). Thus, H1 was supported, but H2 was not.
H3 and H4 examine the effect of social prestige on emotional commitment and behavioral commitment. The finding shows that social prestige has no significant positive effect on both emotional commitment (β = 0.109, t-value = 1.4312, p = n.s.) and behavioral commitment (β = 0.048, t-value = 0.546, p = n.s.), so neither H3 nor H4 is supported.
H5 and H6 analyze the effect of quality perception on emotional commitment and behavioral commitment. Quality perception is found to have a significant influence on emotional commitment (β = 0.384, t-value = 6.455, p < 0.01) and does not have significant influence on behavioral commitment (β = 0.117, t-value = 1.777, p = n.s.). H5 is supported but H6 is not.
H7 analyzes the effect of emotional commitment on behavioral commitment, and it was found that emotional commitment has a significant effect on behavioral commitment (β = 0.474, t-value = 7.401, p < 0.01). H7 is supported.
Finally, H8 and H9 analyze the effects of emotional and behavioral commitment on loyalty. Emotional commitment ((β = 0.389, t-value = 5.858, p < 0.01) and behavioral commitment (β = 0.357, t-value = 5.952, p < 0.01) have significant effects on loyalty, so both H8 and H9 are supported.
As a result of analyzing the moderating effect by the cosmetic purchasing experience, conformity to consumer trends (β = −0.166, t-value = 2.007, p < 0.05), was demonstrated to have a moderating effect on emotional commitment. The effect of conformity to consumer trends (β = −0.219, t-value = 2.618, p < 0.01) and quality perception (β = 0.149, t-value = 2.497, p < 0.05) on behavioral commitment was statistically significant according to the number of cosmetics purchased. In the relationship between emotional commitment (β = −0.161, t-value = 2.274, p < 0.05), behavioral commitment (β = 0.094, t-value = 1.667, p < 0.10) and loyalty, the number of cosmetic purchases was found to play a moderating role.
5. Discussion
This study performed an empirical analysis of how susceptibility to the global consumer culture of consumers using global botanic cosmetic brand affects loyalty through emotional and behavioral commitment. To this end, in this study, susceptibility to global consumer culture, which is an independent variable, was measured in three dimensions: conformity to consumer culture, social prestige and quality perception. Furthermore, this research examined the moderating effect of purchasing experience in the relationship between susceptibility to global consumer culture, emotional commitment, behavioral commitment and loyalty.
5.1. Theoretical Implications
The theoretical implications based on the research results are as follows. First, this study reported the importance of SGCC, and it will enable researchers to develop more sophisticated theoretical models in the botanic cosmetic context through integrating SGCC theory [
5] and the commitment-loyalty mechanism. Although SGCC is critical in positioning global brands, little research has been done on the effect of SGCC on the commitment–loyalty link. From this perspective, the current study proposed that different SGCC dimensions enable global consumers to become committed and loyal customers. Therefore, the findings show that an approach to investigating the impact of different SGCC dimensions on customers is an effective way to engage customers emotionally and behaviorally and make them loyal. Second, this study included behavioral commitment in the commitment–loyalty link and examined its effect on loyalty. Similar to other research [
27,
28], this study richly explains the commitment–loyalty mechanism by showing the effect of emotional commitment on behavioral commitment, which explains whether the customers’ present actual behavior, promise, and sacrifice will be short-term or continuous. The findings show that emotional and behavioral commitment are closely related and lead to loyalty. Last, unlike existing studies, this study examined the moderating role of purchasing experience using the belief adjustment model [
29] and reasoned action theory [
30]. This research steps forward to confirm whether the belief in SGCC can be changed for each purchase stage, and as a result, whether the result of the commitment–loyalty link is strengthened or weakened. Based on these three theories and commitment –loyalty link mechanism, the current study shows that SGCC could be a driver in building customer commitment and that customer loyalty will be maximized when global botanic cosmetic management understands the process of how SGCC dimensions affect loyalty.
5.2. Practical Implications
The results and practical implications of this research are as follows. First, the study finds that conformity to consumer trends has a significant effect on emotional commitment but is not positively associated with behavioral commitment. This result is similar to the result of a study by Alden et al. [
2], wherein global consumption orientation is shown to positively affect consumer attitudes using cultural globalization theory. In other words, when consumers with a high level of conformity to consumer trends purchase botanic cosmetics, they develop emotional commitment to the brand when they experience identification of consumption trends with global consumers, such as whether the cosmetics they purchased reflect a modern lifestyle [
11]. Therefore, botanic cosmetic companies need to provide a global corporate image in product advertisements, and such advertisements should allow consumers to feel that they are closer to an international lifestyle by conforming to global trends.
Second, social prestige has no significant direct effect on both emotional and behavioral commitment. These findings are similar to the findings in Amberg and Fogarassy ‘s [
142] green consumer behavior study showing green that cosmetics consumers place more importance on the functional aspects of cosmetics for skin health. The reason for this result can be presumed such that cosmetics used in this study are products in which the brand is not exposed, unlike general products, and botanic cosmetic consumers value product functionality and quality more than social prestige.
Third, the result indicates that quality perception has a significant impact on affective commitment, but no positive impact on behavioral commitment. There may be various reasons why consumers prefer botanic cosmetics, but in the case of botanic cosmetics, the findings imply that the quality is stable for the purpose of anti-aging, maintaining appearance and skin health, and consumers have a psychological attachment to trusted cosmetic brands. Accordingly, botanic cosmetic companies need to conduct continuous research and development to improve the quality of cosmetics and by continuing to use marketing communication strategies emphasizing that they are the best quality and functional cosmetics of botanic cosmetics brands, consumers should be able to trust and purchase the brand [
143].
Fourth, both emotional commitment and behavioral commitment affect brand loyalty, and behavioral commitment in particular has a significant effect on brand loyalty. These findings are consistent with Gutiérrez et al.’s [
27] research findings that the emotional commitment of customers increases the customer’s behavioral commitment and loyalty and, as a result, increases the profitability of the company. Therefore, botanic cosmetic managers need to develop differentiated marketing strategies that not only strengthen customers’ psychological attachment but also reduce negative emotions toward the brand by raising the level of expanded SGCC that strengthens customers’ behavioral commitment and loyalty.
Finally, through the analysis of the moderating effect on the cosmetic purchasing experience, first, it was confirmed that the less purchasing experience, the stronger the effect of CCT on emotional commitment and behavioral commitment. In particular, in the case of cosmetics, since it directly touches the skin and is a product for daily use, consumers with high buying frequency feel committed to cosmetics through their own experience rather than conforming to the feelings of others and becoming a part of the group. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a marketing strategy that allows potential customers to be constantly exposed to new global consumer trends and to make them feel like they want to follow consumer trends. In addition, it is necessary to reestablish a customer experience strategy using various online and offline marketing channels that fit the consumer trend. The moderating effect of purchasing experience was also confirmed in the relationship between quality perception and behavioral commitment. The more purchasing experience, the greater the effect of quality perception on behavioral commitment. This indicates that existing customers who have a lot of purchasing experience can more accurately evaluate product quality from their experience with the product than customers who do not [
130], so they have a commitment to the behavior of purchasing a product.
In the relationship between emotional commitment and loyalty, it was found that the less the purchasing experience, the stronger the influence of emotional commitment on loyalty, and the more purchasing experience, the stronger the effect of behavioral commitment on loyalty. Likewise, similar to the moderating effect of purchasing experience in the relationship between conformity to consumer trends and commitment, the more emotionally attached to cosmetics in the low-purchase group, the higher the likelihood of continuing to purchase specific brand products, and in a high-purchase group, behavioral engagement, which means spending consistently on products of the same brand, affects getting others to talk positively about and buy the product. Therefore, marketers not only provide continuous values for customer retention to loyal customers but also provide benefits for attracting new customers, thereby implementing specific goals and strategies to prevent customer defections and expand new customers. For new customers with a small number of purchases, it is necessary to ensure that the product is of great significance to the consumer and can seem the same as the product through successful brand positioning, building positive brand image so that it can lead to continuous product purchase.
5.3. Limitations and Future Research
This study empirically analyzes the causal relationship between botanic cosmetic consumers to discover how consumers’ susceptibility to global consumer culture affects their emotional commitment, behavioral commitment and loyalty to botanic cosmetic brands and provides management implications for this. Nevertheless, there are certain limitations to the study, and consequently, future studies are as follows.
First, there is the limitation of generalization of the study as it focused on online panels. Therefore, in future research, it is necessary to study not online panels, but consumers across the country and to compare and analyze the results of this study.
Second, in this study, women were surveyed far more than men. Recently, the proportion of men who invest effort in their social appearance has been increasing, so the analysis results may vary depending on the ratio of men and women. Thus, in future studies, it is recommended to check the results of the study according to the male-to-female ratio once again.
Third, this study investigated the degree of susceptibility to global consumer culture of domestic cosmetic consumers for botanic cosmetics. In future research, it is necessary to study global consumers as well as domestic cosmetic consumers as well as to compare and contrast cultural differences between countries regarding the degree of susceptibility to global consumer culture among global consumers.