Abstract
Elements of evolution, taxonomy, morphology and physiology of wood deteriogens are discussed in this chapter, aiming to enlighten readers on their biology and enable the understanding of wood decay mechanisms.
Wood deteriogens such as bacteria, archaea, fungi, insects and marine borers, utilizing wooden Cultural Heritage as a source of nutrients or as a physical substrate for their development, are presented. Bacteria and archaea are first addressed and their taxonomy, phylogenetic relationships and main morphological types are examined. Similarly, the ambiguous systematics and taxonomy of fungi are shown via a 9-phylum classification. Filamentous fungi features such as hyphae, mycelium, reproductive units and fruit bodies are defined along with their sexual and asexual life cycle. Based on the micromorphology and patterns of wood decay, bacteria are classified into erosion, tunnelling and cavitation bacteria, whereas the dikaryotic wood-decaying fungi are categorized into white-, soft- and brown-rot fungi.
Marine wood borers, belonging to Mollusca and Crustacea are then recognized as major wood deteriogens encountered in marine ecosystems. Basics on their phylogeny, taxonomy morphological characters, physiology, feeding modes and life histories are presented. The molluscan bivalves attacking wooden Cultural Heritage are further mentioned and description of their body, reproduction modes, along with growth stages from the trochophore larva to the juvenile is made. Similarly, for wood-decaying crustacean orders, Amphipoda and Isopoda, their distribution, habitat, foraging behaviours and body features are discussed.
Finally, insects, the most speciose group of animals of the planet is introduced and taxonomically classified. Their body segmentation is described and their life cycles from the egg to imago are explained, including the different modes of their post-embryonic development. Their feeding habits are also explicated for herbivorous, carnivorous and omnivores insects. General information on the biology and ecology of all wood-damaging orders are provided at last with special reference on wooden Cultural Heritage deteriogens, Coleoptera and Blattodea.
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Notes
- 1.
Parasitism is a form of two organisms symbiosis, where one, (the parasite) benefits and the other, (the host), is negatively affected. In mutualism both organisms benefit, whereas in commensalism one organism (the commensal) benefits from the other which is neither benefited nor harmed.
- 2.
Eukaryotes are organism whose cells have a cell nucleus and other organelles enclosed within membranes (from eu (εὖ) in Greek: well, and karyon (κάρυον) in Greek: nucleus). Organisms without nuclear envelopes, are termed prokaryotes (from pro (προ) in Greek: before and karyon means) (Nelson and Cox 2005, Black 2008).
- 3.
Gram staining method distinguishes bacterial species into Gram-positive and Gram-negative (Hucker and Conn 1923). Gram-positive bacteria are stained violet in the presence of alcohol with iodine-fixed crystal violet, due to their cell wall content in peptidoglycan (PGN) (Trüper and K.-H. Schleifer 2006; Zinder and Dworkin 2006). Gram-positive bacteria cell wall is made of many PGN layers (40–80 nm thick) corresponding to 90% of their dry weight, in contrast to Gram-negative cell wall, which has a single PGN layer (7–8 nm thick) that corresponds to only 10% of their dry weight (Malanovic and Lohner 2016) and thus it is stained red.
- 4.
- 5.
Coenocytic from coenos (κοινός) in Greek: shared in common and cytos (κύτος) in Greek: a hollow vessel, here meaning cell (Webster and Weber 2007).
- 6.
In some fungi, reproduction can be also parasexual where recombination of hereditary properties occurs outside the sexual cycle (Pontecorvo 1956).
- 7.
Dikarya from (δι- κάρυα) in Greek: two nuclei.
- 8.
Sporangium (sporange) is an organ enclosing endogenously generated spore(s) of which the walls have not being derived from the supporting or containing structure (Kirk et al. 2008).
- 9.
Resting spores have thickly encysted (thick cell wall) in order to survive through unfavourable developmental conditions.
- 10.
Biotroph is an obligate symbiont growing on a host without killing it as it relies on in to stay alive.
- 11.
Mycorrhiza is a symbiosis between a plant and a fungus, a term derived from the word myces (μύκης) in Greek: fungus and rhiza (ρίζα) in Greek: root.
- 12.
Peroxisome is a type of organelle known as a microbody found in all eukaryotic cells.
- 13.
Lignicolous means living on or in wood (Kirk et al. 2008).
- 14.
Ascomyctes from ascos (ασκός) in Greek: a leather bag or sac, and mycetes (μύκητες) in Greek: fungi (Webster and Weber 2007).
- 15.
A structure of eukaryotic cells, forming during cell division to separate sister chromatids between daughter cells.
- 16.
Bivalves have shells composed of two valves.
- 17.
The original spelling of the name Xylophagidae, Purchon, 1941 (Mollusca, Bivalvia) has been emended in 2018, to Xylophagaidae (Sect. 5.1).
- 18.
Synonymous to Solenogastres.
- 19.
Synonymous to Caudofoveata.
- 20.
The name “Bivalve” was first coined by Linnaeus in 1758, however, later terms of “Pelecypoda” and “Lamellibranchia” were also used (Jain 2017).
- 21.
In many species the head and thorax may be fused together forming the cephalothorax, whereas is some taxa, the thorax and abdomen are fused forming the trunk.
- 22.
All free-swimming pre-adult forms can be categorized into three basic types: nauplius, zoea and post-larva (Waterman 1960).
- 23.
Doecious organisms have separate sexes, in opposed to hermaphrodites having both male and female reproductive organs. Individual organisms having just one of at least two distinct sexes are termed gonochorous or unisexual.
- 24.
Protandrous, opposed to protogynous, are hermaphrodites which develop male sexual organs before female ones.
- 25.
Hexapoda means six-legged arthropods, from hexa (ἕξ) in Greek: six and poda (πόδᾰ) in Greek: legs.
- 26.
Ocelli are simple light detecting organs, consisting of a single lens. Dissimilarly to compound eyes, they do not form a complex image of the environment, but are used to detect movement.
- 27.
Some taxa i.e. Hymenoptera or Diptera can be parasitic as a larva and parasitoids as pupae or adults (Gullan and Cranston 2014).
- 28.
Eusocial insects are defined by (a) cooperative brood care, (b) overlap of two or more generations with offspring assisting with brood care and (c) reproductive division of labour (Zablotny 2009).
- 29.
Fat body (Corpus adiposum) is a large diffuse multifunctional organ usually found in the abdomen (Beteul et al. 2014).
- 30.
An epifamily is intermediate in rank between family and superfamily.
- 31.
Parasitoids, always kill their host and treat them as a source of nourishment in contrast to true parasites that seldom kill their hosts. If a parasitoid wasp has taken all of the host useful content, then the host is no longer of use and so there is no need to leave it, to recover (Quicke 2009).
- 32.
Galls are a kind of abnormal outgrowths of plant, fungi, or animals tissues.
- 33.
- 34.
Halter (sing), halteres (pl.) is a wing reduced to small, clublike structure.
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Pournou, A. (2020). Biology of Wood Deteriogens. In: Biodeterioration of Wooden Cultural Heritage. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46504-9_3
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