Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Military Mothers

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Parenting and Children's Resilience in Military Families

Part of the book series: Risk and Resilience in Military and Veteran Families ((RRMV))

Abstract

Women’s roles, rights, and responsibilities within the United Kingdom (UK) Armed Forces have changed substantially since the First World War. The unique challenges faced by female personnel have previously been an understudied topic. As the percentage of female personnel in the military increases, the concept of motherhood in the military has acquired a higher profile. This chapter outlines the experiences of being a military mother. It begins with a brief review of the pressures faced by servicewomen and a short historical account of the evolution of women’s participation in the UK Armed Forces. This is followed by description of the main military demands (readiness, retention, relocation, and deployment) and their interaction with the demands of motherhood (regaining postpartum fitness, coping with dual identities, maternal separation anxiety, and childcare concerns). Findings from the United States (US) Armed Forces and UK civilian studies are used for comparison.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adult Learning Inspectorate. (2007). Better training: Managing risks to the welfare of recruits in the British armed services: Two years of progress. Retrieved from http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/E82B3EE1-182B-47F6-8693-05AF88E6CF63/0/MODBettertrainingfull.pdf&gt.

  • Afari, N., Pittman, J., Floto, E., Owen, L., Buttner, M., Hossain, N., … Lohr, J. B. (2015). Differential impact of combat on postdeployment symptoms in female and male veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan. Military Medicine, 180(3), 296–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Albano, S. (2002). What society can learn from the US military’s system of family support. National Council on Family Relations Report, 47(1), F6–F8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antecol, H., & Cobb-Clark, D. A. (2005). Racial harassment, job satisfaction and intentions to remain in the military. IZA Discussion Papers, No. 1636.

    Google Scholar 

  • Association of Wrens. Retrieved from www.wrens.org.uk/history.

  • Astbury, J. (1994). Making motherhood visible: The experience of motherhood questionnaire. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 12(2), 79–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, J. H., Cullen, L. A., Foster, N. E., Harrison, K., & Wade, M. (1999). Does arthritis influence perceived ability to fulfil a parenting role? Perceptions of mothers, fathers and grandparents. Patient and Education Counselling, 37(2), 141–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, R. C., & Baruch, G. K. (1985). Women’s involvement in multiple roles and psychological distress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(1), 135–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basham, V. (2013). War, identity and the liberal state: Everyday experiences of the geopolitical in the armed forces.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, D. B., & Schumm, W. R. (1999). Family adaptation to deployments. In P. McClure (Ed.), Pathways to the future: A review of military family research (pp. 109–118). Scranton, PA: Military Family Institute, Marywood University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Galim, D., & Thompson, S. (2013). Who’s breadwinning? Working mothers and the new face of family support (pp. 1–34). London, England: Institute of Public Policy Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkman, P. L. (1969). Spouseless motherhood, psychological stress, and physical morbidity. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 10(4), 323–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bilzon, J. L. J. (2012). Comparison of the physical demands of single-sex training for male and female recruits in the British Army. Military Medicine, 177(6), 709–715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bilzon, J., Richmond, V., Rayson, M., Izard, R., & Wilkinson, D. (2006). The physical demands of the commissioning course. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouvard, M. G. (2012). The invisible wounds of war: Coming home from Afghanistan. New York, NY: Prometheus Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowden, R. (2011). Do women need to act like men to be successful managers? Nature Jobs. Retrieved from www.blogs.nature.com/naturejobs/2011/06/24/do-women-need-to-act-like-men-to-be-successful-managers/.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, G. L. (1989). Family adaptation to relocation: An empirical analysis of family stressors, adaptive resources, and sense of coherence (pp. 1–34). Arlington, VA: United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1958). The Nature of the Childs Tie to His Mother. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 39, 350–371.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowling, U. B., & Sherman, M. D. (2008). Welcoming them home: Supporting service members and their families in navigating the tasks of reintegration. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39(4), 451–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brannan, A. M., Heflinger, C. A., & Foster, E. M. (2003). The role of caregiver strain and other family variables in determining children’s use of mental health services. Journal of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders, 11, 78–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Britt, T. W., Castro, C. A., & Adler, A. B. (2006). Military life: The psychology of serving in peace and combat. Vol. 1, Military performance. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International/Greenwood.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. M., Williams, J., Bray, R. M., & Hourani, L. (2012). Post-deployment alcohol use, aggression and post-traumatic stress disorder. Military Medicine, 177(10), 1184–1190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buick, F., & Pickering, D. I. (2013). A framework for appraising individual readiness for deployment. Technical memorandum for the Defence R&D Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burland, D., & Lundquist, J. H. (2012). “The best years of our lives”: Military service and family relationships: A life course perspective. In J. Wilmoth & A. London (Eds.), Life course perspective on military service. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burns, J. (2015). Children’s mental health is parents’ greatest concern. Retrieved from www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-30701591.

  • Burrell, L. M., Adams, G. A., Durand, D. B., & Castro, C. A. (2006). The impact of military lifestyle demands on well-being, army, and family outcomes. Armed Forces and Society, 33(1), 43–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burrelli, D. F. (1996). Women in the armed forces. Foreign Affairs and National Defence Division.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bushatz, A. (2013). Female military divorce rates continue decline. Retrieved from http://www.military.com/daily-news/2013/12/18/female-military-divorce-rates-continue-decline.html.

  • Carter, J., & Almarez, J. (2014). Multiple attachment relationships: More caregivers may mean more confidence to behave prosocially. Research on the Hill (Salt Lake City). Paper 11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassirer, N., & Addati, L. (2007). Expanding women’s employment opportunities: Informal economy workers and the need for childcare. Conditions of Work and Employment Programme. DEPTS-2007-10-0394-2(b).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cattan, P. (1991). Child-care problems: An obstacle to work. Monthly Labor Review, 114(10), 3–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavanaugh, M., & Crook, H. (2009). What kind of struggles do military kids deal with? Retrieved from www.kpbs.org/news.

  • Cawkill, P., Rogers, A., Knight, S., & Spear, L. (2009). Women in ground close combat roles: The experiences of other nations and a review of the academic literature.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandra, A., Martin, L. T., Hawkins, S. A., & Richardson, A. (2010). The impact of parental deployment on child social and emotional functioning: Perspectives of school staff. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46(3), 218–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charles, M., & Grusky, D. (2007). Egalitarianism and gender inequality. In D. Grusky & S. Szelenyi (Eds.), The inequality reader: Contemporary and foundational readings in race, class and gender. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chartrand, M. M., Frank, D. A., White, L. F., & Shope, T. R. (2008). Effect of parents’ wartime deployment on the behaviour of young children in military families. Archives of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 162(11), 1009–1014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clapp, J. F. (1998). Exercising through your pregnancy (pp. 205–222). Human Kinetics: Champaign.

    Google Scholar 

  • Committee for Women in NATO United Kingdom National Report. (2009). http://www.nato.int/issues/women_nato/meeting-records/2009/national-reports/uk-national-report-2009.pdf.

  • Cook, R., & Weiss, C. (2015). Gender stereotyping in the military: Insights from court cases. In E. Brems & A. Timmer (Eds.), Stereotyping as a human rights issue. Mortsel, Belgium: Intersentia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cozza, S. J., Chun, R. S., & Polo, J. A. (2005). Military families and children during operation Iraqi freedom. Psychiatric Quarterly, 76(4), 371–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Creamer, M., Carboon, I., Forbes, A., McKenzie, D. P., McFarlane, A. C., Kelsall, H. L., & Sim, M. R. (2006). Psychiatric disorder and separation from military service: A 10-year retrospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(4), 733–734.

    Google Scholar 

  • Croan, G. M., LeVine, C. T., & Blankinship, D. A. (1992). Family adjustment to relocation (Technical Report No. 968). Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crossley, L. (2014). The maternity military: How nearly 100 female soldiers have been sent home from the Afghan frontline after getting pregnant. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2560032/The-maternity-military-How-nearly-100-female-soldiers-sent-home-Afghan-frontline-getting-pregnant.html.

  • Dandeker, C., & Segal, M. W. (1996). Gender integration in Armed Forces: Recent policy developments in the United Kingdom. Armed Forces and Society, 23(1), 29–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davy, C. P., Lorimer, M., McFarlane, A., Hodson, S., Crompvoets, S., Lawrence-Wood, E., Neuhaus, S. J. (2015). “The well-being of Australian service mothers.” Women and Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Defence Infrastructure Organisation. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.gov.uk.

  • UK Defence Statistics Compendium (2000–2014). Reports Retrieved from www.gov.uk.

  • DeGroot, G. J. (1996). Blighty: British society in the era of the great war. Harlow: Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeGroot, G. J. (2001). A few good women: Gender stereotypes, the military and peacekeeping. International Peacekeeping, 8(2), 23–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demers, A. (2011). When veterans return: The role of community in reintegration. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 16, 160–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Department of Defense. (2012). Demographic Report. Retrieved from www.militaryonesource.mil.

  • Dietmann, A., & Brown, V. (2008). Flexible working arrangements survey. DASA: Technical Report for Defence Analytical Service Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dimoulas, E., Steffian, L., Steffian, G., Doran, A. P., Rasmusson, A. M., & Morgan, C. (2007). Dissociation during intense military stress is related to subsequent somatic symptoms in women. Psychiatry, 4(2), 66–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodd, T. (1995). The armed forces bill. Research Paper 95/125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drummet, A. R., Coleman, M., & Cable, S. (2003). Military families under stress: Implications for family life education. Family Relations, 52(3), 279–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duchesne, S., & Ratelle, C. F. (2014). Attachment security to mothers and fathers and the developmental trajectories of depressive symptoms in adolescence: Shich parent for shich rajectory? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(4), 641–654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, A., Paull, G., & Taylor, J. (2001). Price and quality in the UK childcare market. London, England: The Institute for Fiscal Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dutra, L., Grubbs, K., Greene, C., Trego, L. L., McCartin, T. L., Kloezeman, K., & Morland, L. (2010). Women at war: Implications for mental health. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 12(1), 25–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., & Clark, R. (2003). Breastfeeding, bonding, and the mother–infant relationship. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49(4), 495–517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Equal Opportunities Commission. (2000). Report Retrieved from http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmdfence/689/0102502.htm.

  • Equal Opportunities Commission. (2007). Working outside the box: Changing work to meet the future. Executive Summary.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Communities Council Directive. (1976). The EEC Equal Treatment Directive (76/207/EEC).

    Google Scholar 

  • European Court of Justice. (1996). Angela Maria Sirdar v. The Army Board, Case C-273/97 [1999] ECR I-7403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, A. (2013). Women can do what men can do: The causes and consequences of growing flexibility in gender divisions of labour in Kitwe, Zambia. A thesis submitted to the Department of Geography and Environment of the London School of Economics and Political Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faber, A. J., Willerton, E., Clymer, S. R., MacDermid, S. M., & Weiss, H. M. (2008). Ambiguous absence, ambiguous presence: A qualitative study of military reserve families in wartime. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(2), 222–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farmer, B. (2015). British Army appoints first female general. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/11721295/British-Army-appoints-first-female-general.html.

  • Fear, N. T., Jones, M., Murphy, D., Hull, L., Iversen, A. C., Coker, B., … Wessely, S. (2010). What are the consequences of deployment to Iraq and Afghanistan on the mental health of the U.K. Armed Forces? A cohort study. The Lancet, 375(9728), 1783–1797.

    Google Scholar 

  • Figueroa, A., Soutullo, C., Ono, Y., & Saito, K. (2012). Separation anxiety. IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • First woman to command an RAF fast jet squadron named as Wing Commander Nikki Thomas. www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/11335480.

  • Fontana, A., Schwartz, L. S., & Rosenheck, R. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder among female Vietnam veterans: A causal model of aetiology. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 169–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fonti, Y., Giordano, R., Cacciatore, A., Romano, M., & La Rosa, B. (2009). Post-partum pelvic floor changes. Journal of Prenatal Medicine, 3(4), 57–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gewirtz, A. H., Erbes, C. R., Polusny, M. A., Forgatch, M. S., & DeGarmo, D. S. (2011). Helping military families through the deployment process: Strategies to support parenting. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 42(1), 56–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gewirtz, A. H., McMorris, B. J., Hanson, S., & Davis, L. (2014). Family adjustment of deployed and nondeployed mothers in families with a parent deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 45(6), 465–477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gooden, S.-A. (2014). Please don’t tell me I missed another milestone. Retrieved from www.blogs.babycenter.com/mom_stories.

  • Gooding, J. B. (1996). They gave us Khaki bloomers. London, England: Avon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, P., Turner, A., Agazio, J., Throop, M., Padden, D., Greiner, S., … Hillier, L. (2013). Deployment of military mothers: Supportive and nonsupportive military programs, processes, and policies. Military Medicine, 178(7), 729–735.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorman, G. H., Eide, M., & Hisle-Gorman, E. (2010). Health complaints wartime military deployment and increased pediatric mental and behavioral. Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics, 126, 1058–1067.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, J. D., Stewart, L. S., & Cato, E. D. (1988). Annual survey of Army families: A report on Army spouses and families in 1987. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Community and Family Support Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, V. K., & Bhawe, N. M. (2007). The influence of proactive personality and stereotype threat on women’s entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 13(4), 73–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guralnick, M. J., Hammond, M. A., Neville, B., & Connor, R. T. (2008). The relationship between sources and functions of social support and dimensions of child- and parent-related stress. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 52(12), 1138–1154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., Postmes, T., & Haslam, C. (2009). Social identity, health and well-being: An emerging agenda for applied psychology. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 58, 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HealthDay News. (2012). US military women exposed to more combat than ever before. Retrieved from http://health.usnews.com/health-news/family-health/brain-and-behavior/articles/2012/01/19/us-military-women-exposed-to-more-combat-than-ever-before.

  • Hill, E. J. (2005). Work-family facilitation and conflict, working fathers and mothers, work-family stressors and support. Journal of Family Issues, 26, 793–819.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hock, E., & Lutz, W. J. (1998). Psychological meaning of separation anxiety in mothers and fathers. Journal of Family Psychology, 12(1), 21–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., & Eaton, K. M. (2006). Impact of combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan on family functioning: Findings from the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research Land Combat Study. In Human dimensions in military operations-military leader’s strategies for addressing stress and psychological support, 5.1–5.6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hosek, J., Kavanagh, J., & Miller, L. (2006). How deployments affect service members. Santa Monica, CA: The Rand Corporation.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Huebner, A., Mancini, J., Wilcox, R., Grass, S., & Grass, G. (2007). Parental deployment and youth in military families: Exploring uncertainty and ambiguous loss. Family Relations, 56, 112–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huerta, M. (2014). Maternal separation anxiety: It’s hard to let go. Uncategorized. Retrieved from www.kars4kids.org/blog/maternal-separation-anxiety-hard-let-go/.

  • Hylden, C. M., Johnson, A. E., & Rivera, J. C. (2014). Casualty sex differences: A new dilemma in modern warfare. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Now, 9(3). Retrieved from http://www.aaos.org/news/aaosnow/oct14/research1.asp.

  • Inzlicht, M. (2011). Stereotype threat: Theory, process, and application, Vol. 5. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 141–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inzlicht, M., & Ben-Zeev, T. (2000). A threatening intellectual environment: Why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of males. Psychological Science, 11(5), 365–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iversen, A. C., Fear, N. T., Ehlers, A., Hughes, J. H., Hull, L., Earnshaw, M., … Hotopf, M. (2008). Risk factors for post traumatic stress disorder amongst United Kingdom armed forces personnel. Psychological Medicine, 38(4), 511–522.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, P. S., Martin, D., & Watanabe, H. (1996). Children’s response to parental separation during Operation Desert Storm. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 433–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joint Economic Committee. (2011). Helping military moms balance family and longer deployments.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaitz, M., Maytal, H. R., Devor, N., Bergman, L., & Mankuta, D. (2010). Maternal anxiety, mother-infant interactions, and infants’ response to challenge. Infant Behaviour and Development, 33, 136–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, M. (1994). The effects of military-induced separation on family factors and child behaviour. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 64(1), 103–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, M. L., Hock, E., Bonney, J. F., Jarvis, M. S., Smith, K. M., & Gaffney, M. A. (2001). Navy mothers experiencing and not experiencing deployment: Reasons for staying in or leaving the military. Military Psychology, 13(1), 55–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, M. L., Hock, E., Jarvis, M. S., Smith, K. M., Gaffney, M. A., & Bonney, J. F. (2002). Psychological adjustment of Navy mothers experiencing deployment. Military Psychology, 14(3), 199–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, P. J., Berkel, L. A., & Nilssom, J. E. (2014). Postdeployment reintegration experiences of female soldiers from national guard and reserve units in the United States. Nursing Research, 63(5), 346–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, M. L., Herzog-Simmer, P. A., & Harris, M. A. (1994). Effects of military-induced separation on the parenting stress and family functioning of deploying mothers. Military Psychology, 6(2), 125–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelty, R., & Segal, D. R. (2013). The military as a transforming social agent: Integration into or isolation from normal adult roles? In M. W. Janet & S. L. Andrew (Eds.), Life course perspectives on military service. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimerling, R., Street, A. E., Pavao, J., Smith, M. W., Cronkite, R. C., Holmes, T. H., & Frayne, S. M. (2010). Military-related sexual trauma among veterans health administration patients returning from Afghanistan and Iraq. American Journal of Public Health, 100(8), 1409–1412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimmel, J. (2006). Child care, female employment, and economic growth. Community Development: Journal of the Community Development Society, 37(2).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline, C. (2013). A woman’s place is on the frontline: The evolution of female combat soldiers. Politics. Retrieved from www.dantemag.com/2013/10/a-womans-place-is-on-the-front/.

  • Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 616–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lancaster, S. L., Erbes, C. R., Kumpula, M. J., Ferrier-Auerbach, A., Arbisi, P. A., & Polusny, M. A. (2013). Longitudinal predictors of desire to re-enlist in the military among male and female national guard soldiers. Military Medicine, 178(3), 267–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leon, G. R., Nist, N., & Magor, G. (2004). Personal experiences and team effectiveness during a commemorative trek in the high Artic. Artic Environmental Behavior, 36, 386–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, B., & Ridge, D. (2005). Mothers reframing physical activity: Family oriented politicism, transgression and contested expertise in Australia. Social Science & Medicine, 60(10), 2295–2306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, B. T. (2013). The military-masculinity complex: Hegemonic masculinity and the United States Armed Forces, 1940–1963. Dissertations, theses, & student research, Department of History. Paper 65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovell, S., Kallmeier-Hatch, V., Euesden, J., & Terry, A. (2005). Women return of service: Royal navy and royal air force. QinetiQ Technical Report no. QINETIQ/05/01160/2.0.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacAskill, E. (2014). Women set to get green light for combat roles in the British army. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/may/08/women-set-for-combat-roles-in-british-army.

  • Madison, C. (2010). Dressed to kill: The remarkable true story of a female apache pilot on the frontline. Chatham: Headline Review.

    Google Scholar 

  • Main, M., & Weston, D. (1981). The quality of toddler’s relationship to mother and to father: Related to conflict behaviour and the readiness to establish new relationships. Child Development, 52, 932–940.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marston, R. T. (2014). Military Marriage: 5 things to do after you say “I do”. Available on http://nextgenmilspouse.com/military-marriage-5-things-to-do-after-you-say-i-do/.

  • Mattocks, K. M., Haskell, S. G., Krebs, E. E., Justice, A. C., Yano, E. M., & Brandt, C. (2012). Women at war: Understanding how women veterans cope with combat and military sexual trauma. Social Science and Medicine, 74, 537–545.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, J. F., Valenstein, M., Kim, H. M., Ilgen, M., Zivin, K., & Blow, F. C. (2009). Suicide mortality among patients receiving care in the veterans health administration health system. American Journal of Epidemiology, 169(8), 1033–1038.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, L. (2013). A soldier’s transition story, part II: 8 transition challenges relating to how military service and civilian work differ. Report Retrieved from http://www.quintcareers.com/military_transition_challenges.html.

  • Mental Health Foundation. “Work-life balance”. Retrieved from www.mentalhealth.org.uk/help-information/mental-health-a-z/w/work-life-balance/.

  • Meredith, L. S., Parker, A. M., Beckjord, E. B., Gaillot, S., Trivedi, M. M., & Vaiana, M. E. (2008). Educating military personnel and their families about post-deployment stress. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • MoD. (2005). Assessing and reporting military readiness. National Audit Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • MoD. (2008). Tri-service regulations for leave and other types of absences. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/.

  • MoD. (2009). Committee for women in Nato United Kingdom National Report. Retrieved from http://www.nato.int/issues/women_nato/meeting-records/2009/national-reports/uk-national-report-2009.pdf.

  • MoD. (2010). Report on the review of the exclusion of women from ground close-combat roles. Retrieved from www.gov.uk.

  • MoD. (2012–2013). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/222874/MOD_AR13_clean.pdf.

  • MoD. (2013). Annual report and accounts 2012–2013. Retrieved from www.gov.uk.

  • MoD. (2014a). Women in ground close combat (GCC), Review Paper.

    Google Scholar 

  • MoD. (2014b). UK Armed Forces Maternity Report: Annual Statistics 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • MoD. (2014c). Defence statistics. Reference: FOI29-01-2014-150646-012.

    Google Scholar 

  • MoD. (2014d). Defence and armed forces guidance: New employment model.

    Google Scholar 

  • MoD. (2015). Defence statistics. Reference: FOI 2015 05385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mofrad, S., Abdullah, R., Abu Samah, B., Mansor, M. B., & Baba, M. B. (2009). Maternal psychological distress and separation anxiety disorder in children. European Journal of Social Sciences, 8(3), 386–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, S. C., Stockfisch, J. A., Goldberg, M. S., Holroyd, S. M., & Hildebrandt, G. G. (1991). Measuring military readiness and sustainability. Santa Monica, CA: RAND National Defense Research Institute, pp. 1–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morse, J. (2006). New emotional cycles of deployment for service members and their families (U.S. Department of Defense: Deployment Health and Family Readiness Library). CA: San Diego. Retrieved from http://deploymenthealthlibrary.fhp.osd.mil.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mulrine, A. (2013). 8 other nations that send women to combat. Retrieved from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130125-women-combat-world-australia-israel-canada-norway/.

  • Murdoch, M., Bradley, A., Mather, S. H., Klein, R. E., Turner, C. L., & Yano, E. M. (2006). Women and war. What physicians should know. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21(3), S5–S10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. (2009). Depression in parents, parenting, and children: Opportunities to improve identification, treatment, and prevention. National Academy of Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nevo, B., & Shur-Shmueli, Y. (2003). Women in the Israel defense forces. A product of the IDI army and society forum. Report Retrieved from http://en.idi.org.il/media/1431643/ArmyWomen.pdf.

  • O’Toole, M. (2012). Military sexual assault epidemic continues to claim victims as defense department fails females. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/06/military-sexual-assault-defense-department_n_1834196.html.

  • O'Laughlin, E., & Bischoff, L. (2005). Balancing parenthood and academia: Work/family stress as influenced by gender and tenure status. Journal of Family Issues, 26, 79–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, L. W., Harman, J., Hoover, E., & Hayes, S. M. (1999). A quantitative integration of the military cohesion literature. Military Psychology, 11(1), 57–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orthner, D., & Rose, R. (2005). Adjustment of army children to deployment separation. Army Child Deployment Adjustment Report, SAF V Survey Report.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peltz, E. M. (2012). Why stay-at-home moms are more depressed than working moms. Retrieved from www.christianitytoday.com.

  • Peth-Pierce, R. (1998). The NICHD study of early child care. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Public Information and Communications Branch.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phelps, L. (2011). Women vets face unique barriers when seeking mental health care, VA officials say. Retrieved from http://nationalsecurityzone.org/site/women-vets-face-unique-barriers-when-seeking-mental-health-care-va-officials-say/.

  • Pisano, M. C. (2010). Military deployment and family reintegration. National Association of School Psychologists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polusny, M. A., Kumpula, M. J., Meis, L. A., Erbes, C. R., Arbisi, P. A., Murdoch, M., … Johnson, A. K. (2014). Gender differences in the effects of deployment-related stressors and pre-deployment risk factors on the development of PTSD symptoms in National Guard soldiers deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 49, 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Press Association. (2014). 40% of managers avoid hiring younger women to get around maternity leave. Maternity and paternity rights. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/money/2014/aug/12/managers-avoid-hiring-younger-women-maternity-leave.

  • Presser, H. B. (2000). Nonstandard work schedules and marital instability. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(1), 93–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pugh, A. (2005). Selling compromise: Toys, motherhood and the cultural deal. Gender & Society, 19(7), 29–747.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabkin, N. J. (2000). Military personnel: Preliminary results of DOD’s 1999 survey of active duty member. United States General Accounting Office Testimony before the Subcommittee on Military Personnel, Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rayment, S. (2002). Married couples can no longer face life in the army. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1384328/Married-couples-can-no-longer-face-life-in-Army.html.

  • Renshaw, K. D. (2010). Deployment experiences and post-deployment PTSD symptoms in National Guard/Reserve service members serving in operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(6), 815–818.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richmond, V. L., Carter, J. M., Wilkinson, D. M., Horner, F. E., Rayson, M. P., Wright, A., & Bilzon, J. L. (2012). Comparison of the physical demands of single-sex training for male and female recruits in the British Army. Military Medicine, 177, 709–715.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riggs, S. A., & Riggs, D. S. (2011). Risk and resilience in military families experiencing deployment: The role of the family attachment network. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 675–687.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivera, J. C., Hylden, C. M., & Johnson, A. E. (2015). Disability after deployment injury: Are women and men service members different? Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 473(8), 2448–2454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, P., & Moseley, B. (1996). Father’s time: Understanding the challenges of fatherhood. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200910/fathers-time.

  • Robertson, J., & Bowlby, J. (1952). Responses of young children to separation from their mothers, Vol. II. Courier of the International Children’s Centre, Paris, pp. 131–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rona, R. J., Fear, N. T., Hull, L., Greenberg, N., Earnshaw, M., Hotopf, M. & Wessely, S. (2007). Mental health consequences of overstretch in the UK armed forces: First phase of a cohort study. British Medical Journal, 335, 603–610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, L. N., & Durand, D. B. (1995). The family factor and retention among married soldiers deployed in Operation Desert Storm. Military Psychology, 7(4), 221–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rowden, R. (2011). Do women need to act like men to be successful managers? Nature Jobs. Retrieved from http://blogs.nature.com/naturejobs/2011/06/24/do-women-need-to-act-like-men-to-be-successful-managers.

  • Rowe, S. L., Keeling, M., Wessely, S., & Fear, N. T. (2014). Perceptions of the impact a military career has on children. Occupational Medicine, 64(7), 490–496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Royal Air Force. Retrieved from www.raf.mod.uk/aircadets/newsandevents.

  • Royal Air Force. Retrieved from www.raf.mod.uk/history/rafhistorytimeline199099.cfm.

  • Royal College of Psychiatrists. (2014). Postnatal depression. Retrieved from http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/healthadvice/problemsdisorders/postnataldepression.aspx.

  • Rundell, J. R. (2006). Demographics of and diagnoses in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom personnel who were psychiatrically evacuated from the theatre of operations. General Hospital Psychiatry, 28(4), 352–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rupkalvis, C. A. C. (1987). The relationship of health with role attitudes, role strain, and social support in enlisted military mothers. A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the College of Nursing, University of Arizona. pp. 1–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sayle, J. (2015). Review of women in close combat roles: An analysis. UK Defence Journal. Retrieved from https://ukdefencejournal.org.uk/review-of-women-in-close-combat-roles/.

  • Schoen, R., Astone, N. M., Rothert, K., Standish, N. J., & Kim, Y. J. (2002). Women’s employment, marital happiness, and divorce. Social Forces, 81(2), 643–662.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schoenberg, N. (2011). High-stress motherhood. Retrieved from www.articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-06-01/health/sc-health-0601-stress-of-being-a-mom-20110601_1_moms-dads-day-care.

  • Schumm, W. R., Bell, B., & Resnick, G. (2001). Recent research on family factors and readiness: Implications for military leaders. Psychological Reports, 89, 153–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seal, K. H., Metzler, T. J., Gima, K. S., Bertenthal, D., Maguen, S., & Marmar, C. R. (2009). Trends and risk factors for mental health diagnoses among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans using department of veterans affairs health care, 2002–2008. American Journal of Public Health, 99(9), 1651–1658.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seelig, A. D., Jacobson, I. G., Smith, B., Hooper, T. I., Gackstetter, G. D., Ryan, M. A. K., … Smith, T. C. (2012). Prospective evaluation of mental health and deployment experience among women in the US military. American Journal of Epidemiology, 176(2), 135–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segal, M. W., & Harris, J. J. (1993). What we know about Army families. Alexandria, Simon, R. W. (1992). Parental role strains, salience of parental identity and gender differences in psychological distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33(1): 25–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shields, S. A. (1975). Functionalism, Darwinism, and the psychology of women. A study in social myth. American Psychologist, 30, 739–754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silvera, I. (2014). UK mothers end maternity leave early over ‘job loss’ fears. Retrieved from http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/uk-mothers-end-maternity-leave-early-over-job-loss-fears-1450838.

  • Simutis, Z. M. (1994). U.S. Army Research Institute’s Army Family Research Program: Major findings. A presentation for the U.S. Army Senior Staff Council, April 5, 1994. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Southam, K. (2014). Rebuilding confidence to return to work. Retrieved from http://mums.bodyandsoul.com.au/pregnancy+parenting/pregnancy+advice/rebuilding+confidence+to+return+to+work,18053.

  • Spillett, R. (2014). Half of new mothers return to work before end of maternity leave due to job loss fears if they stay at home with their baby. Report Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2645969/Half-new-mothers-return-work-end-maternity-leave-job-loss-fears-stay-home-baby.html#ixzz382e0b0EW.

  • Storey, N. R., & Housego, M. (2010). Women in the First World War. Oxford, England: Shire.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storey, N. R., & Housego, M. (2011). Women in the Second World War. Oxford, England: Shire.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strachan, P. H., Armour, T., Healy, P., & Smith, M. (2010). Report of the task force on the military covenant. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/27393/militarycovenanttaskforcerpt.pdf.

  • Street, A. E., Vogt, D., & Dutra, L. (2009). A new generation of women veterans: Stressors faced by women deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taber, N. (2005). Learning how to be a woman in the Canadian forces/unlearning it through feminism: An autoethnography of my learning journey. Studies in Continuing Education, 27(3), 289–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Targosz, S., Bebbington, P., Lewis, G., Brugha, T., Jenkins, R., Farrell, M., & Meltzer, H. (2003). Lone mothers, social exclusion and depression. Psychological Medicine, 33(4), 715-722.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, C. (2011). Bad company: Face to face with the Taliban. Plymouth, England: DRA.

    Google Scholar 

  • The high-flying RAF woman who's made history: Married mother, 51, becomes highest ranked female in British military ever after promotion to air vice-marshal. Retrieved from www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2401249.

    Google Scholar 

  • The UK Ministry of Defence Harmony Guidelines. (2001). Retrieved from www.publications.parliament.uk.

  • Thompson, M. M., & McCreary, D. R. (2006). Enhancing mental readiness in military personnel. In Human dimensions in military operations-military leaders’ strategies for addressing stress and psychological support, pp. 4-1–4-12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorndike, E. L. (1914). Educational psychology, Vol. 3. New York, NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, M., & Kelley, M. L. (2009). Social support and life stress as related to the psychological distress of single enlisted Navy mothers. Military Psychology, 21, 82–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • US Census Bureau. (2013). Retrieved from www.census.gov.

  • Uysal, S., Hibbard, M. R., Robillard, D., Pappadopulos, E., & Jaffe, M. (1998). The effect of parental traumatic brain injury on parenting and child behavior. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 13(6), 57–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vinokur, A. D., Pierce, P. F., & Buck, C. L. (1999). Work-family conflicts of women in the Air Force: Their influence on mental health and functioning. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(6), 865–878.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vogt, D., Pless, A. P., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (2005). Deployment stressors, gender, and mental health outcomes among Gulf War I Veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(3), 272–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogt, D., Vaughn, R., Glickman, M. E., Schultz, M., Drainoni, M-L., Elwy, R., & Eisen, S. (2011). Gender differences in combat-related stressors and their association with postdeployment mental health in a nationally representative sample of U.S. OEF/OIF veterans. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 797–806.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vormbrock, J. K. (1993). Attachment theory as applied to wartime and job-related marital separation. Psychological Bulletin, 144, 122–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wadsworth, S. M., & Southwell, K. (2010). Military families: Extreme work and extreme ‘work-family’. Washington, DC: Military Family Research Institute at Purdue University. Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, D. (2009). Improvised explosive devices and traumatic brain injury: The military experience in Iraq and Afghanistan. Australasian Psychiatry, 17(3), 218–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warden, D. (2006). Military TBI during the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 21(5), 398–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, T., LeardMann, C.A., Fortuna, S.O., Smith, B., Smith, T.C., Ryan, M. A. K., … Blazer, D. (2010). A prospective study of depression following combat deployment in support of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 90–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wells, T. S., Wang, L. Z., Spooner, C. N., Smith, T. C., Hiliopoulos, K. M., Kamens, D. R., … Sato, P. A. (2006). Self-reported reproductive outcomes among male and female 1991 Gulf War era US military veterans. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 10(6), 501–510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilks, A. (2005). Men are too rough to train with, Army tells women. Report Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-367755/Men-rough-train-Army-tells-women.html.

  • Wilmoth, M., & London, A. S. 2013. (Eds.). Life course perspectives on military service. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winter, K. (2014). Women adopt male characteristics to get ahead in the workplace… but are still reluctant to push for promotions. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2547363/Women-adopt-male-characteristics-ahead-workplace-reluctant-push-promotions-according-Cancer-Research-UK-study.html#ixzz3B386e3ey.

  • Wojcik, B. E., Akhtar, F. Z., & Hassell, L. H. (2009). Hospital admissions related to mental disorders in U.S. Army soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan. Military Medicine, 174(10), 1010–1018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Women in the British Army of the 80’s. Retrieved from www.forces80.com/women.htm.

  • Wood, S., Scarville, J., & Gravino, K. S. (1995). Waiting wives: Separation and reunion among army wives. Armed Forces and Society, 21, 217–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodhead, C. (2012). The mental health and wellbeing of women in the UK Armed Forces. London, England: Department of Psychological Medicine, King’s College.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodhead, C., Wessely, S., Jones, N., Fear, N. T., & Hatch, S. L. (2012). Impact of exposure to combat during deployment to Iraq and Afghanistan on mental health by gender. Psychological Medicine, 42(9), 1985–1996.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wyden, G. V. (2014). Mother abandonment and the effects on the child. Available on http://www.livestrong.com/article/159897-mother-abandonment-the-effects-on-the-child/.

  • Zellman, G. L., Gates, S. M., Moini, J. S., & Suttorp, M. (2009). Meeting family and military needs through military childcare. Armed Forces & Society, 35, 437–459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zouris, J. M., Wade, A. L., & Magno, C. P. (2008). Injury and illness casualty distributions among U.S. Army and Marine Corps personnel during operation Iraqi freedom. Military Medicine, 173(3), 247–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. King’s Centre for Military Health Research, King’s College London, Weston Education Centre, Cutcombe Road, London, SE5 9RJ, UK

    Rachel Barnes M.Sc., Sharon A. M. Stevelink Ph.D., Christopher Dandeker Ph.D. & Nicola T. Fear D.Phil., O.X.O.N.

Authors
  1. Rachel Barnes M.Sc.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sharon A. M. Stevelink Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Christopher Dandeker Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Nicola T. Fear D.Phil., O.X.O.N.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rachel Barnes M.Sc. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Minnesota, Dept of Fam. Soc.Sci. Ins. of Child Dev, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA

    Abigail H. Gewirtz

  2. University of Minnesota, Inst.Transl.Res. in Child. Ment. Health, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA

    Adriana M. Youssef

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Barnes, R., Stevelink, S.A.M., Dandeker, C., Fear, N.T. (2016). Military Mothers. In: Gewirtz, A., Youssef, A. (eds) Parenting and Children's Resilience in Military Families. Risk and Resilience in Military and Veteran Families. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12556-5_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12556-5_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-12555-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-12556-5

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation