Abstract
In the realization of moving automata for Francesco I de’ Medici’s sixteenth-century Villa Pratolino outside of Florence, the memory of antiquity informed both the practical and theoretical operations of these “living statues.” The 1587 description of the villa and its wonders, Delle Maravigliose Opere di Pratolino, & d’Amore by Francesco de’ Vieri, associates magical traditions of statue animation with Renaissance automata in a passage that cites Aristotle’s description, rooted in atomism and sympathetic magic, of the physical process by which Daedalus animated his legendary wooden Venus. From the fifteenth century onwards, the rediscovery and popularity of Neoplatonic and Hermetic philosophical texts in the Renaissance perpetuated Greco-Egyptian methods of investing man-made vessels, typically cult statues, with some kind of “life” from received celestial influences, thus manufacturing the “living gods” of antiquity. Simultaneously, mechanical texts which preserved mechanical devices and principles from ancient Alexandria were being assimilated to the engineering repertoire of Western Europe, and air and water were harnessed to impart movement to the early modern automata which graced Italian Renaissance hydraulic villas and gardens. For the court of Francesco I de’ Medici, the division between our modern scientific concept of air and a metaphysical “spirit” was not yet drawn, and manipulating this occult “influence” was invested with a mastery of a far broader, unseen sphere. For the court philosopher De’ Vieri, Neoplatonic and Hermetic writings furnished alternative and not necessarily contradictory understandings of various hidden forces which could cause statues to move. In the late sixteenth century, a much broader conception of “nature” allowed for the confirmation of invisible or “occult” phenomena which did not preclude the magical philosophy of antiquity from being related to the empirical discoveries being made via the production of new mechanical devices. De’ Vieri’s 1587 panegyric to Pratolino demonstrates that the mastery of mechanical as well as esoteric magical philosophy came to feature in the propaganda of the newly-invested Medici Grand Duke.
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Notes
- 1.
Jessica Wolfe, Humanism, Machinery, and Renaissance Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 239.
- 2.
Daniela Mignani, The Medicean Villas by Giusto Utens, trans. Stephanie Johnson (Florence: Arnaud, 1995), 15.
- 3.
Filippo Baldinucci, Notizie de’ professori del disegno da Cimabue in qua (Firenze: Per Santi Franchi, 1728), 496–497; Clare Brown, Pratolino and the Transforming Influence of Natural Philosophy (MA Thesis. Birkbeck College, 2005), 6; Jocelyn Godwin, The Pagan Dream of the Renaissance (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002), 175. Other contributing artists include Giambologna, Bonaventura da Orvieto (or da Bagnoregio), Gocerano da Parma, Tommaso Francini, and Maestro Lazzaro delle Fontane; Luigi Zangheri, “Lo splendore di Pratolino e di Francesco I de’ Medici,” in Il Giardino d’Europa: Pratolino come modello nella cultura europea, ed. Centro Mostre di Firenze, 15–18 (Firenze: Mazzotta, 1986).
- 4.
Luciano Berti, Il Principe dello Studiolo: Francesco I dei Medici e la fine del Rinascimento fiorentino (Firenze: Maschietto & Musolino, 2002), 93–94; Luigi Zangheri, Pratolino: il giardino delle meraviglie, 2 vols (Firenze: Edizioni Gonnelli, 1979), vol. 1, 44; Mila Mastrorocco, Le Mutazione di Proteo: I Giardini Medicei del Cinquencento (Firenze: Sansoni, 1981), 119.
- 5.
Berti, Il Principe dello Studiolo, 218–220.
- 6.
Salamon de Caus, La raison des forces mouvantes (Paris, 1624), pl. 32; Zangheri, Pratolino: il giardino delle meraviglie, vol. 1, 117. Although Giorgio Valla translated fragments of Hero’s work into Latin in 1501, including devices operated by water, air, and steam, the first full translation was not until 1575 with Commandini’s Pneumatica; Silvio A. Bedini, “The Role of Automata in the History of Technology,” Technology and Culture 5 (1964): 24–42, at 25; cf. Teun Koetsier, “Simon Stevin and the Rise of Archimedean Mechanics in the Renaissance,” in The Genius of Archimedes: 23 Centuries of Influence in Mathematics, Science, and Engineering, ed. Stephanos A. Paipetis and Marco Ceccarelli, 85–112 (Dordrecht: Springer, 2010), 87–88, who uses Commandino. Vernacular versions in 1589 (ed. Giovanni Battista Aleotti), 1592, and 1595 (the latter two from Alessandro Giorgi da Urbino). Derek J. DeSolla Price, “Automata and the Origins of Mechanism and Mechanistic Philosophy,” Technology and Culture 5 (1964): 9–23, at 22. Notable visitors who left their accounts include Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592; Journal de voyage en Italie, par la Suisse et l’Allemagne en 1580 et 1581, ed. Charles Dédéyan (Paris, 1946), 161–66), Fynes Moryson (1566–1630; An Itinerary Containing his Ten Yeeres Travell through the Twelve Dominions of Germany, Bohmerland, Sweitzerland, Netherland, Denmark, Poland, Italy, Turky, France, England, Scotland, & Ireland (Glasgow: James MacLehose & Sons, 1907), vol. 1; Henry Wotton (1568–1639; The Elements of Architecture (London: John Bill, 1624); John Evelyn (1620–1706; The Diary of John Evelyn, ed. William Bray (New York and London: M. Walter Dunne, 1901), vol. 1. Others left anonymous descriptions: see Anonymous, “Letters of an Artist on Italy, 1798,” Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine (1829): 574. From a German architect, see Christian Hülsen, “Ein deustcher Architekt in Florenze (1600),” Mitteilungen des künsthistorisches Instituts in Florenze 2 (1912): 152–175.
- 7.
For further tributes in music and verse, see Webster Smith, “Pratolino,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 20 (1961): 155–168, at 165f.
- 8.
Bernardo Sansone Sgrilli, Descrizione della Regia Villa, Fontane e Fabbriche di Pratolino (Firenze, 1742).
- 9.
See Luigi Zangheri, “I giardini d’Europa: una mappa della fortuna medicea nel XVI e XVII secolo,” in Il Giardino d’Europa: Pratolino come modello nella cultura europea, ed. Centro Mostre di Firenze (Firenze: Mazzotta, 1986), 82–92.
- 10.
Godwin, The Pagan Dream of the Renaissance, 174.
- 11.
Mastrorocco, Le Mutazioni di Proteo, 125.
- 12.
Ibid., 98–99.
- 13.
Alessandro Vezzosi, “‘Pratolino d’Europa,’ degli antichi e dei moderni,” in Il Giardino d’Europa: Pratolino come modello nella cultura europea, ed. Centro Mostre di Firenze, 18–24 (Firenze: Mazzotta, 1986), 24.
- 14.
The fourth chapter is entitled: “Comparison of some very artificial works of Pratolino with some of the ancients.”
- 15.
Francesco de’ Vieri, Delle Maravigliose Opere di Pratolino, & d’Amore (Firenze: Marescotti, 1587), 54, 56–8, 61–4. My translation.
- 16.
See Mary Quinlan-McGrath, Influences: Art, Optics, and Astrology in the Renaissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).
- 17.
Aristotle, De anima, trans. W. S. Hett (London: Loeb Classical Library, 1956), I.3, 406b15-407a2.
- 18.
De’ Vieri, Delle Maravigliose Opere di Pratolino, 75.
- 19.
Ibid., 34, 64, 75.
- 20.
Vasari, Le Opere con nuove annotazioni e commenti, vol. 8, 19–20, quoted in Godwin, The Pagan Dream of the Renaissance, 77.
- 21.
E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951), 291.
- 22.
Wouter Hanegraaff, “Sympathy or the Devil: Renaissance Magic and the Ambivalence of Idols,” Esoterica 2 (1998): 1–44, at 6.
- 23.
Richard Kieckhefer, Magic in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 26.
- 24.
Georg Luck, “Theurgy and Forms of Worship in Neoplatonism,” in Religion, Science, and Magic: In Concert and in Conflict, ed. Jacob Neusdner et al., 185–228 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 186.
- 25.
Proclus, Timaeus, III.6.13, I.273.2, cited in Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational, 292.
- 26.
For the Chaldaean Oracles as the “basic code of theurgy,” see Luck, “Theurgy and Forms of Worship in Neoplatonism,” 185ff; Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational, 283; Pierre Boyancé, “Théurgie et télestique néoplatoniciennes,” Revue de l’histoire des religions 47 (1955): 189–209; Hans Lewy, Chaldaean Oracles and Theurgy: Mysticism, Magic and Platonism in the Later Roman Empire [1956] (Paris: Etudes Augustiniennes, 1978), 247–48, 495–96. For Proclus’s commentary, see Anne Sheppard, “Proclus’s Attitude to Theurgy,” The Classical Quarterly 32 (1982): 212–224; Laurence J. Rosán, The Philosophy of Proclus (New York: Cosmos, 1949); Lewy, Chaldaean Oracles and Theurgy, 462–3; Andrew Smith, Porphyry’s Place in the Neoplatonic Tradition (The Hague, 1974), 111–21; Jean Trouillard, “Le merveilleux dans la vie et la pensée de Proclus,” Rphilos 163 (1973): 439–451 and L’un et l’âme selon Proclus (Paris: Belles lettres, 1972); André-Jean Festugière, “Proclus et la réligion traditionelle,” Mélanges Piganiol 3 (Paris, 1963): 1581–1590 and “Contemplation philosophique et art theurgique chez Proclus,” Studia di storia religiosa di tarde antichità (1968): 7–18.
- 27.
Sheppard, “Proclus’s Attitude to Therugy,” 212.
- 28.
Dodds refutes the claim that Plotinus was a theurgist himself and was instead a kind of lone beacon of lucidity before his successors’ retrogression to “spineless syncretism” (Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational, 286). Cf. Gregory Shaw. “Theurgy: Rituals of Unification in the Neoplatonism of Iamblichus,” Traditio 41 (1985): 1–28.
- 29.
Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, De occulta philosophia Libri tres (Leiden: Brill, 1992), I.ii.50; Hanegraaf, “Sympathy or the Devil,” 8–9.
- 30.
Agripa, De occulta philosophia, II.i.1.
- 31.
David Pingree, “Hellenophilia versus the History of Science,” Isis 83 (1992): 554–563, at 555.
- 32.
Bernardo Davanzati, Della natura del voto di Erone Alessandrino (Firenze: Gargiolli and Martin, 1862).
- 33.
Irenaeus of Lyons, Against Heresies, trans. Dominick J. Unger (New York: The Newman Press, 1992), 56.
- 34.
Jean Delumeau and Matthew O’Connell, History of Paradise: The Garden of Eden in Myth and Tradition (New York: Continuum, 1995), 128.
- 35.
DeSolla Price, “Automata and the Origins of Mechanism and Mechanistic Philosophy,” 16–17.
- 36.
Homer, Iliad, trans. Robert Fagles (New York: Penguin Books, 1990), 18.435–440, 488–90; Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana, trans. C. F. Conybeare (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1912), bk. 3, 289–91; Aristotle, Politics, 1253b, quoted in Kevin LaGrandeur, “The Talking Brass Head as a Symbol of Dangerous Knowledge in Friar Bacon and in Alphonsus King of Aragon,” English Studies 5 (1999): 408–422, at 409.
- 37.
John Cohen, Human Robots in Myth and Science (New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1966), 23.
- 38.
See Gerard Brett, “The Automata in the Byzantine ‘Throne of Solomon’,” Speculum 29 (1954): 477–487; A. R. Littlewood, “Gardens of the Palaces,” in Byzantine Court Culture from 829 to 1204, ed. Henry Maguire, 13–38 (Washington: Harvard University Press, 1997), 32.
- 39.
Robert of Clari, The Conquest of Constantinople, trans. Edgar Holmes McNeal (New York: Columbia University Press, 1936), 109–110.
- 40.
See Christine Ungruh, “Die Normannischen Gartenpaläste in Palermo: Aneignung einer Mittelmeerischen Koinê im 12. Jahrhundert,” Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florence 51. Bd., H. ½ (2007): 1–44.
- 41.
Marguerite Charageat, “Le parc d’Hesdin, création monumentale du XIIIième siècle, ses origines arabes,” Bulletin de la societé d’histoire de l’art français (1950): 94–106.
- 42.
Montaigne, Journal de voyage en Italie, 185–186.
- 43.
De’ Vieri, Delle Maravigliose Opere di Pratolino, 53.
- 44.
Anonymous, “Letters of an Artist on Italy, 1798,” 574.
- 45.
For example, the mechanical servants encountered in Hector’s “Chamber of Beauty” in the twelfth-century Roman de Troie by Benoît de Saint-Maure. See Benoît de Sainte Maure, Le Roman de Troie [1165], ed. Léopold Constans, 6 vols (Paris: Firmin Didot, 1904–1912), vol. 2, 13, 293–298, 341–409. See also Lorraine Daston and Katherine Park, Wonder and the Order of Nature (New York: Zone Books, 2001), 89; Minsoo Kang, Sublime Dreams of Living Machines: The Automaton in the European Imagination (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011).
- 46.
De’ Vieri, Delle Maravigliose Opere di Pratolino, 37.
- 47.
Specifically, the Trattato di Architettura Civile e Militare, MS. 282 (Ashburnham 361) in the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana of Florence; see Vezzosi, “‘Pratolino d’Europa,’ degli antichi e dei moderni,” 19–20.
- 48.
Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (Vienna: Phaidon Press, 1937), 215.
- 49.
De’ Vieri, Delle Maravigliose Opere di Pratolino, 62.
- 50.
Villard de Honnecourt, ms. fr. 19093, fol. 9 in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France; see Stephen N. Fliegel, “The Cleveland Table Fountain and Gothic Automata,” Cleveland Studies in the History of Art 7 (2002): 6–49, at 14.
- 51.
Montaigne, Journal de Voyage en Italie, 185–186.
- 52.
For example, the c. 1370 De causis mirabilium of Nicole Oresme and the later work of Henry of Hesse, which attacked the edifice of astrology, ranging from diviniation to the theory of celestial influences. See Daston and Park, Wonder and the Order of Nature, 130–131.
- 53.
These included Francesco de’ Vieri, Discorso di M. Francesco de’ Vieri cognominato il secondo Verino filosofo intorno ai Demoni quali volgarmente sono chiamati spiriti, trans. Michele d’Antonio Dati (1593). Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze (BNCF), Ricciardiana 1092; Franc. Verino secondo, ragionamento intorno alle stelle recitato nell-Accademia Fiorentina (1587). BNCF, Magl. Palatino 126 (125); Franc. Verinus, prelectio in libros Aris(totelis) de physica auscultatione. Id. Epilogus de anima et eius partibus et particulis. BNCF, Rinuccini, filza 21.
- 54.
Jill Kraye, “La filosofia nelle università italiane del XVI secolo,” in Le filosofie del Rinascimento, ed. C. Vasoli and P. Pissavino, 350–373 (Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editori, 2002), 363.
- 55.
De’ Vieri, Delle Maravigliose Opere di Pratolino, 49–50.
- 56.
Ibid., 12.
- 57.
Thomas Moore, The Planets Within: The Astrological Psychology of Marsilio Ficino (Great Barrington, MA: Lindisfarne Press, 1990), 38.
- 58.
Anatole Tchikine, “‘L’anima del giardino’: Water, Gardens, and Hydraulics in Sixteenth-Century Florence and Naples,” in Technology and the Garden, ed. Michael G. Lee and Kenneth I. Helphand, 129–155 (Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 2014), 129.
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Filson, L. (2018). Magical and Mechanical Evidence: The Late-Renaissance Automata of Francesco I de’ Medici. In: Lancaster, J., Raiswell, R. (eds) Evidence in the Age of the New Sciences. International Archives of the History of Ideas Archives internationales d'histoire des idées, vol 225. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91869-3_8
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