Abstract
Misinformation can negatively influence people’s reasoning, decision-making and behaviour even following the provision of a clear correction; this is known as the continued influence effect. Numerous cognitive and socio-cognitive factors underlie misinformation reliance and the continued influence effect. Cognitive factors include limitations in memory capacity as well as memory updating and knowledge revision capabilities; socio-cognitive factors include biassed reasoning and perceived source credibility. Although misinformation is not a new problem, social media and instant messaging platforms have dramatically changed the information transmission environment, with their unregulated and user-controlled nature increasing the ease with which misinformation can be created and propagated. Drawing insights from cognitive, social and political psychology, the current chapter provides a general overview of the cognitive and social factors underlying (1) misinformation belief, and (2) the continued influence effect of corrected misinformation. The discussion focuses on how the unique nature of online information acquisition, specifically characteristics of both open and closed online communication networks, not only creates an environment ideal for the spread of misinformation, but functions to inhibit accurate knowledge revision. The chapter concludes by providing specific recommendations for how to effectively mitigate the spread of misinformation within the online information ecosystem. The concepts and recommendations discussed in this chapter are broadly applicable regardless of social or cultural context.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
The term “misinformation” is used in the current piece to encompass false information that is disseminated either unintentionally or intentionally (in which case it is often referred to as disinformation).
References
Ahmadi, E. (2020). The role of illusory truth effect in believing the false news of cyberspace. Quarterly of Social Studies and Research in Iran, 9(3), 549–566. https://doi.org/10.22059/JISR.2020.283886.885
Allcott, H., Gentzkow, M., & Yu, C. (2019). Trends in the diffusion of misinformation on social media. Research and Politics, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168019848554
Allington, D., Duffy, B., Wessely, S., Dhavan, N., & Rubin, J. (2021). Health-protective behaviour, social media usage and conspiracy belief during the COVID-19 public health emergency. Psychological Medicine, 51(10), 1763–1769. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329172000224X
Avram, M., Micallef, N., Patil, S., & Menczer, F. (2020). Exposure to social engagement metrics increases vulnerability to misinformation. The Harvard Kennedy School Misinfromation Review, 1(5). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-033
Azhar, A. H., & Roshdan, N. F. M. (2021). A content analysis of vaccine hesitancy among Malaysians in social media. In: Proceedings of international conference on languages and communication (ICLC) 2021. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353901521
Bago, B., Rand, D. G., & Pennycook, G. (2020). Fake news, fast and slow: Deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 149(8), 1608–1613. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000729
Bilo-Thomas, P., Hogan-Taylor, C., Yankoski, M., & Weninger, T. (2022). Pilot study suggests online media literacy programming reduces belief in false news in Indonesia. http://literasimediasosial.id
Bossetta, M. (2018). The digital architectures of social media: Comparing political campaigning on Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat in the 2016 U.S. election. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 95(2), 471–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699018763307
Bowles, J., Larreguy, H., & Liu, S. (2020). Countering misinformation via WhatsApp: Preliminary evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe. PLoS ONE, 15(10), e0240005. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240005
Brady, W. J., Wills, J. A., Jost, J. T., Tucker, J. A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2017). Emotion shapes the diffusion of moralized content in social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(28), 7313–7318. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618923114
Brandtzaeg, P. B., Følstad, A., & Chaparro Domínguez, M. Á. (2018). How journalists and social media users perceive online fact-checking and verification services. Journalism Practice, 12(9), 1109–1129. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2017.1363657
Braun, J. A., & Eklund, J. L. (2019). Fake news, real money: Ad tech platforms, profit-driven hoaxes, and the business of journalism. Digital Journalism, 7(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2018.1556314
Bryanov, K., & Vziatysheva, V. (2021). Determinants of individuals’ belief in fake news: A scoping review determinants of belief in fake news. PLoS ONE, 16(6), e0253717. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253717
Brydges, C. R., Gignac, G. E., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2018). Working memory capacity, short-term memory capacity, and the continued influence effect: A latent-variable analysis. Intelligence, 69, 117–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2018.03.009
Buchanan, T. (2020). Why do people spread false information online? The effects of message and viewer characteristics on self-reported likelihood of sharing social media disinformation. PLoS ONE, 15(10), e0239666. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239666
Chan, M. pui S., Jones, C. R., Hall Jamieson, K., & Albarracín, D. (2017). Debunking: A meta-analysis of the psychological efficacy of messages countering misinformation. Psychological Science, 28(11), 1531–1546. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617714579
Chen, L. (2016). How has China’s home-grown social media Wechat changed the traditional media landscape? University of Oxford.
Ciampaglia, G. L., Flammini, A., & Menczer, F. (2015). The production of information in the attention economy. Scientific Reports, 5. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep09452
Cohen, G. L. (2003). Party over policy: The Dominating impact of group influence on political beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 808–822. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.808
Cook, J. (2020). Deconstructing climate science denial. In: Research handbook on communicating climate change (pp. 62–78). https://doi.org/10.4337/9781789900408.00014
Cook, J., Lewandowsky, S., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2017). Neutralizing misinformation through inoculation: Exposing misleading argumentation techniques reduces their influence. PLoS ONE, 12(5), e0175799. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175799
Cookson, D., Jolley, D., Dempsey, R. C., & Povey, R. (2021). “If they believe, then so shall I”: Perceived beliefs of the in-group predict conspiracy theory belief. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 24(5), 759–782. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430221993907
Courtney, D. S., & Bliuc, A. M. (2021). Antecedents of vaccine hesitancy in WEIRD and East Asian contexts. In: Frontiers in psychology (Vol. 12, p. 747721). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.747721
Craft, S., Ashley, S., & Maksl, A. (2017). News media literacy and conspiracy theory endorsement. Communication and the Public, 2(4), 388–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/2057047317725539
Dang, H. L. (2021). Social media, fake news, and the COVID-19 pandemic: Sketching the case of Southeast Asia. Advances in South-East Asian Studies, 14(1), 37–58. https://doi.org/10.14764/10.ASEAS-0054
de Freitas Melo, P., Vieira, C. C., Garimella, K., de Melo, P. O. S. V., & Benevenuto, F. (2020). Can WhatsApp counter misinformation by limiting message forwarding? In: Studies in computational intelligence (Vol. 881 SCI, pp. 372–384). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36687-2_31
Detenber, B. H., & Rosenthal, S. (2018). Public support for censorship in a highly regulated media environment: The influence of self-construal and third-person perception over time. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 30(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edw029
Ditto, P. H., Liu, B. S., Clark, C. J., Wojcik, S. P., Chen, E. E., Grady, R. H., Celniker, J. B., & Zinger, J. F. (2019). At least bias is bipartisan: A meta-analytic comparison of partisan bias in liberals and conservatives. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(2), 273–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617746796
Donzelli, G., Palomba, G., Federigi, I., Aquino, F., Cioni, L., Verani, M., Carducci, A., & Lopalco, P. (2018). Misinformation on vaccination: A quantitative analysis of YouTube videos. Human Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, 14(7), 1654–1659. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2018.1454572
Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2015). Climate change: Why the conspiracy theories are dangerous. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 71(2), 98–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0096340215571908
Ecker, U. K. H., & Ang, L. C. (2019). Political attitudes and the processing of misinformation corrections. Political Psychology, 40(2), 241–260. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12494
Ecker, U. K. H., & Antonio, L. M. (2021). Can you believe it? An investigation into the impact of retraction source credibility on the continued influence effect. Memory & Cognition, 49(4), 631–644. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-020-01129-y
Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N., Kendeou, P., Vraga, E. K., & Amazeen, M. A. (2022). The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(1), 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y
Ecker, U. K. H., O’Reilly, Z., Reid, J. S., & Chang, E. P. (2020). The effectiveness of short-format refutational fact-checks. British Journal of Psychology, 111, 366–454. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12383
Ecker, U. K. H., Swire, B., & Lewandowsky, S. (2014). Correcting misinformation—A challenge for education and cognitive science. In D. N. Rapp & J. L. G. Braasch (Eds.), Processing inaccurate information (pp. 13–38). The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9737.003.0005
Edelson, L., Nguyen, M.-K., Goldstein, I., Goga, O., McCoy, D., & Lauinger, T. (2021). Understanding engagement with U.S. (mis)information news sources on Facebook. Proceedings of the 21st ACM internet measurement conference (pp. 444–463). https://doi.org/10.1145/3487552.3487859
Endeley, R. E. (2018). End-to-End encryption in messaging services and national security—Case of WhatsApp messenger. Journal of Information Security, 9(1), 95–99. https://doi.org/10.4236/jis.2018.91008
Faisal, S., & Al-Qaimari, G. (2020). WhatsApp acceptance: A comparison between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Journal of Internet Social Networking and Virtual Communities, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5171/2020.914643
Farkas, J., & Schou, J. (2018). Fake news as a floating signifier: Hegemony, antagonism and the politics of falsehood. Javnost, 25(3), 298–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2018.1463047
Fazio, L. K. (2020). Repetition increases perceived truth even for known falsehoods. Collabra: Psychology, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.347
Flanagin, A. J. (2017). Online social influence and the convergence of mass and interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 43(4), 450–463. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12116
Fletcher, R., & Nielsen, R. K. (2018). Are people incidentally exposed to news on social media? A comparative analysis. New Media & Society, 20(7), 2450–2468. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817724170
Foo, C. (2021). Protection from online falsehoods and manipulation act and the roles of internet intermediaries in regulating online falsehoods. Singapore Academy of Law Journal, 33(2), 438–482. https://doi.org/10.3316/informit.883780477908475
Galvan, B. (2020). Facebook’s legal responsibility for the Rohingya genocide. University of San Francisco Law Review, 55(1), 123–iv.
Garrett, R. K., & Poulsen, S. (2019). Flagging Facebook falsehoods: Self-identified humor warnings outperform fact checker and peer warnings. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 24(5), 240–258. https://doi.org/10.1093/ccc/zmz012
Gill, H., & Rojas, H. (2020). Chatting in a mobile chamber: Effects of instant messenger use on tolerance toward political misinformation among South Koreans. Asian Journal of Communication, 30(6), 470–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2020.1825757
Gordon, A., Quadflieg, S., Brooks, J. C. W., Ecker, U. K. H., & Lewandowsky, S. (2019). Keeping track of ‘alternative facts’: The neural correlates of processing misinformation corrections. NeuroImage, 193, 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.03.014
Guess, A. M., Lerner, M., Lyons, B., Montgomery, J. M., Nyhan, B., Reifler, J., & Sircar, N. (2020). A digital media literacy intervention increases discernment between mainstream and false news in the United States and India. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(27), 15536–15545. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1920498117
Guess, A., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2018). Selective exposure to misinformation: Evidence from the consumption of fake news during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign. European Research Council, 9(3), 1–14.
Guillory, J. J., & Geraci, L. (2013). Correcting erroneous inferences in memory: The role of source credibility. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 2(4), 201–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2013.10.001
Hannak, A., Margolin, D., Keegan, B., & Weber, I. (2014). Get Back! You don’t know me like that: The social mediation of fact checking interventions in Twitter conversations. Proceedings of the 8th international conference on weblogs and social media (pp. 187–196).
Hart, P. S., & Nisbet, E. C. (2012). Boomerang effects in science communication: How motivated reasoning and identity cues amplify opinion polarization about climate mitigation policies. Communication Research, 39(6), 701–723. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650211416646
Hasher, L., Goldstein, D., & Toppino, T. (1977). Frequency and the conference of referential validity. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16(1), 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(77)80012-1
Heaney, C. (2016). Pettman, dominic. Infinite distraction: Paying attention to social media. Theoria, 63(146). https://doi.org/10.3167/th.2015.6314605
Hidayat, T., & Mahardiko, R. (2020). The effect of social media regulatory content law in Indonesia. Journal of Telecommunications and the Digital Economy, 8(2), 110–122. https://doi.org/10.18080/jtde.v8n2.247
Huang, H. (2017). A war of (mis)information: The political effects of rumors and rumor rebuttals in an authoritarian country. British Journal of Political Science, 47(2), 283–311. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123415000253
Huh, J., & Dubey, A. (2021). COVID-19 vaccination campaign trends and challenges in select Asian countries. Asian Journal of Political Science, 29(3), 274–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/02185377.2021.1979062
Humprecht, E. (2020). How do they debunk “fake news”? A cross-national comparison of transparency in fact checks. Digital Journalism, 8(3), 310–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2019.1691031
Islam, M. S., Sarkar, T., Khan, S. H., Kamal, A. H. M., Murshid Hasan, S. M., Kabir, A., Yeasmin, D., Islam, M. A., Chowdhury, K. I. A., Anwar, K. S., Chughtai, A. A., & Seale, H. (2020). COVID-19-Related infodemic and its impact on public health: A global social media analysis. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 103(4), 1621–1629. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.20-0812
Jalli, N., Jalli, N., & Idris, I. (2019). Fake news and elections in two Southeast Asian nations: A comparative study of Malaysia general election 2018 and Indonesia presidential election 2019. Proceedings of the international conference of democratisation in southeast asia (ICDeSA 2019) (pp. 138–148). https://doi.org/10.2991/icdesa-19.2019.30
Jia, L., Shan, J., Xu, G., & Jin, H. (2020). Influence of individual differences in working memory on the continued influence effect of misinformation. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 32(5–6), 494–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2020.1800019
Johnson, H. M., & Seifert, C. M. (1994). Sources of the continued influence effect: When misinformation in memory affects later inferences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(6), 1420–1436. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.20.6.1420
Johnson, H. M., & Seifert, C. M. (1998). Updating accounts following a correction of misinformation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 24(6), 1483–1494. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.24.6.1483
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow (p. 2011). Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Kaiser, J., Keller, T. R., & Kleinen-von Königslöw, K. (2021). Incidental news exposure on Facebook as a social experience: The influence of recommender and media cues on news selection. Communication Research, 48(1), 77–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218803529
Kaur, K., Nair, S., Kwok, Y., Soon, C., Jo, H., Lin, L., Le, T. T., & Kruger, A. (2018). Information disorder in Asia and the Pacific: overview of misinformation ecosystem in Australia, India, Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3134581
Kendeou, P., & O’Brien, E. J. (2014). The knowledge revision components (KReC) framework. In D. N. Rapp & J. Braasch (Eds.), Processing inaccurate information (pp. 353–378). The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9737.003.0022
Kozyreva, A., Lewandowsky, S., & Hertwig, R. (2020). Citizens versus the internet: Confronting digital challenges with cognitive tools. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 21(3), 103–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100620946707
Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 480–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480
Kwok, Y. (2017). Indonesia’s worsening problem of fake news. Time. https://time.com/4620419/indonesia-fake-news-ahok-chinese-christian-islam/
Lazer, D. M. J., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., Metzger, M. J., Nyhan, B., Pennycook, G., Rothschild, D., Schudson, M., Sloman, S. A., Sunstein, C. R., Thorson, E. A., Watts, D. J., & Zittrain, J. L. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359(6380), 1094–1096. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao2998
Lee, J. J., Kang, K. A., Wang, M. P., Zhao, S. Z., Wong, J. Y. H., O’Connor, S., Yang, S. C., & Shin, S. (2020). Associations between COVID-19 misinformation exposure and belief with COVID-19 knowledge and preventive behaviors: cross-sectional online study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(11). https://doi.org/10.2196/22205
Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Ecker, U. K. H., Albarracín, D., Amazeen, M. A., Kendeou, P., Lombardi, D., Newman, E. J., Pennycook, G., Porter, E., Rand, D. G., Rapp, D. N., Reifler, J., Roozenbeek, J., Schmid, P., Seifert, C. M., Sinatra, G. M., Swire-Thompson, B., van der Linden, S., … Zaragoza, M. S. (2020). The debunking handbook 2020. https://doi.org/10.17910/b7.1182
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, Supplement, 13(3), 106–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612451018
Lewandowsky, S., Smillie, L., Garcia, D., Hertwig, R., Weatherall, J., Egidy, S., Robertson, R. E., O’Connor, C., Kozyreva, A., Lorenz-Spreen, P., Blaschke, Y., & Leiser, M. (2020). Technology and democracy: Understanding the influence of online technologies on political behaviour and decision-making. EUR 30422 EN, Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2760/709177
Lewandowsky, S., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking. European Review of Social Psychology, 32(2), 348–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2021.1876983
Lewandowsky, S., & Yesilada, M. (2021). Inoculating against the spread of Islamophobic and radical-Islamist disinformation. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 6(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-021-00323-z
Luo, M., Hancock, J. T., & Markowitz, D. M. (2022). Credibility perceptions and detection accuracy of fake news headlines on social media: Effects of truth-bias and endorsement cues. Communication Research, 49(2), 171–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650220921321
Lutzke, L., Drummond, C., Slovic, P., & Árvai, J. (2019). Priming critical thinking: Simple interventions limit the influence of fake news about climate change on Facebook. Global Environmental Change, 58, 101964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.101964
Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Basol, M., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Long-term effectiveness of inoculation against misinformation: Three longitudinal experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 27(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000315
Margolin, D. B., Hannak, A., & Weber, I. (2018). Political fact-checking on Twitter: When do corrections have an effect? Political Communication, 35(2), 196–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2017.1334018
Marques, M. D., Ling, M., Williams, M. N., Kerr, J. R., & McLennan, J. (2022). Australasian public awareness and belief in conspiracy theories: Motivational correlates. Political Psychology, 43(1), 177–198. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12746
Mashuri, A., & Zaduqisti, E. (2013). The role of social identification, intergroup threat, and out-group derogation in explaining belief in conspiracy theory about terrorism in Indonesia. International Journal of Research Studies in Psychology, 3(1), 35–50. https://doi.org/10.5861/ijrsp.2013.446
Memmi, D. (2006). The nature of virtual communities. AI and Society, 20(3), 288–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-005-0020-7
Mena, P., Barbe, D., & Chan-Olmsted, S. (2020). Misinformation on Instagram: The impact of trusted endorsements on message credibility. Social Media + Society, 6(2), 205630512093510. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120935102
Metzger, M. J., & Flanagin, A. J. (2013). Credibility and trust of information in online environments: The use of cognitive heuristics. Journal of Pragmatics, 59, 210–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2013.07.012
Mosleh, M., Martel, C., Eckles, D., & Rand, D. (2021). Perverse downstream consequences of debunking: Being corrected by another user for posting false political news increases subsequent sharing of low quality, partisan, and toxic content in a Twitter field experiment. Proceedings of the 2021 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1–13). https://doi.org/10.1145/3411764.3445642
Moussaïd, M., Kämmer, J. E., Analytis, P. P., & Neth, H. (2013). Social influence and the collective dynamics of opinion formation. PLoS ONE, 8(11), 78433. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0078433
Neyazi, T. A., & Muhtadi, B. (2021). Comparative approaches to mis/disinformation| selective belief: How partisanship drives belief in misinformation. International Journal of Communication, 15, 23. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/15477
Noyes, D. (2021). Top 15 Facebook statistics for 2020 - The year in review. https://zephoria.com/top-15-valuable-facebook-statistics/
Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32(2), 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2
Oeldorf-Hirsch, A., Schmierbach, M., Appelman, A., & Boyle, M. P. (2020). The ineffectiveness of fact-checking labels on news memes and articles. Mass Communication and Society, 23(5), 682–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2020.1733613
Oliver, J. E., & Wood, T. J. (2014). Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style(s) of mass opinion. American Journal of Political Science, 58(4), 952–966. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12084
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2019). Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition, 188, 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.06.011
Peters, K., Chen, Y., Kaplan, A. M., Ognibeni, B., & Pauwels, K. (2013). Social media metrics - A framework and guidelines for managing social media. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 27(4), 281–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intmar.2013.09.007
Pew Research Center. (2021). More than eight-in-ten Americans get news from digital devices. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/01/12/more-than-eight-in-ten-americans-get-news-from-digital-devices/
Pickles, K., Cvejic, E., Nickel, B., Copp, T., Bonner, C., Leask, J., Ayre, J., Batcup, C., Cornell, S., Dakin, T., Dodd, R. H., Isautier, J. M. J., & McCaffery, K. J. (2021). COVID-19 misinformation trends in Australia: Prospective longitudinal national survey. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(1), e23805. https://doi.org/10.2196/23805
Qiu, X., Oliveira, D. F. M., Sahami Shirazi, A., Flammini, A., & Menczer, F. (2017). Limited individual attention and online virality of low-quality information. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(7), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0132
Rodrigues, U. M., & Xu, J. (2020). Regulation of COVID-19 fake news infodemic in China and India. Media International Australia, 177(1), 125–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X20948202
Ross, R. M., Rand, D. G., & Pennycook, G. (2021). Beyond “fake news”: Analytic thinking and the detection of false and hyperpartisan news headlines. Judgment and Decision Making, 16(2), 484–504. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/cgsx6
Rossini, P., Stromer-Galley, J., Baptista, E. A., & Veiga de Oliveira, V. (2021). Dysfunctional information sharing on WhatsApp and Facebook: The role of political talk, cross-cutting exposure and social corrections. New Media and Society, 23(8), 2430–2451. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820928059
Sanderson, J. A., Gignac, G. E., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2021). Working memory capacity, removal efficiency and event specific memory as predictors of misinformation reliance. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 33(5), 518–532. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2021.1931243
Scherer, L. D., McPhetres, J., Pennycook, G., Kempe, A., Allen, L. A., Knoepke, C. E., Tate, C. E., & Matlock, D. D. (2021). Who is susceptible to online health misinformation? A test of four psychosocial hypotheses. Health Psychology, 40(4), 274–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000978
Schuldt, L. (2021). Official truths in a war on fake news: Governmental fact-checking in Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 40(2), 340–371. https://doi.org/10.1177/18681034211008908
Schulz, A., Wirth, W., & Müller, P. (2020). We are the people and you are fake news: A social identity approach to populist citizens’ false consensus and hostile media perceptions. Communication Research, 47(2), 201–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218794854
Shao, C., Ciampaglia, G. L., Varol, O., Yang, K. C., Flammini, A., & Menczer, F. (2018). The spread of low-credibility content by social bots. Nature Communications, 9(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-06930-7
Sharma, K., Qian, F., Jiang, H., Ruchansky, N., Zhang, M., Liu, Y., Qian was, F., Qian, F., Jiang, H., Ruchansky, N., Liu, Y., & Zhang, M. (2019). Combating fake news: A survey on identification and mitigation techniques. ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.1145/3305260
Siddiquee, M. A. (2020). The portrayal of the Rohingya genocide and refugee crisis in the age of post-truth politics. Asian Journal of Comparative Politics, 5(2), 89–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/2057891119864454
Soeriaatmadja, W. (2017). Man who uploaded controversial video of ex-Jakarta governor Ahok sentenced to jail. The Straits Times. https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/man-who-uploaded-controversial-ahok-video-sentenced-to-jail
Statista. (2016). YouTube: Hours of video uploaded every minute 2015. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/259477/hours-of-video-uploaded-to-youtube-every-minute/
Sterrett, D., Malato, D., Benz, J., Kantor, L., Tompson, T., Rosenstiel, T., Sonderman, J., & Loker, K. (2019). Who shared it?: Deciding what news to trust on social media. Digital Journalism, 7(6), 783–801. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2019.1623702
Swire, B., Berinsky, A. J., Lewandowsky, S., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2017). Processing political misinformation: Comprehending the Trump phenomenon. Royal Society Open Science, 4(3), 160802. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160802
Swire-Thompson, B., DeGutis, J., & Lazer, D. (2020). Searching for the backfire effect: Measurement and design considerations. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 9(3), 286–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.06.006
Swire-Thompson, B., Miklaucic, N., Wihbey, J. P., Lazer, D., & DeGutis, J. (2022). The backfire effect after correcting misinformation is strongly associated with reliability. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001131
Thorson, E. (2016). Belief echoes: The persistent effects of corrected misinformation. Political Communication, 33(3), 460–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2015.1102187
Törnberg, P. (2018). Echo chambers and viral misinformation: Modeling fake news as complex contagion. PLoS One, 13(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203958
Traberg, C. S., & van der Linden, S. (2022). Birds of a feather are persuaded together: Perceived source credibility mediates the effect of political bias on misinformation susceptibility. Personality and Individual Differences, 185, 111269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111269
Treen, K. M. d. I., Williams, H. T. P., & O’Neill, S. J. (2020). Online misinformation about climate change. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 11(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.665
Tsfati, Y., Boomgaarden, H. G., Strömbäck, J., Vliegenthart, R., Damstra, A., & Lindgren, E. (2020). Causes and consequences of mainstream media dissemination of fake news: Literature review and synthesis. Annals of the International Communication Association, 44(2), 157–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2020.1759443
Urman, A., & Katz, S. (2020). What they do in the shadows: Examining the far-right networks on Telegram. Information, Communication & Society, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1803946
Utami, A., Margawati, A., Pramono, D., Nugraheni, A., & Pramudo, S. G. (2022). Determinant factors of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among adult and elderly population in central Java, Indonesia. Patient Preference and Adherence, 16, 1559–1570. https://doi.org/10.2147/PPA.S365663
Van Bavel, J. J., Harris, E. A., Pärnamets, P., Rathje, S., Doell, K. C., & Tucker, J. A. (2021). Political psychology in the digital (mis)information age: A model of news belief and sharing. Social Issues and Policy Review, 15(1), 84–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12077
Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146–1151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559
Walter, N., & Tukachinsky, R. (2020). A meta-analytic examination of the continued influence of misinformation in the face of correction: How powerful is it, why does it happen, and how to stop it? Communication Research, 47(2), 155–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650219854600
Wang, Y., McKee, M., Torbica, A., & Stuckler, D. (2019). Systematic literature review on the spread of health-related misinformation on social media. Social Science & Medicine, 240, 112552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112552
Wood, T., & Porter, E. (2019). The elusive backfire effect: Mass attitudes’ steadfast factual adherence. Political Behavior, 41(1), 135–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9443-y
Xu, Y., Wong, R., He, S., Veldre, A., & Andrews, S. (2020). Is it smart to read on your phone? The impact of reading format and culture on the continued influence of misinformation. Memory and Cognition, 48(7), 1112–1127. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-020-01046-0
Yee, A. (2017). Post-truth politics and fake news in Asia. Global Asia, 12(2), 66–71. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318673840
Yuan, L. (2018, August 6). A generation grows up in China without Google, Facebook or Twitter. The New York Times.
Zhou, R., & DiSalvo, B. (2020). User’s role in platform infrastructuralization: WeChat as an exemplar. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1–13). https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376201
Zollo, F., & Quattrociocchi, W. (2018). Misinformation spreading on Facebook. In S. Lehmann & Y. Ahn (Eds.), Complex spreading phenomena in social systems (pp. 177–196). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77332-2_10
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature B.V.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Butler, L.H., Ecker, U.K.H. (2023). Misinformation in Open and Closed Online Platforms: Impacts and Countermeasures. In: Soon, C. (eds) Mobile Communication and Online Falsehoods in Asia. Mobile Communication in Asia: Local Insights, Global Implications. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-2225-2_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-2225-2_15
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-024-2224-5
Online ISBN: 978-94-024-2225-2
eBook Packages: Literature, Cultural and Media StudiesLiterature, Cultural and Media Studies (R0)