Abstract
Lithium-metal batteries with high energy/power densities have significant applications in electronics, electric vehicles, and stationary power plants. However, the unstable lithium-metal-anode/electrolyte interface has induced insufficient cycle life and safety issues. To improve the cycle life and safety, understanding the formation of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and growth of lithium dendrites near the anode/electrolyte interface, regulating the electrodeposition/electrostripping processes of Li+, and developing multiple approaches for protecting the lithium-metal surface and SEI layer are crucial and necessary. This paper comprehensively reviews the research progress in SEI and lithium dendrite growth in terms of their classical electrochemical lithium plating/stripping processes, interface interaction/nucleation processes, anode geometric evolution, fundamental electrolyte reduction mechanisms, and effects on battery performance. Some important aspects, such as charge transfer, the local current distribution, solvation, desolvation, ion diffusion through the interface, inhibition of dendrites by the SEI, additives, models for dendrite formation, heterogeneous nucleation, asymmetric processes during stripping/plating, the host matrix, and in situ nucleation characterization, are also analyzed based on experimental observations and theoretical calculations. Several technical challenges in improving SEI properties and reducing lithium dendrite growth are analyzed. Furthermore, possible future research directions for overcoming the challenges are also proposed to facilitate further research and development toward practical applications.
Graphical Abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Copyright © 2016, American Chemical Society. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [34]. Copyright © 2010, American Chemical Society. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [35]. Copyright © 2020, Elsevier. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [36]. Copyright © 2013, American Chemical Society. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [37]. Copyright © 2020, John Wiley and Sons. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [38]. Copyright © 2015, Springer Nature. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [39]. Copyright © 2020, Springer Nature. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [40]. Copyright © 2016, John Wiley and Sons. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [41]. Copyright © 2015, American Chemical Society
Copyright © 1990, American Physical Society. b Profile of the distributions of V (electrostatic potential), Cc, and Ca (ion concentrations of cations and anions), which were obtained from numerical studies with a space-charge model. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [42]. Copyright © 1990, American Physical Society. c The different areas in the diagram can be used to determine whether the size of the embryo is suitable for different nucleation and growth stages. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [32]. Copyright © 2013, The Electrochemical Society. d Profile of a spherical cap-shaped nucleus (N) deposited on a smooth substrate (S) in a liquid electrolyte. a (= rsin θ) is the radius of the circular contact region between the cap-shaped nucleus and substrate. The height of the electrodeposit is h (= r(1 – cos θ)). \(\theta\) is the contact angle, h is the height of the embryo, and r is the radius of curvature. The volume of the cap is \(S_{{\text{V}}} r^{3}\), where \(S_{{\text{V}}} = \frac{\uppi }{3}\left( {2 + \cos \theta } \right)\left( {1 - \cos \theta } \right)^{2}\). The surface area of the cap is \(S_{{\text{A}}} r^{2}\), where \(S_{{\text{A}}} = 2{\uppi }\left( {1 - {\text{cos }}\theta } \right)\). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [32]. Copyright © 2013, The Electrochemical Society
Copyright © 1979, The Electrochemical Society. b XPS spectra of a Li metal surface. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [46]. Copyright © 1985, The Electrochemical Society. c Schematic diagram of the polyhetero-microphase SEI model. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [47]. Copyright © 1997, The Electrochemical Society. d Schematic presentation of the SEI formation process. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [48]. Copyright © 2000, Elsevier. e Schematic energy diagram of an electrolyte. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [34]. Copyright © 2011, Elsevier. f Schematic illustration of Li+ diffusion through a porous organic layer and a dense inorganic layer. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [49]. Copyright © 2012, American Chemical Society. g Schematic illustration of mosaic and multilayered structures formed on a Li surface. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [50]. Copyright © 2017, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. h Accelerator fluctuations with geometric deformation, and COMSOL simulation with THU. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [51]. Copyright © 2019, John Wiley and Sons
Copyright © 2016, Elsevier. c Methods to compute the reduction voltage. Molecules/ions in the solution phase, solid phase, and gas phase are denoted by sol., s, and g, respectively. The subscripts sol and vap represent the vaporization and solvation processes, respectively. ∆G is the free energy, ΦM is the work function of the anode, and the subscript e indicates the ionization process. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [62]. Copyright © 2001, American Chemical Society
Copyright © 2013, American Chemical Society
Copyright © 2017, The Electrochemical Society. The growth of the lithium globule was divided into four stages according to the local current density. The local current density is plotted according to the four stages of the growth of the lithium embryo. d In the initial stage, a perturbation at the anode/electrolyte interface results in a higher current density at the tip of the globule than that of the entire region. This current density is measured between time points 0 and 8.27 C cm−2. e With the growth of the embryo, the current is delocalized away from the tip of the globule. Measurement points: 8.27–16.53 C cm−2. f The delocalization behavior spreads. Measurement points: 16.53–35.82 C cm−2. g The globule has grown large enough that the current density concentration is significantly reduced. Measurement points: 35.82–54.72 C cm−2. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [108]. Copyright © 2016, The Electrochemical Society
Copyright © 2020, Elsevier. d Schematic diagram of the solution structures in a concentrated electrolyte. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [129]. Copyright © 2019, Springer Nature
Copyright © 2018, American Chemistry Society. The transition state structure lies in the upper left inset, the lower figure shows the energy profile, and the upper right inset shows a schematic diagram of the Lii+ diffusion pathway from site Ai along the [010] direction following the c knock-off and d direct-hopping mechanisms with threefold coordination in the transition structure. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [49]. Copyright © 2012, American Chemistry Society. The migration barrier and diffusion direction of Li diffusion through the LiF/Li2O grain boundary are divided into e Path 1, f Path 2, and g Path 3. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [155]. Copyright © 2019, American Chemistry Society
Copyright © 2010, American Chemical Society. b Integrated ion densities at the SEI/electrolyte interface as a function of SEI thickness and composition. Solid red lines: total density up to 6 Å into the electrolyte region; black dotted lines: division of the density into an ion-adsorbed region; blue dashed lines: 6 Å from this region into the bulk electrolyte region near the interface. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [169]. Copyright © 2013, American Chemical Society. c Li+ activation energy barriers in different electrolyte composition systems. The reference lines for the activation energy at the bottom are obtained from 1.0 M LiPF6/tetrahydrofuran (THF) (red dotted line) and 1.0 M LiPF6/PEG222 (green dotted line) with LTO. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [164]. Copyright © 2010, American Chemical Society. d Schematic depiction of the Li+ desolvation process near the negative interface. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [171]. Copyright © 2019, American Chemistry Society
Copyright © 2017, The Electrochemical Society
Copyright © 2017, Springer Nature
Copyright © 2013, Springer Nature. b The upper two pictures are electrostatic potential maps based on the electron densities of g-butyrolactone and LiNO3 and of FEC and LiNO3. O, red; Li, purple; C, gray; H, white; N, blue; and F, green. The left end (red color) of the scale bar below the map reflects a lower Coulombic potential, and the right end (blue color) reflects a higher Coulombic potential. The bottom two pictures are SEM images of the Li plating morphology on the copper working electrode with LiNO3 and without LiNO3. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [37]. Copyright © 2020, John Wiley and Sons
Copyright © 2020, John Wiley and Sons. e Accelerator fluctuations with geometric deformation. f COMSOL simulation with THU; blue represents the electrolyte, and white represents the electrode. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [51]. Copyright © 2019, John Wiley and Sons
Copyright © 2016, American Chemistry Society. b Cross-sectional operando microscopy images of the lithium-metal-anode surface in earlier cycles and later cycles. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [258]. Copyright © 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry. c Snapshots of the phase parameter (upper), Li+ concentration (middle), and electric potential (lower) during the electrodeposition process. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [259]. Copyright © 2014, AIP Publishing. d Changes in cell polarization (top) correlated with schematic representations of the morphology and energy barrier diagrams (bottom). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [33]. Copyright © 2016, American Chemistry Society
Copyright © 2015, Springer Nature. b Simulated current densities of the micropatterned lithium metal surface and its 2D cross-section image. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [297]. Copyright © 2018, Elsevier
Copyright © 2020, Springer Nature. b Three models of the morphology of lithium deposits based on in situ STEM. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [305]. Copyright © 2017, Elsevier. c Utilization of in situ atomic force microscopy (AFM)-environmental transmission electron microscopy (ETEM) to observe the Li nucleation process during electrochemical deposition of Li+ in a CO2 environment. Blue dotted lines highlight the nucleus. The red arrow indicates that the Li embryo grew over time at the electrode/electrolyte interface. Red dotted lines emphasize the side surface and shape of the Li whisker. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [306]. Copyright © 2019, Springer Nature. d SEM images of Li precipitates with various size distributions on various index Cu. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [307]. Copyright © 2017, American Chemistry Society
Copyright © 2012, American Chemical Society. b Experimental equipment for operando X-ray imaging with a V-slot Li electrode holder, and comparison diagram of lithium deposition before/after 4 h in a Li-Cu cell. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [309]. Copyright © 2019, American Chemical Society. c Li-Cu cell static in situ NMR spectra, and visualization of lithium deposited for 1 cycle. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [310]. Copyright © 2020, Elsevier
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Zhang, H.L., Zhao, H.B., Khan, M.A., et al.: Recent progress in advanced electrode materials, separators and electrolytes for lithium batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 6, 20564–20620 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ta05336g
Umeshbabu, E., Zheng, B.Z., Yang, Y.: Recent progress in all-solid-state lithium-sulfur batteries using high Li-ion conductive solid electrolytes. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 2, 199–230 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-019-00029-3
Ma, Z., Yuan, X.X., Li, L., et al.: A review of cathode materials and structures for rechargeable lithium-air batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 8, 2144–2198 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ee00838g
Lin, D., Liu, Y., Cui, Y.: Reviving the lithium metal anode for high-energy batteries. Nat. Nanotechnol. 12, 194–206 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2017.16
Albertus, P., Babinec, S., Litzelman, S., et al.: Status and challenges in enabling the lithium metal electrode for high-energy and low-cost rechargeable batteries. Nat. Energy 3, 16–21 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-017-0047-2
Cheng, X.B., Zhang, R., Zhao, C.Z., et al.: Toward safe lithium metal anode in rechargeable batteries: a review. Chem. Rev. 117, 10403–10473 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00115
Xin, S., You, Y., Wang, S.F., et al.: Solid-state lithium metal batteries promoted by nanotechnology: progress and prospects. ACS Energy Lett. 2, 1385–1394 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.7b00175
Zhao, X.D., Kong, X.L., Liu, Z.L., et al.: The cutting-edge phosphorus-rich metal phosphides for energy storage and conversion. Nano Today 40, 101245 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2021.101245
Wang, H.S., Liu, Y.Y., Li, Y.Z., et al.: Lithium metal anode materials design: interphase and host. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 2, 509–517 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-019-00054-2
Feng, X.N., Ouyang, M.G., Liu, X., et al.: Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles: a review. Energy Storage Mater. 10, 246–267 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2017.05.013
Liu, H.Q., Wei, Z.B., He, W.D., et al.: Thermal issues about Li-ion batteries and recent progress in battery thermal management systems: a review. Energy Convers. Manag. 150, 304–330 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.08.016
Li, S., Jiang, M.W., Xie, Y., et al.: Developing high-performance lithium metal anode in liquid electrolytes: challenges and progress. Adv. Mater. 30, 1706375 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201706375
Amine, R., Liu, J.Z., Acznik, I., et al.: Regulating the hidden solvation-ion-exchange in concentrated electrolytes for stable and safe lithium metal batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 2000901 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202000901
Chen, S.J., Xiang, Y.X., Zheng, G.R., et al.: High-efficiency lithium metal anode enabled by a concentrated/fluorinated ester electrolyte. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 27794–27802 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c06930
Drvarič Talian, S., Bobnar, J., Moškon, J., et al.: Effect of high concentration of polysulfides on Li stripping and deposition. Electrochim. Acta 354, 136696 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2020.136696
Généreux, S., Gariépy, V., Rochefort, D.: On the relevance of reporting water content in highly concentrated electrolytes: the LiTFSI-acetonitrile case. J. Electrochem. Soc. 167, 120536 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/abb34c
Glaser, R., Wu, F.X., Register, E., et al.: Tuning low concentration electrolytes for high rate performance in lithium-sulfur batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 167, 100512 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/ab7183
Hou, J.X., Lu, L.G., Wang, L., et al.: Thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries employing LiN(SO2F)2-based concentrated electrolytes. Nat. Commun. 11, 5100 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18868-w
Jiang, L.H., Liang, C., Li, H., et al.: Safer triethyl-phosphate-based electrolyte enables nonflammable and high-temperature endurance for a lithium ion battery. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 3, 1719–1729 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.9b02188
Kremer, L.S., Danner, T., Hein, S., et al.: Influence of the electrolyte salt concentration on the rate capability of ultra-thick NCM 622 electrodes. Batter. Supercaps 3, 1172–1182 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/batt.202000098
Lee, S., Park, K., Koo, B., et al.: Safe, stable cycling of lithium metal batteries with low-viscosity, fire-retardant locally concentrated ionic liquid electrolytes. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30, 2003132 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202003132
Lin, S.S., Hua, H.M., Li, Z.S., et al.: Functional localized high-concentration ether-based electrolyte for stabilizing high-voltage lithium-metal battery. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 33710–33718 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c07904
Peng, Z., Cao, X., Gao, P.Y., et al.: High-power lithium metal batteries enabled by high-concentration acetonitrile-based electrolytes with vinylene carbonate additive. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30, 2001285 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202001285
Wang, Z.C., Sun, Y.Y., Mao, Y.Y., et al.: Highly concentrated dual-anion electrolyte for non-flammable high-voltage Li-metal batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 30, 228–237 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2020.05.020
Zhang, M.M., Hao, H.X., Zhou, D.X., et al.: Understanding the microscopic structure of a “water-in-salt” lithium ion battery electrolyte probed with ultrafast IR spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. C 124, 8594–8604 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c00937
Zhou, Y.F., Su, M., Yu, X.F., et al.: Real-time mass spectrometric characterization of the solid-electrolyte interphase of a lithium-ion battery. Nat. Nanotechnol. 15, 224–230 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-019-0618-4
Nagy, K.S., Kazemiabnavi, S., Thornton, K., et al.: Thermodynamic overpotentials and nucleation rates for electrodeposition on metal anodes. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 7954–7964 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b19787
Goodman, J.K.S., Kohl, P.A.: Effect of alkali and alkaline earth metal salts on suppression of lithium dendrites. J. Electrochem. Soc. 161, D418–D424 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0301409jes
Choudhury, S., Tu, Z.Y., Stalin, S., et al.: Electroless formation of hybrid lithium anodes for fast interfacial ion transport. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 56, 13070–13077 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201707754
Liu, J.L., Eisenberg, B.: Molecular mean-field theory of ionic solutions: a Poisson-Nernst-Planck-Bkerman model. Entropy 22, 550 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/e22050550
Peled, E., Menkin, S.: Review—SEI: past, present and future. J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1703–A1719 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.1441707jes
Ely, D.R., García, R.E.: Heterogeneous nucleation and growth of lithium electrodeposits on negative electrodes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 160, A662–A668 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.057304jes
Wood, K.N., Kazyak, E., Chadwick, A.F., et al.: Dendrites and pits: untangling the complex behavior of lithium metal anodes through operando video microscopy. ACS Cent. Sci. 2, 790–801 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.6b00260
Goodenough, J.B., Kim, Y.: Challenges for rechargeable batteries. J. Power Sources 196, 6688–6694 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.074
Borodin, O., Self, J., Persson, K.A., et al.: Uncharted waters: super-concentrated electrolytes. Joule 4, 69–100 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2019.12.007
Bazant, M.Z.: Theory of chemical kinetics and charge transfer based on nonequilibrium thermodynamics. Acc. Chem. Res. 46, 1144–1160 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1021/ar300145c
Jie, Y.L., Liu, X.J., Lei, Z.W., et al.: Enabling high-voltage lithium metal batteries by manipulating solvation structure in ester electrolyte. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 59, 3505–3510 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201914250
Yang, C.P., Yin, Y.X., Zhang, S.F., et al.: Accommodating lithium into 3D current collectors with a submicron skeleton towards long-life lithium metal anodes. Nat. Commun. 6, 8058 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms9058
Unocic, R.R., Jungjohann, K.L., Mehdi, B.L., et al.: In situ electrochemical scanning/transmission electron microscopy of electrode-electrolyte interfaces. MRS Bull. 45, 738–745 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1557/mrs.2020.226
Cheng, X.B., Hou, T.Z., Zhang, R., et al.: Dendrite-free lithium deposition induced by uniformly distributed lithium ions for efficient lithium metal batteries. Adv. Mater. 28, 2888–2895 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201506124
Gauthier, M., Carney, T.J., Grimaud, A., et al.: Electrode-electrolyte interface in Li-ion batteries: current understanding and new insights. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 6, 4653–4672 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.5b01727
Chazalviel, J.N.: Electrochemical aspects of the generation of ramified metallic electrodeposits. Phys. Rev. A 42, 7355–7367 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1103/physreva.42.7355
Ding, J.F., Xu, R., Yan, C., et al.: A review on the failure and regulation of solid electrolyte interphase in lithium batteries. J. Energy Chem. 59, 306–319 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2020.11.016
Chen, X.R., Zhao, B.C., Yan, C., et al.: Review on Li deposition in working batteries: from nucleation to early growth. Adv. Mater. 33, 2004128 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202004128
Peled, E.: The electrochemical behavior of alkali and alkaline earth metals in nonaqueous battery systems: the solid electrolyte interphase model. J. Electrochem. Soc. 126, 2047–2051 (1979). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2128859
Nazri, G., Muller, R.H.: Composition of surface layers on Li electrodes in PC, LiClO4 of very low water content. J. Electrochem. Soc. 132, 2050–2054 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.211428810.1149/1.2114288
Peled, E., Golodnitsky, D., Ardel, G.: Advanced model for solid electrolyte interphase electrodes in liquid and polymer electrolytes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 144, L208–L210 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1837858
Aurbach, D.: Review of selected electrode-solution interactions which determine the performance of Li and Li ion batteries. J. Power Sources 89, 206–218 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(00)00431-6
Shi, S.Q., Lu, P., Liu, Z.Y., et al.: Direct calculation of Li-ion transport in the solid electrolyte interphase. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134, 15476–15487 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1021/ja305366r
Li, Y., Li, Y., Pei, A., et al.: Atomic structure of sensitive battery materials and interfaces revealed by cryo-electron microscopy. Science 358, 506–510 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aam6014
Wang, Q., Yang, C.K., Yang, J.J., et al.: Dendrite-free lithium deposition via a superfilling mechanism for high-performance Li-metal batteries. Adv. Mater. 31, 1903248 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201903248
Bentley, C.L., Kang, M., Unwin, P.R.: Nanoscale surface structure-activity in electrochemistry and electrocatalysis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 141, 2179–2193 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.8b09828
Sigman, M.S., Harper, K.C., Bess, E.N., et al.: The development of multidimensional analysis tools for asymmetric catalysis and beyond. Acc. Chem. Res. 49, 1292–1301 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00194
Wagle, D.V., Zhao, H., Baker, G.A.: Deep eutectic solvents: sustainable media for nanoscale and functional materials. Acc Chem Res 47, 2299–2308 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/ar5000488
Wang, A.P., Kadam, S., Li, H., et al.: Review on modeling of the anode solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) for lithium-ion batteries. Npj Comput. Mater. 4, 15 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41524-018-0064-0
Palacín, M.R., de Guibert, A.: Why do batteries fail? Science 351, 1253292 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1253292
Ramos-Sanchez, G., Soto, F.A., Martinez De La Hoz, J.M., et al.: Computational studies of interfacial reactions at anode materials: initial stages of the solid-electrolyte-interphase layer formation. J. Electrochem. Energy Convers. Storage 13, 031002 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4034412
Aurbach, D., Ein-Eli, Y., Chusid, O., et al.: The correlation between the surface chemistry and the performance of Li-carbon intercalation anodes for rechargeable ‘rocking-chair’ type batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 141, 603–611 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2054777
Yan, C., Xu, R., Xiao, Y., et al.: Toward critical electrode/electrolyte interfaces in rechargeable batteries. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30, 1909887 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201909887
Cheng, X.B., Yan, C., Zhang, X.Q., et al.: Electronic and ionic channels in working interfaces of lithium metal anodes. ACS Energy Lett. 3, 1564–1570 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.8b00526
Aurbach, D., Daroux, M.L., Faguy, P.W., et al.: Identification of surface films formed on lithium in propylene carbonate solutions. J. Electrochem. Soc. 134, 1611–1620 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.210072210.1149/1.2100722
Wang, Y.X., Nakamura, S., Ue, M., et al.: Theoretical studies to understand surface chemistry on carbon anodes for lithium-ion batteries: reduction mechanisms of ethylene carbonate. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123, 11708–11718 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1021/ja0164529
Borodin, O., Olguin, M., Spear, C.E., et al.: Towards high throughput screening of electrochemical stability of battery electrolytes. Nanotechnology 26, 354003 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/26/35/354003
Maibach, J., Lindgren, F., Eriksson, H., et al.: Electric potential gradient at the buried interface between lithium-ion battery electrodes and the SEI observed using photoelectron spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 7, 1775–1780 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.6b00391
Chapman, N., Borodin, O., Yoon, T., et al.: Spectroscopic and density functional theory characterization of common lithium salt solvates in carbonate electrolytes for lithium batteries. J. Phys. Chem. C 121, 2135–2148 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b1223410.1021/acs.jpcc.6b12234
Tang, M., Miyazaki, K., Abe, T., et al.: Effect of graphite orientation and lithium salt on electronic passivation of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite. J. Electrochem. Soc. 159, A634–A641 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.073205jes
Kranz, T., Kranz, S., Miß, V., et al.: Interrelation between redox molecule transport and Li+ ion transport across a model solid electrolyte interphase grown on a glassy carbon electrode. J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A3777–A3784 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.1171714jes
Michan, A.L., Leskes, M., Grey, C.P.: Voltage dependent solid electrolyte interphase formation in silicon electrodes: monitoring the formation of organic decomposition products. Chem. Mater. 28, 385–398 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.5b04408
Kumar, R., Lu, P., Xiao, X.C., et al.: Strain-induced lithium losses in the solid electrolyte interphase on silicon electrodes. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9, 28406–28417 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b06647
Steinhauer, M., Stich, M., Kurniawan, M., et al.: In situ studies of solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation on crystalline carbon surfaces by neutron reflectometry and atomic force microscopy. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9, 35794–35801 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b09181
Attia, P.M., Das, S., Harris, S.J., et al.: Electrochemical kinetics of SEI growth on carbon black: Part I. Experiments. J. Electrochem. Soc. 166, E97–E106 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0231904jes
Keil, P., Schuster, S.F., Wilhelm, J., et al.: Calendar aging of lithium-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 163, A1872–A1880 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0411609jes
Keil, P., Jossen, A.: Calendar aging of NCA lithium-ion batteries investigated by differential voltage analysis and coulomb tracking. J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A6066–A6074 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0091701jes
Chu, Y.L., Shen, Y.B., Guo, F., et al.: Advanced characterizations of solid electrolyte interphases in lithium-ion batteries. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 3, 187–219 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-019-00058-y
Tan, J., Matz, J., Dong, P., et al.: A growing appreciation for the role of LiF in the solid electrolyte interphase. Adv. Energy Mater. 11, 2100046 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202100046
Delp, S.A., Borodin, O., Olguin, M., et al.: Importance of reduction and oxidation stability of high voltage electrolytes and additives. Electrochim. Acta 209, 498–510 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.05.100
Hou, J.B., Yang, M., Wang, D.Y., et al.: Fundamentals and challenges of lithium ion batteries at temperatures between –40 and 60 °C. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 2070079 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202070079
Yan, C., Li, H.R., Chen, X., et al.: Regulating the inner Helmholtz plane for stable solid electrolyte interphase on lithium metal anodes. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 141, 9422–9429 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.9b05029
Naji, A., Ghanbaja, J., Humbert, B., et al.: Electroreduction of graphite in LiClO4-ethylene carbonate electrolyte. Characterization of the passivating layer by transmission electron microscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. J. Power Sources 63, 33–39 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(96)02439-1
Novák, P., Joho, F., Imhof, R., et al.: In situ investigation of the interaction between graphite and electrolyte solutions. J. Power Sources 81(82), 212–216 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(99)00119-6
Arora, P., White, R.E., Doyle, M.: Capacity fade mechanisms and side reactions in lithium-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 145, 3647–3667 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1838857
Leung, K., Budzien, J.L.: Ab initio molecular dynamics simulations of the initial stages of solid-electrolyte interphase formation on lithium ion battery graphitic anodes. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 12, 6583–6586 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1039/b925853a
Onuki, M., Kinoshita, S., Sakata, Y., et al.: Identification of the source of evolved gas in Li-ion batteries using 13C-labeled solvents. J. Electrochem. Soc. 155, A794–A797 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2897970
Yu, J.M., Balbuena, P.B., Budzien, J., et al.: Hybrid DFT functional-based static and molecular dynamics studies of excess electron in liquid ethylene carbonate. J. Electrochem. Soc. 158, A400–A410 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.3545977
Liu, Q., Cresce, A., Schroeder, M., et al.: Insight on lithium metal anode interphasial chemistry: reduction mechanism of cyclic ether solvent and SEI film formation. Energy Storage Mater. 17, 366–373 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2018.09.024
Simmen, F., Foelske-Schmitz, A., Verma, P., et al.: Surface layer formation on Li1+xMn2O4−δ thin film electrodes during electrochemical cycling. Electrochim. Acta 56, 8539–8544 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2011.07.046
Eriksson, T., Andersson, A.M., Bishop, A.G., et al.: Surface analysis of LiMn2O4 electrodes in carbonate-based electrolytes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 149, A69 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.142639810.1149/1.1426398
Leroy, S., Martinez, H., Dedryvère, R., et al.: Influence of the lithium salt nature over the surface film formation on a graphite electrode in Li-ion batteries: an XPS study. Appl. Surf. Sci. 253, 4895–4905 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2006.10.071
Leroy, S., Blanchard, F., Dedryvère, R., et al.: Surface film formation on a graphite electrode in Li-ion batteries: AFM and XPS study. Surf. Interface Anal. 37, 773–781 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1002/sia.2072
Aurbach, D., Zaban, A., Gofer, Y., et al.: Recent studies of the lithium-liquid electrolyte interface electrochemical, morphological and spectral studies of a few important systems. J. Power Sources 54, 76–84 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7753(94)02044-4
Xu, K.: Nonaqueous liquid electrolytes for lithium-based rechargeable batteries. Chem Inform 35, 4303–4417 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.200450271
Aurbach, D., Zaban, A., Ein-Eli, Y., et al.: Recent studies on the correlation between surface chemistry, morphology, three-dimensional structures and performance of Li and Li-C intercalation anodes in several important electrolyte systems. J. Power Sources 68, 91–98 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(97)02575-5
Kawamura, T., Kimura, A., Egashira, M., et al.: Thermal stability of alkyl carbonate mixed-solvent electrolytes for lithium ion cells. J. Power Sources 104, 260–264 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(01)00960-0
Harris, S.J., Lu, P.: Effects of inhomogeneities—nanoscale to mesoscale—on the durability of Li-ion batteries. J. Phys. Chem. C 117, 6481–6492 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp311431z
Eshkenazi, V., Peled, E., Burstein, L., et al.: XPS analysis of the SEI formed on carbonaceous materials. Solid State Ion. 170, 83–91 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-2738(03)00107-3
Sloop, S.E., Pugh, J.K., Wang, S., et al.: Chemical reactivity of PF5 and LiPF6 in ethylene carbonate/dimethyl carbonate solutions. Electrochem. Solid-State Lett. 4, A42 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1353158
Aurbach, D., Markovsky, B., Shechter, A., et al.: A comparative study of synthetic graphite and Li electrodes in electrolyte solutions based on ethylene carbonate-dimethyl carbonate mixtures. J. Electrochem. Soc. 143, 3809–3820 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1837300
Ren, Y., Qi, Z.H., Zhang, C., et al.: The charge transfer of intercalated Li atoms around islands on Li-halide (F, Br, Cl) surface of SEIs: a first principles calculation. Comput. Mater. Sci. 176, 109535 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2020.109535
Qin, X.P., Shao, M.H., Balbuena, P.B.: Elucidating mechanisms of Li plating on Li anodes of lithium-based batteries. Electrochim. Acta 284, 485–494 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2018.07.159
Tang, M., Lu, S.D., Newman, J.: Experimental and theoretical investigation of solid-electrolyte-interphase formation mechanisms on glassy carbon. J. Electrochem. Soc. 159, A1775–A1785 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.025211jes
Li, D.J., Danilov, D., Zhang, Z.R., et al.: Modeling the SEI-formation on graphite electrodes in LiFePO4 batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 162, A858–A869 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0161506jes
Krauskopf, T., Mogwitz, B., Hartmann, H., et al.: The fast charge transfer kinetics of the lithium metal anode on the garnet-type solid electrolyte Li6.25Al0.25La3Zr2O12. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 2000945 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202000945
Bertolini, S., Balbuena, P.B.: Buildup of the solid electrolyte interphase on lithium-metal anodes: reactive molecular dynamics study. J. Phys. Chem. C 122, 10783–10791 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.8b03046
Takenaka, N., Suzuki, Y., Sakai, H., et al.: On electrolyte-dependent formation of solid electrolyte interphase film in lithium-ion batteries: strong sensitivity to small structural difference of electrolyte molecules. J. Phys. Chem. C 118, 10874–10882 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp5018696
Lin, Y.X., Liu, Z., Leung, K., et al.: Connecting the irreversible capacity loss in Li-ion batteries with the electronic insulating properties of solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) components. J. Power Sources 309, 221–230 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.01.078
Nie, M.Y., Abraham, D.P., Chen, Y.J., et al.: Silicon solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) of lithium ion battery characterized by microscopy and spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. C 117, 13403–13412 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp404155y
Liu, G.Y., Lu, W.: A model of concurrent lithium dendrite growth, SEI growth, SEI penetration and regrowth. J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, A1826–A1833 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0381709jes
Harry, K.J., Higa, K., Srinivasan, V., et al.: Influence of electrolyte modulus on the local current density at a dendrite tip on a lithium metal electrode. J. Electrochem. Soc. 163, A2216–A2224 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0191610jes
Yang, H., Fey, E.O., Trimm, B.D., et al.: Effects of pulse plating on lithium electrodeposition, morphology and cycling efficiency. J. Power Sources 272, 900–908 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.09.026
Rosso, M., Gobron, T., Brissot, C., et al.: Onset of dendritic growth in lithium/polymer cells. J. Power Sources 97(98), 804–806 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(01)00734-0
Heine, J., Krüger, S., Hartnig, C., et al.: Coated lithium powder (CLiP) electrodes for lithium-metal batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 4, 1300815 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201300815
Jin, D., Oh, J., Friesen, A., et al.: Self-healing wide and thin Li metal anodes prepared using calendared Li metal powder for improving cycle life and rate capability. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10, 16521–16530 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b02740
Pu, K.C., Qu, X.L., Zhang, X., et al.: Nanoscaled lithium powders with protection of ionic liquid for highly stable rechargeable lithium metal batteries. Adv. Sci. 6, 1901776 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201901776
Jin, D., Roh, Y., Jo, T., et al.: Submicron interlayer for stabilizing thin Li metal powder electrode. Chem. Eng. J. 406, 126834 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020
Jin, D., Bae, H.S., Hong, J., et al.: Scaffold-structured polymer binders for long-term cycle performance of stabilized lithium-powder electrodes. Electrochim. Acta 364, 136878 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2020.136878
Lu, L.L., Ge, J., Yang, J.N., et al.: Free-standing copper nanowire network current collector for improving lithium anode performance. Nano Lett. 16, 4431–4437 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b01581
Wang, J.S., Liu, P., Sherman, E., et al.: Formulation and characterization of ultra-thick electrodes for high energy lithium-ion batteries employing tailored metal foams. J. Power Sources 196, 8714–8718 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.06.071
An, Y.L., Fei, H.F., Zeng, G.F., et al.: Vacuum distillation derived 3D porous current collector for stable lithium-metal batteries. Nano Energy 47, 503–511 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.03.036
Yun, Q.B., He, Y.B., Lv, W., et al.: Chemical dealloying derived 3D porous current collector for Li metal anodes. Adv. Mater. 28, 6932–6939 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201601409
Ding, F., Xu, W., Graff, G.L., et al.: Dendrite-free lithium deposition via self-healing electrostatic shield mechanism. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135, 4450–4456 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1021/ja312241y
Yang, X.F., Sun, Q., Zhao, C.T., et al.: Self-healing electrostatic shield enabling uniform lithium deposition in all-solid-state lithium batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 22, 194–199 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2019.07.015
Munaoka, T., Yan, X.Z., Lopez, J., et al.: Ionically conductive self-healing binder for low cost Si microparticles anodes in Li-ion batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 8, 1703138 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201703138
Nan, Y., Li, S.M., Zhu, M.Q., et al.: Endowing the lithium metal surface with self-healing property via an in situ gas-solid reaction for high-performance lithium metal batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 28878–28884 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b07942
Bernal, J.D., Fowler, R.H.: A theory of water and ionic solution, with particular reference to hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. J. Chem. Phys. 1, 515–548 (1933). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1749327
Xu, R., Yan, C., Huang, J.Q.: Competitive solid-electrolyte interphase formation on working lithium anodes. Trends Chem. 3, 5–14 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trechm.2020.10.008
Xu, R., Shen, X., Ma, X.X., et al.: Identifying the critical anion-cation coordination to regulate the electric double layer for an efficient lithium-metal anode interface. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60, 4215–4220 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202100788
von Wald Cresce, A., Gobet, M., Borodin, O., et al.: Anion solvation in carbonate-based electrolytes. J. Phys. Chem. C 119, 27255–27264 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b08895
Yu, Z., Curtiss, L.A., Winans, R.E., et al.: Asymmetric composition of ionic aggregates and the origin of high correlated transference number in water-in-salt electrolytes. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 11, 1276–1281 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b03495
Yamada, Y., Wang, J.H., Ko, S., et al.: Advances and issues in developing salt-concentrated battery electrolytes. Nat. Energy 4, 269–280 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-019-0336-z
von Wald Cresce, A., Borodin, O., Xu, K.: Correlating Li+ solvation sheath structure with interphasial chemistry on graphite. J. Phys. Chem. C 116, 26111–26117 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp303610t
Jie, Y.L., Liu, X.J., Lei, Z.W., et al.: Enabling high-voltage lithium metal batteries by manipulating solvation structure in ester electrolyte. Angew. Chem. 132, 3533–3538 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/ange.201914250
Pitzer, K.S.: Ion interaction approach: theory and data correlation. In: Pitzer, K.S. (ed.) Activity Coefficients in Electrolyte Solutions, pp. 75–153. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2018). https://doi.org/10.1201/9781351069472
Besenhard, J.O., Winter, M., Yang, J., et al.: Filming mechanism of lithium-carbon anodes in organic and inorganic electrolytes. J. Power Sources 54, 228–231 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7753(94)02073-C
Wagner, M.R., Albering, J.H., Moeller, K.C., et al.: XRD evidence for the electrochemical formation of Li+(PC)yCn− in PC-based electrolytes. Electrochem. Commun. 7, 947–952 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2005.06.009
Kang, X.: “Charge-transfer” process at graphite/electrolyte interface and the solvation sheath structure of Li+ in nonaqueous electrolytes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 154, A162 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.240986610.1149/1.2409866
Xu, K., Lam, Y., Zhang, S.S., et al.: Solvation sheath of Li+ in nonaqueous electrolytes and its implication of graphite/electrolyte interface chemistry. J. Phys. Chem. C 111, 7411–7421 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp068691u
Chen, S.R., Zheng, J.M., Mei, D.H., et al.: High-voltage lithium-metal batteries enabled by localized high-concentration electrolytes. Adv. Mater. 30, 1870144 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201870144
Ding, J.F., Xu, R., Yao, N., et al.: Non-solvating and low-dielectricity cosolvent for anion-derived solid electrolyte interphases in lithium metal batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60, 11442–11447 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202101627
Yao, Y.X., Chen, X., Yan, C., et al.: Regulating interfacial chemistry in lithium-ion batteries by a weakly solvating electrolyte. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60, 4090–4097 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202011482
Yamada, Y., Furukawa, K., Sodeyama, K., et al.: Unusual stability of acetonitrile-based superconcentrated electrolytes for fast-charging lithium-ion batteries. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136, 5039–5046 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/ja412807w
Yoshida, K., Nakamura, M., Kazue, Y., et al.: Oxidative-stability enhancement and charge transport mechanism in glyme-lithium salt equimolar complexes. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 13121–13129 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1021/ja203983r
Yamada, Y., Chiang, C.H., Sodeyama, K., et al.: Corrosion prevention mechanism of aluminum metal in superconcentrated electrolytes. ChemElectroChem 2, 1687–1694 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/celc.201500426
Matsumoto, K., Inoue, K., Nakahara, K., et al.: Suppression of aluminum corrosion by using high concentration LiTFSI electrolyte. J. Power Sources 231, 234–238 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.12.028
McOwen, D.W., Seo, D.M., Borodin, O., et al.: Concentrated electrolytes: decrypting electrolyte properties and reassessing Al corrosion mechanisms. Energy Environ. Sci. 7, 416–426 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ee42351d
Yamada, Y., Yaegashi, M., Abe, T., et al.: A superconcentrated ether electrolyte for fast-charging Li-ion batteries. Chem. Commun. 49, 11194 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1039/c3cc46665e
Suo, L.M., Hu, Y.S., Li, H., et al.: A new class of solvent-in-salt electrolyte for high-energy rechargeable metallic lithium batteries. Nat. Commun. 4, 1481 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2513
Wang, J.H., Yamada, Y., Sodeyama, K., et al.: Superconcentrated electrolytes for a high-voltage lithium-ion battery. Nat. Commun. 7, 12032 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12032
Wang, J.H., Yamada, Y., Sodeyama, K., et al.: Fire-extinguishing organic electrolytes for safe batteries. Nat. Energy 3, 22–29 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-017-0033-8
Raguette, L., Jorn, R.: Ion solvation and dynamics at solid electrolyte interphases: a long way from bulk? J. Phys. Chem. C 122, 3219–3232 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b11472
Zheng, D., Qu, D.Y., Yang, X.Q., et al.: Preferential solvation of lithium cations and impacts on oxygen reduction in lithium-air batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7, 19923–19929 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b04005
Uchida, S., Ishikawa, M.: Lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide based low ethylene carbonate content electrolyte with unusual solvation state. J. Power Sources 359, 480–486 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.05.090
Iddir, H., Curtiss, L.A.: Li ion diffusion mechanisms in bulk monoclinic Li2CO3 crystals from density functional studies. J. Phys. Chem. C 114, 20903–20906 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp1086569
Yildirim, H., Kinaci, A., Chan, M.K.Y., et al.: First-principles analysis of defect thermodynamics and ion transport in inorganic SEI compounds: LiF and NaF. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7, 18985–18996 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b02904
Shi, S.Q., Qi, Y., Li, H., et al.: Defect thermodynamics and diffusion mechanisms in Li2CO3 and implications for the solid electrolyte interphase in Li-ion batteries. J. Phys. Chem. C 117, 8579–8593 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp310591u
Ramasubramanian, A., Yurkiv, V., Foroozan, T., et al.: Lithium diffusion mechanism through solid-electrolyte interphase in rechargeable lithium batteries. J. Phys. Chem. C 123, 10237–10245 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b00436
Zhang, Q.L., Pan, J., Lu, P., et al.: Synergetic effects of inorganic components in solid electrolyte interphase on high cycle efficiency of lithium ion batteries. Nano Lett. 16, 2011–2016 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b05283
Nikitina, V.A., Vassiliev, S.Y., Stevenson, K.J.: Metal-ion coupled electron transfer kinetics in intercalation-based transition metal oxides. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 1903933 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201903933
Chekushkin, P.M., Merenkov, I.S., Smirnov, V.S., et al.: The physical origin of the activation barrier in Li-ion intercalation processes: the overestimated role of desolvation. Electrochim. Acta 372, 137843 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2021.137843
Yamada, Y., Iriyama, Y., Abe, T., et al.: Kinetics of lithium ion transfer at the interface between graphite and liquid electrolytes: effects of solvent and surface film. Langmuir 25, 12766–12770 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1021/la901829v
Abe, T., Ohtsuka, M., Sagane, F., et al.: Lithium ion transfer at the interface between lithium-ion-conductive solid crystalline electrolyte and polymer electrolyte. J. Electrochem. Soc. 151, A1950 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1804813
Abe, T., Fukuda, H., Iriyama, Y., et al.: Solvated Li-ion transfer at interface between graphite and electrolyte. J. Electrochem. Soc. 151, A1120 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1763141
Abe, T., Sagane, F., Ohtsuka, M., et al.: Lithium-ion transfer at the interface between lithium-ion conductive ceramic electrolyte and liquid electrolyte-a key to enhancing the rate capability of lithium-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 152, A2151 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2042907
Yamada, Y., Sagane, F., Iriyama, Y., et al.: Kinetics of lithium-ion transfer at the interface between Li0.35La0.55TiO3 and binary electrolytes. J. Phys. Chem. C 113, 14528–14532 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp9043539
Xu, K., von Cresce, A., Lee, U.: Differentiating contributions to “ion transfer” barrier from interphasial resistance and Li+ desolvation at electrolyte/graphite interface. Langmuir 26, 11538–11543 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1021/la1009994
Li, Y.S., Qi, Y.: Energy landscape of the charge transfer reaction at the complex Li/SEI/electrolyte interface. Energy Environ. Sci. 12, 1286–1295 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ee03586e
Borodin, O., Bedrov, D.: Interfacial structure and dynamics of the lithium alkyl dicarbonate SEI components in contact with the lithium battery electrolyte. J. Phys. Chem. C 118, 18362–18371 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp504598n
Jorn, R., Raguette, L., Peart, S.: Investigating the mechanism of lithium transport at solid electrolyte interphases. J. Phys. Chem. C 124, 16261–16270 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c03018
Li, Q.Y., Lu, D.P., Zheng, J.M., et al.: Li+-desolvation dictating lithium-ion battery’s low-temperature performances. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9, 42761–42768 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b13887
Jorn, R., Kumar, R., Abraham, D.P., et al.: Atomistic modeling of the electrode-electrolyte interface in Li-ion energy storage systems: electrolyte structuring. J. Phys. Chem. C 117, 3747–3761 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp3102282
Xu, R., Yan, C., Xiao, Y., et al.: The reduction of interfacial transfer barrier of Li ions enabled by inorganics-rich solid-electrolyte interphase. Energy Storage Mater. 28, 401–406 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2019.12.020
Ming, J., Cao, Z., Li, Q., et al.: Molecular-scale interfacial model for predicting electrode performance in rechargeable batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 4, 1584–1593 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.9b00822
Nasara, R.N., Ma, W., Kondo, Y., et al.: Charge-transfer kinetics of the solid-electrolyte interphase on Li4Ti5O12 thin-film electrodes. Chemsuschem 13, 4041–4050 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.202001086
Jow, T.R., Delp, S.A., Allen, J.L., et al.: Factors limiting Li+ charge transfer kinetics in Li-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 165, A361–A367 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.1221802jes
Li, Q.Y., Jiao, S.H., Luo, L.L., et al.: Wide-temperature electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9, 18826–18835 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b04099
Hu, J.Z., Jaegers, N.R., Chen, Y., et al.: Adsorption and thermal decomposition of electrolytes on nanometer magnesium oxide: an in situ 13C MAS NMR study. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 38689–38696 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b11888
Ohba, N., Ogata, S., Asahi, R.: Hybrid quantum-classical simulation of Li ion dynamics and the decomposition reaction of electrolyte liquid at a negative-electrode/electrolyte interface. J. Phys. Chem. C 123, 9673–9679 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.8b11737
Markevich, E., Salitra, G., Rosenman, A., et al.: The effect of a solid electrolyte interphase on the mechanism of operation of lithium–sulfur batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 3, 19873–19883 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ta04613k
Marino, C., Boulaoued, A., Fullenwarth, J., et al.: Solvation and dynamics of lithium ions in carbonate-based electrolytes during cycling followed by operando infrared spectroscopy: the example of NiSb2, a typical negative conversion-type electrode material for lithium batteries. J. Phys. Chem. C 121, 26598–26606 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b06685
Huang, W., Boyle, D.T., Li, Y., et al.: Nanostructural and electrochemical evolution of the solid-electrolyte interphase on CuO nanowires revealed by cryogenic-electron microscopy and impedance spectroscopy. ACS Nano 13, 737–744 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.8b08012
Lu, P., Harris, S.J.: Lithium transport within the solid electrolyte interphase. Electrochem. Commun. 13, 1035–1037 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2011.06.026
Ilott, A., Jerschow, A.: Probing solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) growth and ion permeability at undriven electrolyte-metal interfaces using 7Li NMR. J. Phys. Chem. C 122, 12598–12604 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.8b01958
Markevich, E., Fridman, K., Sharabi, R., et al.: Amorphous columnar silicon anodes for advanced high voltage lithium ion full cells: dominant factors governing cycling performance. J. Electrochem. Soc. 160, A1824–A1833 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.085310jes
Xu, K.: Electrolytes and interphases in Li-ion batteries and beyond. Chem. Rev. 114, 11503–11618 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/cr500003w
Chen, Y.C., Ouyang, C.Y., Song, L.J., et al.: Electrical and lithium ion dynamics in three main components of solid electrolyte interphase from density functional theory study. J. Phys. Chem. C 115, 7044–7049 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp112202s
Pan, J., Cheng, Y.T., Qi, Y.: General method to predict voltage-dependent ionic conduction in a solid electrolyte coating on electrodes. Phys. Rev. B 91, 134116 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevb.91.134116
Benitez, L., Seminario, J.M.: Ion diffusivity through the solid electrolyte interphase in lithium-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 164, E3159–E3170 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0181711jes
Lu, X., Liao, X.Q.: Oxidization of fluid-like Li metal with inherent Li-Li2O interface from simulation insights. J. Mater. 6, 692–701 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmat.2020.05.007
Li, Y.S., Leung, K., Qi, Y.: Computational exploration of the Li-electrode|electrolyte interface in the presence of a nanometer thick solid-electrolyte interphase layer. Acc. Chem. Res. 49, 2363–2370 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00363
Liang, C.C.: Conduction characteristics of the lithium iodide-aluminum oxide solid electrolytes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 120, 1289 (1973). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2403248
Pan, J., Zhang, Q.L., Xiao, X.C., et al.: Design of nanostructured heterogeneous solid ionic coatings through a multiscale defect model. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8, 5687–5693 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b12030
Li, C.L., Maier, J.: Ionic space charge effects in lithium fluoride thin films. Solid State Ion. 225, 408–411 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssi.2012.02.036
Wang, X., Zeng, W., Hong, L., et al.: Stress-driven lithium dendrite growth mechanism and dendrite mitigation by electroplating on soft substrates. Nat. Energy 3, 227–235 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0104-5
Wang, L., Zhou, Z.Y., Yan, X., et al.: Engineering of lithium-metal anodes towards a safe and stable battery. Energy Storage Mater. 14, 22–48 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2018.02.014
Luo, J., Fang, C.C., Wu, N.L.: High polarity poly(vinylidene difluoride) thin coating for dendrite-free and high-performance lithium metal anodes. Adv. Energy Mater. 8, 1701482 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201701482
Liu, K., Pei, A., Lee, H.R., et al.: Lithium metal anodes with an adaptive “solid-liquid” interfacial protective layer. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 139, 4815–4820 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.6b13314
Gao, Y., Zhao, Y.M., Li, Y.C., et al.: Interfacial chemistry regulation via a skin-grafting strategy enables high-performance lithium-metal batteries. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 139, 15288–15291 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.7b06437
Li, N.W., Shi, Y., Yin, Y.X., et al.: A flexible solid electrolyte interphase layer for long-life lithium metal anodes. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 57, 1505–1509 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201713193
Gao, Z.G., Zhang, S.J., Huang, Z.G., et al.: Protection of Li metal anode by surface-coating of PVDF thin film to enhance the cycling performance of Li batteries. Chin. Chem. Lett. 30, 525–528 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2018.05.016
Zhu, M., Wu, J.X., Wang, Y., et al.: Recent advances in gel polymer electrolyte for high-performance lithium batteries. J. Energy Chem. 37, 126–142 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2018.12.013
Yang, Q.L., Li, W.L., Dong, C., et al.: PIM-1 as an artificial solid electrolyte interphase for stable lithium metal anode in high-performance batteries. J. Energy Chem. 42, 83–90 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2019.06.012
Peng, Z., Wang, S.W., Zhou, J.J., et al.: Volumetric variation confinement: surface protective structure for high cyclic stability of lithium metal electrodes. J. Mater. Chem. A 4, 2427–2432 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ta10050j
Han, X.G., Gong, Y.H., Fu, K., et al.: Negating interfacial impedance in garnet-based solid-state Li metal batteries. Nat. Mater. 16, 572–579 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat4821
Zhou, W.D., Wang, S.F., Li, Y.T., et al.: Plating a dendrite-free lithium anode with a polymer/ceramic/polymer sandwich electrolyte. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138, 9385–9388 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.6b05341
Duan, H., Yin, Y.X., Shi, Y., et al.: Dendrite-free Li-metal battery enabled by a thin asymmetric solid electrolyte with engineered layers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 140, 82–85 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.7b10864
Yan, C., Cheng, X.B., Tian, Y., et al.: Dual-layered film protected lithium metal anode to enable dendrite-free lithium deposition. Adv. Mater. 30, 1870181 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201870181
Xu, R., Cheng, X.B., Yan, C., et al.: Artificial interphases for highly stable lithium metal anode. Matter 1, 317–344 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2019.05.016
Tao, F., Liu, Y., Ren, X.Y., et al.: Different surface modification methods and coating materials of zinc metal anode. J. Energy Chem. 66, 397–412 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2021.08.022
Soto, F.A., Yan, P.F., Engelhard, M.H., et al.: Tuning the solid electrolyte interphase for selective Li- and Na-ion storage in hard carbon. Adv. Mater. 29, 1606860 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.20160686010.1002/adma.201606860
Nanda, S., Bhargav, A., Manthiram, A.: Anode-free, lean-electrolyte lithium-sulfur batteries enabled by tellurium-stabilized lithium deposition. Joule 4, 1121–1135 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.03.020
Han, F.D., Yue, J., Zhu, X.Y., et al.: Suppressing Li dendrite formation in Li2S-P2S5 solid electrolyte by LiI incorporation. Adv. Energy Mater. 8, 1703644 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201703644
Dong, Q.Y., Hong, B., Fan, H.L., et al.: Inducing the formation of in situ Li3N-rich SEI via nanocomposite plating of Mg3N2 with lithium enables high-performance 3D lithium-metal batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 627–636 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b16156
Fan, X.L., Ji, X., Han, F.D., et al.: Fluorinated solid electrolyte interphase enables highly reversible solid-state Li metal battery. Sci. Adv. 4, eaau9245 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aau9245
Liu, F.F., Wang, L.F., Zhang, Z.W., et al.: A mixed lithium-ion conductive Li2S/Li2Se protection layer for stable lithium metal anode. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30, 2001607 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202001607
Rangasamy, E., Liu, Z.C., Gobet, M., et al.: An iodide-based Li7P2S8I superionic conductor. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137, 1384–1387 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/ja508723m
Ding, F., Xu, W., Chen, X.L., et al.: Effects of carbonate solvents and lithium salts on morphology and coulombic efficiency of lithium electrode. J. Electrochem. Soc. 160, A1894–A1901 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.100310jes
Zheng, J.M., Engelhard, M.H., Mei, D.H., et al.: Electrolyte additive enabled fast charging and stable cycling lithium metal batteries. Nat. Energy 2, 17012 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2017.12
Ding, M.S., von Cresce, A., Xu, K.: Conductivity, viscosity, and their correlation of a super-concentrated aqueous electrolyte. J. Phys. Chem. C 121, 2149–2153 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b12636
Huang, F.F., Ma, G.Q., Wen, Z.Y., et al.: Enhancing metallic lithium battery performance by tuning the electrolyte solution structure. J. Mater. Chem. A 6, 1612–1620 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/c7ta08274f
Giffin, G.A., Moretti, A., Jeong, S., et al.: Connection between lithium coordination and lithium diffusion in [Pyr12O1][FTFSI] ionic liquid electrolytes. Chemsuschem 11, 1981–1989 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201702288
Peng, H., Nguyen, A.V.: A link between viscosity and cation-anion contact pairs: adventure on the concept of structure-making/breaking for concentrated salt solutions. J. Mol. Liq. 263, 109–117 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2018.04.145
Kondou, S., Thomas, M.L., Mandai, T., et al.: Ionic transport in highly concentrated lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)amide electrolytes with keto ester solvents: structural implications for ion hopping conduction in liquid electrolytes. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 21, 5097–5105 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1039/c9cp00425d
Dong, Y., Zhang, N., Li, C.X., et al.: Fire-retardant phosphate-based electrolytes for high-performance lithium metal batteries. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2, 2708–2716 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.9b00027
Dong, X.L., Lin, Y.X., Li, P.L., et al.: High-energy rechargeable metallic lithium battery at –70 °C enabled by a cosolvent electrolyte. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58, 5623–5627 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201900266
Jafta, C.J., Sun, X.G., Veith, G.M., et al.: Probing microstructure and electrolyte concentration dependent cell chemistry via operando small angle neutron scattering. Energy Environ. Sci. 12, 1866–1877 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ee02703j
Heist, A., Lee, S.H.: Improved stability and rate capability of ionic liquid electrolyte with high concentration of LiFSI. J. Electrochem. Soc. 166, A1860–A1866 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0381910jes
Takada, K., Yamada, Y., Yamada, A.: Optimized nonflammable concentrated electrolytes by introducing a low-dielectric diluent. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 11, 35770–35776 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b12709
Song, H.Y., Jung, M.H., Jeong, S.K.: Improving electrochemical performance at graphite negative electrodes in concentrated electrolyte solutions by addition of 1,2-dichloroethane. Appl. Sci. 9, 4647 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/app9214647
Miao, R.R., Yang, J., Feng, X.J., et al.: Novel dual-salts electrolyte solution for dendrite-free lithium-metal based rechargeable batteries with high cycle reversibility. J. Power Sources 271, 291–297 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.08.011
Xiong, S.Z., Xie, K., Diao, Y., et al.: Characterization of the solid electrolyte interphase on lithium anode for preventing the shuttle mechanism in lithium-sulfur batteries. J. Power Sources 246, 840–845 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.08.041
Duangdangchote, S., Krittayavathananon, A., Phattharasupakun, N., et al.: Insight into the effect of additives widely used in lithium-sulfur batteries. Chem. Commun. 55, 13951–13954 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1039/c9cc06504ka
Hou, T.Z., Xu, W.T., Chen, X., et al.: Lithium bond chemistry in lithium-sulfur batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 56, 8178–8182 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201704324
Zhang, X.Q., Chen, X., Hou, L.P., et al.: Regulating anions in the solvation sheath of lithium ions for stable lithium metal batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 4, 411–416 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.8b02376
Lee, S.H., Hwang, J.Y., Ming, J., et al.: Toward the sustainable lithium metal batteries with a new electrolyte solvation chemistry. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 2000567 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202000567
Ouyang, Y., Guo, Y.P., Li, D., et al.: Single additive with dual functional-ions for stabilizing lithium anodes. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 11360–11368 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b21420
Shimizu, M., Umeki, M., Arai, S.: Suppressing the effect of lithium dendritic growth by the addition of magnesium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide. Phys Chem Chem Phys 20, 1127–1133 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/c7cp06057b
Zeng, W.D., Cheng, M.M.C., Ng, S.K.Y.: Effects of transition metal cation additives on the passivation of lithium metal anode in Li-S batteries. Electrochim. Acta 319, 511–517 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2019.06.177
Tu, Z.Y., Choudhury, S., Zachman, M.J., et al.: Fast ion transport at solid-solid interfaces in hybrid battery anodes. Nat. Energy 3, 310–316 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0096-1
Liang, X., Pang, Q., Kochetkov, I.R., et al.: A facile surface chemistry route to a stabilized lithium metal anode. Nat. Energy 2, 17119 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2017.119
Xu, X.F., Zhou, D., Qin, X.Y., et al.: A room-temperature sodium-sulfur battery with high capacity and stable cycling performance. Nat. Commun. 9, 3870 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-06443-3
Pang, Q., Liang, X., Kochetkov, I.R., et al.: Stabilizing lithium plating by a biphasic surface layer formed in situ. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 57, 9795–9798 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201805456
Ye, H., Yin, Y.X., Zhang, S.F., et al.: Synergism of Al-containing solid electrolyte interphase layer and Al-based colloidal particles for stable lithium anode. Nano Energy 36, 411–417 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.04.056
Ding, F., Xu, W., Chen, X.L., et al.: Effects of cesium cations in lithium deposition via self-healing electrostatic shield mechanism. J. Phys. Chem. C 118, 4043–4049 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp4127754
Zhang, Y.H., Qian, J.F., Xu, W., et al.: Dendrite-free lithium deposition with self-aligned nanorod structure. Nano Lett. 14, 6889–6896 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/nl5039117
Pasquale, M.A., Gassa, L.M., Arvia, A.J.: Copper electrodeposition from an acidic plating bath containing accelerating and inhibiting organic additives. Electrochim. Acta 53, 5891–5904 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2008.03.073
Böttcher, T., Duda, B., Kalinovich, N., et al.: Syntheses of novel delocalized cations and fluorinated anions, new fluorinated solvents and additives for lithium ion batteries. Prog. Solid State Chem. 42, 202–217 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progsolidstchem.2014.04.013
Liu, S.F., Ji, X., Piao, N., et al.: An inorganic-rich solid electrolyte interphase for advanced lithium-metal batteries in carbonate electrolytes. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60, 3661–3671 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202012005
Guo, J., Wen, Z.Y., Wu, M.F., et al.: Vinylene carbonate-LiNO3: a hybrid additive in carbonic ester electrolytes for SEI modification on Li metal anode. Electrochem. Commun. 51, 59–63 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2014.12.008
Liu, M., Cheng, Z., Qian, K., et al.: Efficient Li-metal plating/stripping in carbonate electrolytes using a LiNO3-gel polymer electrolyte, monitored by operando neutron depth profiling. Chem. Mater. 31, 4564–4574 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.9b01325
Qi, S.H., He, J., Liu, J.D., et al.: Phosphonium bromides regulating solid electrolyte interphase components and optimizing solvation sheath structure for suppressing lithium dendrite growth. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31, 2009013 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202009013
Cheng, X.B., Yan, C., Peng, H.J., et al.: Sulfurized solid electrolyte interphases with a rapid Li+ diffusion on dendrite-free Li metal anodes. Energy Storage Mater. 10, 199–205 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2017.03.008
Roh, Y., Kim, Y.-J., Lee, J.H., et al.: Sustainable formation of sulfur-enriched solid electrolyte interface on a Li metal electrode by sulfur chain-containing polymer electrolyte interfacial layers. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 3, 10070–10079 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.0c01758
Xu, J.G., Tian, H.K., Qi, J., et al.: Mechanical and electronic stabilization of solid electrolyte interphase with sulfite additive for lithium metal batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 166, A3201–A3206 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0331914jes
Dai, H.L., Xi, K., Liu, X., et al.: Cationic surfactant-based electrolyte additives for uniform lithium deposition via lithiophobic repulsion mechanisms. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 140, 17515–17521 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.8b08963
Wang, Q., Yang, C.K., Zhang, Y.F., et al.: Surface-based Li+ complex enables uniform lithium deposition for stable lithium metal anodes. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2, 4602–4608 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.9b00929
Wang, X.S., Mai, W.C., Guan, X.C., et al.: Recent advances of electroplating additives enabling lithium metal anodes to applicable battery techniques. Energy Environ. Mater. 4, 284–292 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/eem2.12109
Guo, J.Q., Chen, Y.P., Xiao, Y.B., et al.: Flame-retardant composite gel polymer electrolyte with a dual acceleration conduction mechanism for lithium ion batteries. Chem. Eng. J. 422, 130526 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.130526
Moffat, T.P., Wheeler, D., Kim, S.K., et al.: Curvature enhanced adsorbate coverage model for electrodeposition. J. Electrochem. Soc. 153, C127 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2165580
Chen, K.H., Wood, K.N., Kazyak, E., et al.: Dead lithium: mass transport effects on voltage, capacity, and failure of lithium metal anodes. J. Mater. Chem. A 5, 11671–11681 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1039/c7ta00371d10.1039/c7ta00371d
Liang, L.Y., Chen, L.Q.: Nonlinear phase field model for electrodeposition in electrochemical systems. Appl. Phys. Lett. 105, 263903 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4905341
Mullins, W.W., Sekerka, R.F.: Stability of a planar interface during solidification of a dilute binary alloy. J. Appl. Phys. 35, 444–451 (1964). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1713333
Mullins, W.W., Sekerka, R.F.: Morphological stability of a particle growing by diffusion or heat flow. J. Appl. Phys. 34, 323–329 (1963). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1702607
Ahmad, Z., Viswanathan, V.: Stability of electrodeposition at solid-solid interfaces and implications for metal anodes. Phys. Rev. Lett. 119, 056003 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.119.056003
Ahmad, Z., Viswanathan, V.: Role of anisotropy in determining stability of electrodeposition at solid-solid interfaces. Phys. Rev. Mater. 1, 055403 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevmaterials.1.055403
Tikekar, M.D., Archer, L.A., Koch, D.L.: Stabilizing electrodeposition in elastic solid electrolytes containing immobilized anions. Sci. Adv. 2, e1600320 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1600320
Monroe, C., Newman, J.: Dendrite growth in lithium/polymer systems. J. Electrochem. Soc. 150, A1377 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1606686
Monroe, C., Newman, J.: The impact of elastic deformation on deposition kinetics at lithium/polymer interfaces. J. Electrochem. Soc. 152, A396 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1850854
Monroe, C., Newman, J.: The effect of interfacial deformation on electrodeposition kinetics. J. Electrochem. Soc. 151, A880 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1710893
Legrand, N., Knosp, B., Desprez, P., et al.: Physical characterization of the charging process of a Li-ion battery and prediction of Li plating by electrochemical modelling. J. Power Sources 245, 208–216 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.06.130
Doh, C.H., Han, B.C., Jin, B.S., et al.: Structures and formation energies of LixC6 (x = 1–3) and its homologues for lithium rechargeable batteries. Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 32, 2045–2050 (2011). https://doi.org/10.5012/bkcs.2011.32.6.2045
Mistry, A., Fear, C., Carter, R., et al.: Electrolyte confinement alters lithium electrodeposition. ACS Energy Lett. 4, 156–162 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.8b02003
López, C.M., Vaughey, J.T., Dees, D.W.: Morphological transitions on lithium metal anodes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 156, A726 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.3158548
Cohen, Y.S., Cohen, Y., Aurbach, D.: Micromorphological studies of lithium electrodes in alkyl carbonate solutions using in situ atomic force microscopy. J. Phys. Chem. B 104, 12282–12291 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1021/jp002526b
Fan, H.L., Gao, C.H., Jiang, H., et al.: A systematical study on the electrodeposition process of metallic lithium. J. Energy Chem. 49, 59–70 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2020.01.013
Liu, H., Cheng, X.B., Xu, R., et al.: Plating/stripping behavior of actual lithium metal anode. Adv. Energy Mater. 9, 1902254 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201902254
Chen, L., Zhang, H.W., Liang, L.Y., et al.: Modulation of dendritic patterns during electrodeposition: a nonlinear phase-field model. J. Power Sources 300, 376–385 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.09.055
Pinson, M.B., Bazant, M.Z.: Theory of SEI formation in rechargeable batteries: capacity fade, accelerated aging and lifetime prediction. J. Electrochem. Soc. 160, A243–A250 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1149/2.044302jes
Williamson, M.J., Tromp, R.M., Vereecken, P.M., et al.: Dynamic microscopy of nanoscale cluster growth at the solid-liquid interface. Nat. Mater. 2, 532–536 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat944
Liang, Z., Lin, D.C., Zhao, J., et al.: Composite lithium metal anode by melt infusion of lithium into a 3D conducting scaffold with lithiophilic coating. PNAS 113, 2862–2867 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518188113
Liu, Y.Y., Lin, D.C., Liang, Z., et al.: Lithium-coated polymeric matrix as a minimum volume-change and dendrite-free lithium metal anode. Nat. Commun. 7, 10992 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms10992
Zhang, Y., Luo, W., Wang, C.W., et al.: High-capacity, low-tortuosity, and channel-guided lithium metal anode. PNAS 114, 3584–3589 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618871114
Li, Y.J., Jiao, J.Y., Bi, J.P., et al.: Controlled deposition of Li metal. Nano Energy 32, 241–246 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.12.030
Li, Q., Zhu, S.P., Lu, Y.Y.: 3D porous Cu current collector/Li-metal composite anode for stable lithium-metal batteries. Adv. Funct. Mater. 27, 1606422 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201606422
Huang, S.B., Zhang, W.F., Ming, H., et al.: Chemical energy release driven lithiophilic layer on 1 m2 commercial brass mesh toward highly stable lithium metal batteries. Nano Lett. 19, 1832–1837 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b04919
Zou, P.C., Wang, Y., Chiang, S.W., et al.: Directing lateral growth of lithium dendrites in micro-compartmented anode arrays for safe lithium metal batteries. Nat. Commun. 9, 464 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-02888-8
Yang, G.H., Chen, J.D., Xiao, P.T., et al.: Graphene anchored on Cu foam as a lithiophilic 3D current collector for a stable and dendrite-free lithium metal anode. J. Mater. Chem. A 6, 9899–9905 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ta02810a
Wang, Y.Y., Wang, Z.J., Lei, D.N., et al.: Spherical Li deposited inside 3D Cu skeleton as anode with ultrastable performance. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10, 20244–20249 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b04881
Wang, S.H., Yin, Y.X., Zuo, T.T., et al.: Stable Li metal anodes via regulating lithium plating/stripping in vertically aligned microchannels. Adv. Mater. 29, 1703729 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201703729
Li, Z.H., Li, X.L., Zhou, L., et al.: A synergistic strategy for stable lithium metal anodes using 3D fluorine-doped graphene shuttle-implanted porous carbon networks. Nano Energy 49, 179–185 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.04.040
Yu, L., Canfield, N.L., Chen, S.R., et al.: Enhanced stability of lithium metal anode by using a 3D porous nickel substrate. ChemElectroChem 5, 761–769 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/celc.201701250
Zhang, R., Wen, S.W., Wang, N., et al.: N-doped graphene modified 3D porous Cu current collector toward microscale homogeneous Li deposition for Li metal anodes. Adv. Energy Mater. 8, 1800914 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201800914
Shen, L., Shi, P.R., Hao, X.G., et al.: Progress on lithium dendrite suppression strategies from the interior to exterior by hierarchical structure designs. Small 16, 2000699 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202000699
Xue, W.J., Huang, M.J., Li, Y.T., et al.: Ultra-high-voltage Ni-rich layered cathodes in practical Li metal batteries enabled by a sulfonamide-based electrolyte. Nat. Energy 6, 495–505 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-021-00792-y
Shin, D.Y., Ahn, H.J.: Interfacial engineering of a heteroatom-doped graphene layer on patterned aluminum foil for ultrafast lithium storage kinetics. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 19210–19217 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c01774
Kim, S.J., Moon, S.H., Kim, M.C., et al.: Micro-patterned 3D Si electrodes fabricated using an imprinting process for high-performance lithium-ion batteries. J. Appl. Electrochem. 48, 1057–1068 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-018-1234-y
Kim, Y.J., Jin, H.S., Lee, D.H., et al.: Guided lithium deposition by surface micro-patterning of lithium-metal electrodes. ChemElectroChem 5, 3169–3175 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/celc.201800694
Li, Q., Quan, B.G., Li, W.J., et al.: Electro-plating and stripping behavior on lithium metal electrode with ordered three-dimensional structure. Nano Energy 45, 463–470 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.01.019
Park, J., Kim, D., Jin, D., et al.: Size effects of micro-pattern on lithium metal surface on the electrochemical performance of lithium metal secondary batteries. J. Power Sources 408, 136–142 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.09.061
Park, J., Jeong, J., Lee, Y., et al.: Micro-patterned lithium metal anodes with suppressed dendrite formation for post lithium-ion batteries. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 3, 1600140 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.201600140
Ryou, M.H., Lee, Y.M., Lee, Y., et al.: Mechanical surface modification of lithium metal: towards improved Li metal anode performance by directed Li plating. Adv. Funct. Mater. 25, 834–841 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201402953
Zhai, P.B., Wei, Y., Xiao, J., et al.: In situ generation of artificial solid-electrolyte interphases on 3D conducting scaffolds for high-performance lithium-metal anodes. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 1903339 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201903339
Deng, W., Zhou, X.F., Fang, Q.L., et al.: Microscale lithium metal stored inside cellular graphene scaffold toward advanced metallic lithium anodes. Adv. Energy Mater. 8, 1703152 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201703152
Yan, K., Lu, Z.D., Lee, H.W., et al.: Selective deposition and stable encapsulation of lithium through heterogeneous seeded growth. Nat. Energy 1, 16010 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2016.10
Ahn, J., Park, J., Kim, J.Y., et al.: Insights into lithium surface: stable cycling by controlled 10 μm deep surface relief, reinterpreting the natural surface defect on lithium metal anode. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2, 5656–5664 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.9b00805
Shen, X., Zhang, R., Chen, X., et al.: The failure of solid electrolyte interphase on Li metal anode: structural uniformity or mechanical strength? Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 1903645 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202070045
Kushima, A., So, K.P., Su, C., et al.: Liquid cell transmission electron microscopy observation of lithium metal growth and dissolution: root growth, dead lithium and lithium flotsams. Nano Energy 32, 271–279 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.12.001
He, Y., Ren, X.D., Xu, Y.B., et al.: Origin of lithium whisker formation and growth under stress. Nat. Nanotechnol. 14, 1042–1047 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-019-0558-z
Ishikawa, K., Ito, Y., Harada, S., et al.: Crystal orientation dependence of precipitate structure of electrodeposited Li metal on Cu current collectors. Cryst. Growth Des. 17, 2379–2385 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.cgd.6b01710
White, E.R., Singer, S.B., Augustyn, V., et al.: In situ transmission electron microscopy of lead dendrites and lead ions in aqueous solution. ACS Nano 6, 6308–6317 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1021/nn3017469
Yu, S.H., Huang, X., Brock, J.D., et al.: Regulating key variables and visualizing lithium dendrite growth: an operando X-ray study. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 141, 8441–8449 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.8b13297
Hsieh, Y.C., Leißing, M., Nowak, S., et al.: Quantification of dead lithium via in situ nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 1, 100139 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2020.100139
Magnussen, O.M., Hotlos, J., Nichols, R.J., et al.: Atomic structure of Cu adlayers on Au(100) and Au(111) electrodes observed by in situ scanning tunneling microscopy. Phys. Rev. Lett. 64, 2929–2932 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.64.2929
Manne, S., Hansma, P.K., Massie, J., et al.: Atomic-resolution electrochemistry with the atomic force microscope: copper deposition on gold. Science 251, 183–186 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.251.4990.183
Bard, A.J., Fan, F.R.: Introductory lecture. Studies of the liquid/solid interface by scanning tunnelling microscopy and scanning electrochemical microscopy. Faraday Disc. 94, 1–22 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1039/fd9929400001
Schmidt, W.U., Alkire, R.C., Gewirth, A.A.: Mechanic study of copper deposition onto gold surfaces by scaling and spectral analysis of in situ atomic force microscopic images. J. Electrochem. Soc. 143, 3122–3132 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1837174
Schneeweiss, M.A., Kolb, D.M.: The initial stages of copper deposition on bare and chemically modified gold electrodes. Phys. Stat. Sol. (a) 173, 51–71 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1521-396X(199905)173:1%3c51::AID-PSSA51%3e3.0.CO;2-O
Hölzle, M.H., Zwing, V., Kolb, D.M.: The influence of steps on the deposition of Cu onto Au(111). Electrochim. Acta 40, 1237–1247 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4686(95)00055-J
Gunawardena, G., Hills, G., Montenegro, I., et al.: Electrochemical nucleation: Part I. General considerations. J. Electroanal. Chem. Interfacial Electrochem. 138, 225–239 (1982). https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0728(82)85080-8
Vereecken, P.M., Strubbe, K., Gomes, W.P.: An improved procedure for the processing of chronoamperometric data: application to the electrodeposition of Cu upon (100) n-GaAs. J. Electroanal. Chem. 433, 19–31 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0728(97)00195-2
Radisic, A., Long, J.G., Hoffmann, P.M., et al.: Nucleation and growth of copper on TiN from pyrophosphate solution. J. Electrochem. Soc. 148, C41 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1344539
Kamrani Moghaddam, L., Ramezani Paschepari, S., Zaimy, M.A., et al.: The inhibition of epidermal growth factor receptor signaling by hexagonal selenium nanoparticles modified by SiRNA. Cancer Gene Ther. 23, 321–325 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/cgt.2016.38
Koch, S.L., Morgan, B.J., Passerini, S., et al.: Density functional theory screening of gas-treatment strategies for stabilization of high energy-density lithium metal anodes. J. Power Sources 296, 150–161 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.07.027
Ghassemi, H., Au, M., Chen, N., et al.: Real-time observation of lithium fibers growth inside a nanoscale lithium-ion battery. Appl. Phys. Lett. 99, 123113 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3643035
Liu, X.H., Zhong, L., Zhang, L.Q., et al.: Lithium fiber growth on the anode in a nanowire lithium ion battery during charging. Appl. Phys. Lett. 98, 183107 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3585655
Kelton, K.F.: Crystal nucleation in liquids and glasses. Solid State Phys. 45, 75–177 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0081-1947(08)60144-7
Li, Y.Q., Zhang, L.Y., Liu, S.F., et al.: Original growth mechanism for ultra-stable dendrite-free potassium metal electrode. Nano Energy 62, 367–375 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.05.020
Mehdi, B.L., Stevens, A., Qian, J.F., et al.: The impact of Li grain size on coulombic efficiency in Li batteries. Sci. Rep. 6, 34267 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep34267
Yan, K., Wang, J.Y., Zhao, S.Q., et al.: Temperature-dependent nucleation and growth of dendrite-free lithium metal anodes. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58, 11364–11368 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201905251
Acknowledgements
This work was supported primarily by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2020YFA0710303), National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 22109025), Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province, China (2021J05121). B.R. Li and Y. Chao contributed equally to this work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
There are no conflicts to declare.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Li, B., Chao, Y., Li, M. et al. A Review of Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) and Dendrite Formation in Lithium Batteries. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 6, 7 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-022-00147-5
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-022-00147-5