Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-25wd4 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-28T05:05:31.374Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

DO DEMOCRACIES SPEND LESS ON THE MILITARY? SPAIN AS A LONG-TERM CASE STUDY (1876-2009)*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 September 2015

Oriol Sabaté
Oriol Sabaté*
Affiliation:
University of Barcelona
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper analyses the influence of political regimes on the level and economic composition of military expenditure in Spain over the long run. In contrast with the widely accepted negative relation between democracy and military spending, the paper suggests that democratic governments established in the late 1970s and early 1980s after Franco’s dictatorship had a positive influence on the military burden owing to the efforts to reorient the army towards international threats and to involve the armed forces with the newly democratic institutions. In addition, the analysis of military expenditure allows us to conclude that the international orientation of democratic military policies took place along with financial efforts to obtain a capital-intensive army to confront international military threats.

Resumen

El artículo analiza la influencia de los regímenes políticos en el nivel y en la composición económica del gasto militar en España en el largo plazo. En contraste con la relación negativa entre democracia y gasto militar comúnmente aceptada por la literatura, el artículo sugiere que los gobiernos democráticos establecidos a finales de los 1970s y principios de los 1980s tuvieron una influencia positiva en la carga militar española debido a los esfuerzos para reorientar el ejército hacia las amenazas exteriores y para involucrar las fuerzas armadas con las nuevas instituciones democráticas. Adicionalmente, el análisis de la composición económica del gasto permite concluir que la orientación internacional de las políticas militares de los gobiernos democráticos fue aparejada con un mayor esfuerzo para conseguir un ejército intensivo en capital, con el objetivo de poder intervenir en el escenario militar internacional.

Keywords

military spendingmilitary loyaltySpainstructural changeN40H56Gasto militarLealtad militarEspañaCambio estructural
Type
Articles/Artículos
Information
Revista de Historia Economica - Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History , Volume 34 , Issue 3 , December 2016 , pp. 385 - 415
Check for updates
Copyright
© Instituto Figuerola, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

This paper is part of the author’s PhD dissertation project under the supervision of Alfonso Herranz and Sergio Espuelas, to whom the author is most grateful for their valuable advice. The author also want to thank the participants of the I Foro de Doctorandos e Investigadores Noveles en Historia Económica, the VIII European Historical Economics Society Summer School, the Economic History PhD Seminar of the University of Barcelona and three anonymous referees for their helpful comments. The author is also grateful to Stein Aaslund and Perlo-Freeman for their generous help with the NATO figures and methodologies on military spending, and to the staff of the Study Center for Peace J.M. Delàs for their suggestions on Spanish military expenditure. The usual disclaimer applies.

a

Department of Economic History and Institutions, University of Barcelona, Avda. Diagonal, 690 08034 Barcelona, Spain. oriol.sabate@ub.edu

References

REFERENCES

Acemoglu, D.; Ticchi, D., and Vindigni, A. (2010): «A Theory of Military Dictatorships». American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics 2 (1), pp. 1-42.Google Scholar
Ades, A., and Chua, H. B. (1997): «Thy Neighbor’s Curse: Regional Instability and Economic Growth». Journal of Economic Growth 2 (3), pp. 279-304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agüero, F. (1995): Militares, Civiles y democracia. La España postfranquista en perspectiva comparada. Madrid: Alianza Editorial.Google Scholar
Baliga, S.; Lucca, D. O., and Sjöström, T. (2011): «Domestic Political Survival and International Conflict: Is Democracy Good for Peace». Review of Economic Studies 78, pp. 458-486.Google Scholar
Ballbé, M. (1983): Orden público y militarismo en la España constitucional (1812-1983). Madrid: Alianza Editorial.Google Scholar
Barrios Ramos, R. (2006): «El proceso de transición democrática de las Fuerzas Armadas españolas 1975/1989». Ministerio de Defensa, Madrid, Tesis Doctoral.Google Scholar
Batchelor, P.; Dunne, P., and Lamb, G. (2002): «The Demand for Military Spending in South Africa». Journal of Peace Research 39 (3), pp. 339-354.Google Scholar
Ben-David, D., and Papell, D. H. (2000): «Some Evidence on the Continuity of the Growth Process Among the G7 Countries». Economic Inquiry 38 (2), pp. 320-330.Google Scholar
Besley, T., and Robinson, J. A. (2010): «Quis Custodiet Ipsos Custodes? Civilian Control over the Military». Journal of the European Economic Association 8 (2-3), pp. 655-663.Google Scholar
Boix, C.; Miller, M., and Rosato, S. (2012): «A Complete Dataset of Political Regimes, 1800-2007». Comparative Political Studies 46 (12), pp. 1523-1554.Google Scholar
Bove, V., and Cavatorta, E. (2012): «From Conscription to Volunteers: Budget Shares in NATO Defence Spending». Defence and Peace Economics 23 (3), pp. 273-288.Google Scholar
Brauner, J. (2015): «Military Spending and Democracy». Defence and Peace Economics 26(4), 409-423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, J. Y., and Perron, P. (1991): «Pitfalls and Opportunities: What Macroeconomists Should Know About Unit Roots». NBER Macroeconomic Annual, Cambridge, pp. 141-201.Google Scholar
Cardona, G. (1983): El poder militar en la España Contemporánea hasta la Guerra Civil. Madrid: Siglo XXI.Google Scholar
Cardona, G. (2008): El Poder militar en el franquismo: las bayonetas de papel. Barcelona: Flor del Viento.Google Scholar
Caverley, J. D. (2009): «The Myth of Military Myopia: Democracy, Small Wars, and Vietnam». International Security 34 (3), pp. 119-157.Google Scholar
Collier, D., and Adcock, R. (1999): «Democracy and Dichotomies: A Pragmatic Approach to Choices About Concepts». Annual Review of Political Science 2, pp. 537-565.Google Scholar
Comín, F. (1985): Fuentes cuantitativas para el estudio del sector público en España 1801-1980. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Fiscales.Google Scholar
Comín, F. (2004): «El gasto y la industria de defensa en la España Contemporánea». Cuadernos Aragoneses de Economía 14 (2), pp. 297-320.Google Scholar
Comín, F., and Díaz Fuentes, D. (2005): «Sector público administrativo y estado del bienestar», in A. Carreras, and X. Tafunell (eds), Estadísticas históricas de España. Siglos XIX y XX. Bilbao: Fundación BBVA, pp. 873-964.Google Scholar
Cypher, J. M. (2007): «From Military Keynesianism to Global-Neoliberal Militarism». Monthly Review 59 (2).Google Scholar
Dincecco, M.; Federico, G., and Vindigni, A. (2011): «Warfare, Taxation and Political Change: Evidence from the Italian Risorgimento». Journal of Economic History 71 (4), pp. 887-914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunne, P.; Nikolaidou, E., and Mylonidis, N. (2003): «The Demand for Military Spending in the Peripheral Economies of Europe». Defence and Peace Economics 14 (6), pp. 447-460.Google Scholar
Dunne, P., and Perlo-Freeman, S. (2003): «The Demand for Military Spending in Developing Countries». International Review of Applied Economics 17 (1), pp. 23-48.Google Scholar
Dunne, P.; Perlo-Freeman, S., and Smith, R. P. (2008): «The Demand for Military Expenditure in Developing Countries: Hostility Versus Capability». Defence and Peace Economics 19 (4), pp. 293-302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunne, P., and Smith, R. P. (2007): «The Econometrics of Military Arms Races», in K. Hartley, and T. Sandler (eds), Handbook of Defence Economics. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 913-940.Google Scholar
Eloranta, J. (2007): «From the Great Illusion to the Great War: Military Spending Behaviour of the Great Powers, 1870-1913». European Review of Economic History 11 (2), pp. 255-283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eloranta, J.; Svetlozar, A., and Osinsky, P. (2014): «Democratization and Central Government Spending, 1870-1938: Emergence of the Leviathan?». Research in Economic History 30, pp. 1-46.Google Scholar
Espuelas, S. (2012): «Are Dictatorships Less Redistributive? A Comparative Analysis of Social Spending in Europe (1950-1980)». European Review of Economic History 16 (2), pp. 211-232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fordham, B. O., and Walker, T. C. (2005): «Kantian Liberalism, Regime Type, and Military Resource Allocation: Do Democracies Spend Less?». International Studies Quarterly 49 (1), pp. 141-157.Google Scholar
Gadea, M. D., and Montañés, A. (2001): «An Analysis of Defence Spending in Spain: A Long-Run Approach». Defence and Peace Economics 12 (5), pp. 369-393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García Alonso, J. M. (2007): «Gasto de material e industria de defensa, in Centro Superior de Estudios de la Defensa Nacional, La aportación de las fuerzas armadas a la economía nacional». Documentos de Seguridad y Defensa 11, pp. 80-90.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, B. E. (2003): «Bearing the Defense Burden, 1886-1989: Why Spend More?». Journal of Conflict Resolution 47 (5), pp. 551-573.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, B. E. (2007): «Defense Effort and Institutional Theories of Democratic Peace and Victory Why Try Harder?». Security Studies 16 (2), pp. 189-222.Google Scholar
Gómez Castañeda, J. (1985): «Los gastos de defensa en España: análisis retrospectivo y perspectiva actual». Presupuesto y Gasto Público 26, pp. 27-44.Google Scholar
Hegre, H. (2014): «Democracy and Armed Conflict». Journal of Peace Research 51 (2), pp. 159-172.Google Scholar
Hobson, J. M. (1993): «The Military-Extraction Gap and the Wary Titan: The Fiscal Sociology of British Defense Policy 1870-1914». Journal of European Economic History 22 (3), pp. 461-506.Google Scholar
Jordana, J., and Ramió, C. (2005): «Gobierno y Administración», in A. Carreras, and X. Tafunell (eds), Estadísticas históricas de España. Siglos XIX y XX. Bilbao: Fundación BBVA, pp. 973-1026.Google Scholar
Krepinevich, A. (1994): «From Calvalry to Computers. The Pattern of Military Revolutions». The National Interest 37, pp. 30-42.Google Scholar
Lebovic, J. H. (2001): «Spending Priorities and Democratic Rule in Latin America». Journal of Conflict Resolution 45 (4), pp. 427-452.Google Scholar
Lindert, P. H. (2004): Growing Public Social Spending and Economic Growth Since the Eighteenth Century (Volume I and II). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Linz, J. J.; Montero, J. R., and Ruiz, A. M. (2005): «Elecciones y política», in A. Carreras, and X. Tafunell (eds), Estadísticas históricas de España. Siglos XIX y XX. Bilbao: Fundación BBVA, pp. 1027-1154.Google Scholar
López Garrido, D. (1982): La Guardia Civil y los orígenes del Estado centralista. Barcelona: Grijalbo.Google Scholar
Marsh, H. J. (2000): «Emerging Technologies and Military Affairs», in T. Gongora, and H. Riekhoff (eds), Toward a Revolution in Military Affairs? Defense and Security at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 61-76.Google Scholar
Melero Alonso, E. (2012): «Las operaciones militares de España en el exterior». Centre d’Estudis per la Pau J.M. Delàs, Resultats de Recerca 01/2012.Google Scholar
Murdoch, J. C. (1995): «Military Alliances: Theory and Empirics», in K. Hartley, and T. Sandler (eds), Handbook of Defence Economics. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 89-108.Google Scholar
Olmeda Gómez, J. A. (1988): Las Fuerzas armadas en el Estado franquista: participación política, influencia presupuestaria y profesionalización, 1939-1975. Madrid: El Arquero.Google Scholar
Pereira, J. C (ed.) (2003): La política exterior de España (1800-2003). Barcelona: Ariel.Google Scholar
Pérez Munielo, F. (2009): El Gasto de Defensa en España 1946-2009. Madrid: Ministerio de Defensa. Secretaría General Técnica.Google Scholar
Pieroni, L. (2009): «Military Expenditure and Economic Growth». Defence and Peace Economics 20 (4), pp. 327-339.Google Scholar
Pons, J., and Tirado, D. A. (2004): «Discontinuidades en el crecimiento económico en el período 1870-1994: España en perspectiva comparada». Revista de Economía Aplicada 36 (12), pp. 1-20.Google Scholar
Powell, J. (2012): «Determinants of the Attempting and Outcome of Coups d’état». Journal of Conflict Resolution 56 (6), pp. 1017-1040.Google Scholar
Puell de la Villa, F. (2000): Historia del Ejército en España. Madrid: Alianza Editorial.Google Scholar
Puell de la Villa, F. (2001): «Política de defensa y Política Militar en el siglo XX», in A. Morales Moya (coord.), Las claves de la España del siglo XX, Vol. 2, La organización del Estado, Madrid: Sociedad Estatal España Nuevo Milenio, pp. 165-187.Google Scholar
Rogers, C. (2000): «Military Revolutions and Revolutions in Military Affairs: A Historian’s Perspective», in T. Gongora, and H. Riekhoff (eds), Toward a Revolution in Military Affairs? Defense and Security at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 21-36.Google Scholar
Rosh, R. M. (1988): «Third World Militarization: Security Webs and the States they Ensnare». Journal of Conflict Resolution 32 (4), pp. 671-698.Google Scholar
Rota, M. (2011): «Military Burden and the Democracy Puzzle». Munich Personal RePEc Archive, Working Paper Series no. 35254, pp. 1-30.Google Scholar
Sabaté, O. (2013): «New Quantitative Estimates on Long-Term Military Spending in Spain (1850-2009)». ICIP Working Papers Series no. 2013.06, pp. 1-58.Google Scholar
San Román López, E. (1999): Ejército e Industria: el nacimiento del INI. Barcelona: Crítica.Google Scholar
Schultz, K. A., and Weingast, B. R. (2003): «The Democratic Advantage: Institutional Foundations of Financial Power in International Competition». International Organization 57 (1), pp. 3-42.Google Scholar
Sechser, T. S., and Saunders, E. N. (2010): «The Army You Have: The Determinants of Military Mechanization, 1979-2001». International Studies Quarterly 54 (2), pp. 481-511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serra, N. (2008): La transición militar. Reflexiones en torno a la reforma democrática de las fuerzas armadas. Barcelona: Debate.Google Scholar
Sprout, H., and Sprout, M. (1968): «The Dilemma of Rising Demands and Insufficient Resources». World Politics 20 (4), pp. 660-693.Google Scholar
Thompson, W. R. (1980): «Corporate Coup-Maker Grievances and Types of Regime Targets». Comparative Political Studies 12, pp. 485-496.Google Scholar
Töngür, Ü.; Hsu, S.; Elveren, A. Y. (2015): «Military Expenditures and Political Regimes: Evidence from global data, 1963-2000». Economic Modelling 44, pp. 68-79.Google Scholar
Torre del Río, R. (2003): «Recogimiento, crisis del 98 y nueva orientación internacional (1975-1914)», in J. C. Pereira (ed.), La política exterior de España (1800-2003). Barcelona: Ariel, pp. 421-436.Google Scholar
Tusalem, R. F. (2014): «Bringing the Military Back In: The Politicization of the Military and its Effect on Democratic Consolidation». International Political Science Review 35 (4), pp. 482-501.Google Scholar
Valiño Castro, A. (2001): «Defense Spending in Spain». Defence and Peace Economics 12 (5), pp. 395-415.Google Scholar
Velarde Fuertes, J. (2000): «La evolución desde una economía castiza a una globalizada: sus consecuencias para los planteamientos defensivos españoles». Economistas 85, pp. 6-19.Google Scholar
Viñas, A. (2010): «Los pactos con Estados Unidos, 1953-1976: una visión estructural», in F. Puell de la Villa, and S. Alda Mejías (eds), Los Ejércitos del Franquismo (1939-1975). Madrid: Instituto Universitario General Guitérrez Mellado, pp. 269-296.Google Scholar
Vogelsang, T. (1997): «Wald-Type Tests for Detecting Shifts in the Trend Function of a Dynamic Time Series». Econometric Theory 13, pp. 818-849.Google Scholar
Wahman, M.; Teorell, J., and Hadenius, A. (2013): «Authoritarian Regimes Types Revisited: Updated Data in Comparative Perspective». Contemporary Politics 19 (1), pp. 19-34.Google Scholar
Waltz, K. N. (1982): «The Myth of National Interdependence», in R. Maghroori, and B. Ramberg (eds), Globalism Versus Realism: International Relations Third Debate. Colorado: Westview Press, pp. 81-96.Google Scholar
Whitten, G. D., and Williams, L. K. (2011): «Buttery Guns and Welfare Hawks: The Politics of Defense Spending in Advanced Industrial Democracies». American Journal of Political Science 55 (1), pp. 117-134.Google Scholar
Wooldridge, J. (2003): Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach. Australia: South-Western College.Google Scholar