Potential for phosphonate degradation in Lake Matano and other freshwater environments.
Heterotrophic bacteria isolated from Lake Matano were recently shown to utilize a diverse array of P sources, including 2-AEP (
Table 1) and to make large changes in the RNA content and lipid composition of the cells when P starved (
38). To assess the probability of methane production from MPn degradation in Lake Matano surface water, reads mapping to genes encoding the C-P lyase pathway (
Fig. 1A) were quantified. All of the genes necessary for cleavage of MPn to methane and phosphate are present in the metagenomic data set from the surface water of Lake Matano (
Fig. 1C). This pathway includes subunits of the phosphonate transporter (
phnDEC), activation of the phosphonate by ATP (
phnIGHL), release of diphosphate (
phnM), and cleavage of the C-P bond, which results in release of methane (
phnJ) (
48).
The odds ratios compare the frequency of each protein in the metagenomic data set to its frequency in the COG database (
42). An odds ratio greater than 1 indicates that a predicted protein is present in the metagenomic data set at a higher frequency than expected based on its frequency in protein databases (
42). Below the chemocline in Lake Matano, the phosphate concentration increases to ∼10 μM, making the microbes at this depth less P starved than those in the surface water (
37,
49). Because the odds ratios for nearly all of the genes required for MPn transport and degradation are less than 1 in the metagenomic data from the P-replete chemocline (
Fig. 1B) but greater than 1 in the P-limited surface water (
Fig. 1C), we hypothesized that MPn could serve as a P source for some organisms in Lake Matano, which would release methane as a by-product.
The Newbler GS De Novo Assembler was used to assemble the metagenomic reads from the Lake Matano surface water, and 530,076 reads (66.39% of the total number of reads) were assigned to 18,727 contigs. Amino acid sequences of C-P lyase proteins from
E. coli (
50) were used to query the contigs, and Contig00268 and contig00117 were chosen for further annotation. Contig00268 has 5,357 nucleotides and carries a partial
phnI sequence,
phnJKLM, a predicted inositol monophosphatase (IMPase), and a partial gene encoding the ATP-binding motif of an ABC transporter. Contig00117 has 7,056 nucleotides and carries the phosphonate transporter-encoding
phnDCE, along with an alkaline phosphatase gene and a partial penicillin-binding protein-encoding gene (
Fig. 2).
Based on blastn analysis, Contig00268 has more than 83% coverage and 65% identity to gene clusters from three actinobacterial strains:
Rhodococcus opacus strain PD630,
R. opacus strain R7, and
Mycobacterium simiae strain MO323. The three actinobacterial strains lack the accessory
phnNP and the regulatory gene
phnO that are part of the C-P lyase gene cluster in
E. coli (
50). The three actinobacterial strains all carry an inositol monophosphatase (IMPase)-encoding gene downstream of the C-P lyase gene clusters, and
M. simiae encodes a penicillin-binding protein and an inositol 1-phosphate synthase upstream of the C-P lysase, while the
R. opacus strains encode it downstream of the C-P lyase. In the two
R. opacus strains, a predicted ABC transporter lies immediately downstream of the C-P lyase cluster (not shown). The best hit of blastn analysis for Contig00117 was also most similar to an
Actinobacterium,
Isoptericola dokdonensis DS-3, with 32% coverage and 71% identity. The predicted PhnE amino acid sequences in Contig00117,
R. opacus, and
M. simiae appear to have two PhnE domains (TIGR01097), in contrast to the
E. coli PhnE, which has only one (
Fig. 2). Several glyphosate- and phosphite-utilizing microbes have
phn gene clusters with two copies of
phnE (
51,
52). In the gene cluster on Contig00117, these appear to be fused: no stop codon between the two
phnE genes could be found, so we predict that they encode a single polypeptide.
The product of
phnJ is responsible for cleavage of the C-P bond in phosphonate compounds and thus for release of methane from MPn (
53), so the distribution of this gene in freshwater metagenomic data sets was assessed. Metagenomic data derived from freshwater samples and archived at the Integrated Microbial Genomes resource (
https://img.jgi.doe.gov/) or the European Nucleotide Archive (
http://www.ebi.ac.uk/ena) were queried for the presence of
phnJ. Eighteen of the 23 data sets (78%) had homologs of
phnJ (
Table 3), suggesting that phosphonate bond cleavage may occur in a variety of freshwater environments, including lakes, lake sediments, bogs, rivers, and streams.
Methanogenesis has been observed in oxic surface waters of lakes (
4–6,
8,
10). However, it has not been directly observed in Lake Matano surface waters, so we assessed the metagenomic data set from 10 m to determine whether surface water methanogenesis seemed likely. No reads mapping to archaeal rRNA sequences (5S, 16S, or 23S) are present in this data set. Ninety-five reads (of a total of 798,463 reads) mapped to archaeal genomes. Most of these (75 of 95 reads) mapped to the class
Halobacteria, the members of which are not methanogenic. The remaining 20 reads were initially mapped to the methanogen genera
Methanococcus and
Methanomicrobium; however, when these reads were used as blastn queries against the NBCI nonredundant database, only 4 were identified as similar to sequences from methanogen genomes (
Methanoculleus and
Methanococcus). After the metagenomic reads were used as queries in a blast search against the COG database, the results were screened for reads mapping to methanogenesis pathways, but none were identified. Additionally, the amino acid sequence of McrA from
Methanosarcina barkeri DSM804 (RefSeq:
WP_011305916.1) was used as a query against the metagenomic data set, and no reads with homology to McrA were identified. We thus conclude that if water column methanogenesis occurs in the epilimnion of Lake Matano, it is either localized deeper than 10 m or carried out by a very small number of organisms not detected in our metagenomic survey.
Utilization of MPn as a P source by Lake Matano isolates.
Seven isolates were screened for growth on MPn. Four were capable of growth on MPn as the sole P source and were selected for further analysis (
Table 1). All four strains grow at the same rates on MPn, K
2HPO
4, or both and reach stationary phase at approximately the same time (
Fig. 3, dashed lines). These isolates do not appear to be capable of consuming the methane released as a carbon or energy source, since they do not grow when MPn is provided as the sole P, C, and energy source (data not shown).
Methane was produced only in the presence of MPn (
Fig. 3, solid lines). In the presence of both MPn and 200 μM K
2HPO
4, strain LM-Y did not produce any methane (
Fig. 3D). However, the other isolates produced some methane in the presence of K
2HPO
4 when MPn was also present (
Fig. 3A to
C). No methane was produced by any strain when MPn was not provided, indicating that the methane is a product of MPn metabolism.
To further investigate the relationship between MPn concentration and methane production, strain LM-Y was grown in NBRIP with different concentrations of MPn (
Fig. 4). This strain has been shown to decrease RNA content and replace its phospholipids with amino- and glycolipids when P is limited, so the cells may increase their P content without necessarily altering the growth yield (
38). As the MPn concentration increases, the cell yield and total methane production also increase, suggesting that availability of additional P promotes additional growth, as expected (
Fig. 4). Both yield and methane production are similar when 100 or 200 μM MPn is added, suggesting that at concentrations of >100 μM MPn, sufficient P is available to maximize growth yield in NBRIP and the excess P
i in solution may even inhibit further degradation of MPn (
54).
Environmental significance.
Here, we show that freshwater heterotrophic bacteria are capable of producing methane from MPn and that the pathway for phosphonate degradation is widespread in freshwater lakes. We further demonstrate that in Lake Matano, Alphaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and likely Actinobacteria can take up phosphonate compounds and cleave the C-P bond to acquire P and that this activity is repressed in the presence of Pi. Similarly, the phnJ gene is expressed in these strains only in the presence of MPn, and its expression level is modulated by addition of Pi. In sum, this work shows that methane production in freshwater systems may occur as a result of phosphate limitation, as microbes acquire P from phosphonates.
Phosphonates, including MPn, may comprise up to 10% of dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) in some lakes (
55–57), though many freshwaters have no detectable phosphonates (
58,
59) or only very small quantities thereof (
60,
61). However, homologs of
phnJ are present in 18 of 23 metagenomic data sets from freshwater environments (water and sediment), including bogs, lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams (
Table 3). The number of data sets in which
phnJ is found and the diversity of environments indicate that the ability to degrade phosphonates is widespread in freshwater environments. Additionally, based on the abundance of
phnD, which encodes one subunit of the phosphonate transporter, picocyanobacteria in the Great Lakes are predicted to be capable of phosphonate uptake (
62). Given the broad distribution of phosphonate uptake and degradation pathways, phosphonates may be undetectable in freshwater systems not because they are not present but because they are rapidly broken down. In fact, phosphonates in marine systems have been shown to be highly reactive (
63), and the same may be true in freshwater environments, which are typically P limited (
64). This P limitation may result in microbial acquisition of P from a wide variety of sources (
38), ultimately leading to release of organic by-products such as methane.
The steady-state concentration of methane at 40 m in Lake Matano is ∼3 μM, 3 orders of magnitude greater than the saturation concentration (
7). Many freshwater lakes are supersaturated with regard to methane, often more than can be explained by methanogenesis in anoxic sediments or bottom waters (
5,
6,
10). In some of these systems, surface water methane is produced by methanogenesis in oxic surface waters (
5,
10). However, in severely P-limited systems, demethylation of P-containing compounds may also contribute to surface water methane production. Because Lake Matano has less than 50 nM total P
i in the surface water (
37), planktonic organisms there must be capable of immediate uptake and utilization of P in any available form (
38). Both physiological experiments with isolates and bioinformatics analysis of metagenomic data indicate that heterotrophic bacteria in Lake Matano surface water are capable of producing methane as a by-product of acquisition of P from phosphonate compounds. Given the prevalence of genes encoding phosphonate biosynthesis and degradation in freshwater metagenomic data sets, P metabolism in freshwater systems may have unexpectedly large effects not only on P cycling but also on release of greenhouse gases. The current models for methane cycling in fresh waters use lake size, shape, nutrient status, temperature, and primary production to predict rates of methane production (
19,
21,
65) but do not include methane production by any pathway in oxic water columns, even though this phenomenon has been observed in many lakes (
4–6,
8,
10) and is known to be important in the ocean (
12,
13). Because lakes may release as much as ∼100 Tg methane globally each year, or ∼20% of total annual natural methane emissions, which is more than the emissions from the world's oceans (
1,
2), understanding the environmental and biological factors contributing to methane emissions from freshwater systems is critical to making more-accurate predictions of both freshwater and global methane emissions (
9,
18–21).