Invisible victims? Where are male victims of conflict-related sexual violence in international law and policy?
Abstract
In this article the author argues that men and boys have been historically and structurally rendered an invisible group of victims in international human rights and policy responses towards conflict-related sexual violence stemming from the United Nations. The apparent female-focused approach of instruments on sexual violence is criticized followed by a discussion – through analysis and interviews with legal scholars and champions for the recognition of male survivors’ experiences – of the first ‘emergence’ of male victims in these instruments and key actors involved in this process. The existing serious dichotomy between visible and invisible victims is prominently based on their ‘gender identity’ and leads to structural discrimination of male victims of rape or other forms of sexual violence. To overcome this situation and develop more inclusive instruments, a reconceptualization is needed of the meaning and use of words like ‘gender’ and ‘gender-based violence’. Additionally, a more intersectional approach to sexual violence should be adopted, understanding that victims have a multitude of identities such as ethnicity or religious affiliation that make them particularly vulnerable to suffering.
Get full access to this article
View all access and purchase options for this article.
References
Alison MH (2007) Wartime sexual violence: Women’s human rights and questions of masculinity. Review of International Studies 33(1): 75–90.
Al Jazeera (2011) Inside story. 28 July. Available at: www.aljazeera.com/programmes/insidestory/2011/07/2011728101626315380.html.
Bastick M, Grimm K, Kunz R (eds) for the Geneva Centre for Democratic Control of Armed Forces (2007) Sexual violence in armed conflict, global overview and implications for the security sector 2007 (‘Global Overview 2007’). Available at: www.essex.ac.uk/armedcon/story_id/sexualviolence_conflict_full%5B1%5D.pdf.
BBC World Service (2012) An unspeakable act. 28 July. Available at: www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00vp5pk.
Brownmiller S (1976) Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape. New York: Ballantine Books.
Butler J (1993) Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’. New York: Routledge.
Carpenter RC (2006) Recognizing gender-based violence against civilian men and boys in conflict situations. Security Dialogue 37(1): 83–103.
Crenshaw K (1991) Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review 43(3): 1241–1299.
Dolan C (2014) Into the mainstream: Addressing sexual violence against men and boys in conflict. In: Workshop at Overseas Development Institute, 14 May 2014. Available at: www.refugeelawproject.org/files/briefing_papers/Into_The_Mainstream-Addressing_Sexual_Violence_against_Men_and_Boys_in_Conflict.pdf.
Donnelly D, Kenyon S (1996) ‘Honey, we don’t do men’: Gender stereotypes and the provision of services to sexually assaulted males. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 11(3): 441–448.
Eboe-Osuji C (2012) International Law and Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts. Hamburg: Martinus Nijhoff.
Enloe C (2000) Manoeuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Frontline (2012) The dancing boys of Afghanistan. Available at: www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/dancingboys/view/.
G8 (2013) Declaration to End Sexual Violence. Available at: www.unrol.org/doc.aspx?d=3371.
Gettleman J (2009) Symbol of unhealed Congo: Male rape victims. New York Times, 4 August. Available at: www.nytimes.com/2009/08/05/world/africa/05congo.html.
Graham H (2006) Male rape and the careful construction of the male victim. Social and Legal Studies 15(2): 187–208.
Grey R, Shepherd L (2013) ‘Stop rape now?’ Masculinity, responsibility, and conflict-related sexual violence. Men and Masculinities 16(1): 115–135.
Hennessey T, Gerry F (2010) International human rights law and sexual violence against men in conflict zones. Halsbury Law Exchange 1, 6.
ICC (International Criminal Court) (2011) Elements of crimes. Available at: refworld.org/docid/4ff5dd7d2.html.
ICJ (International Court of Justice) (1996) Legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, advisory opinion. ICJ Reports, 8 July, p. 226
ICJ (International Court of Justice) (2004) Advisory opinion concerning legal consequences of the construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. 9 July.
Johnson K, Scott J, Rughita B, et al. (2010) Association of sexual violence and human rights violations with physical and mental health in territories of the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Journal of the American Medical Association 304(5): 553–562.
Jones A (2000) Gendercide and genocide. Journal of Genocide Research 2(2): 185–211.
Jones A (2001) Effacing the male: Gender, misrepresentation and exclusion in the Kosovo war. Transitions: The Journal of Men’s Perspectives 21(1): 1–18.
Koo K (2002) Confronting a disciplinary blindness: Women, war and rape in the international politics of security. Australian Journal of Political Science 37(3): 525–536.
Lewis DA (2009) Unrecognized victims: Sexual violence against men in conflict settings under international law. Wisconsin International Law Journal 27(1): 1–49.
Linos N (2009) Rethinking gender-based violence during war: Is violence against civilian men a problem worth addressing? Social Science and Medicine 68(2): 1548–1551.
MacKinnon C (1993) On torture: A feminist perspective on human rights. In: Mahoney KE, Mahoney P (eds) Human Rights in the Twenty-First Century: A Global Challenge. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff.
MacKinnon C (1994) Rape, genocide and women’s human rights. In: Stiglmayer A (ed) Mass Rape: The War Against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Toronto: Bison Books.
Oosterhoff P, Zwanikken P, Ketting E (2004) Sexual torture of men in Croatia and other conflict situations: An open secret. Reproductive Health Matters 23: 68–77.
Peel M, Mahtani A, Hinshelwood G, Forrest D (2000) The sexual abuse of men in detention in Sri Lanka. The Lancet 355: 2069–2070
Prosecutor v. Cesic, Judgment, IT–95–10/1–S, 11 March 2003.
Prosecutor v. Delalic et al. (‘Celebici’), Judgement, IT–96–21–T, 16 November 1998.
Prosecutor v. Niyitegeka, Case No. ICTR–96–14–T, 16 May 2003.
Prosecutor v. Sesay, Kallon and Gbao (‘RUF Trial’), Judgement, SCSL-04-15-T, 20 February 2009.
Prosecutor v. Stakic, Judgement, IT–97–24–A, 22 March 2006.
Prosecutor v. Todorovic, Judgement, IT–95–9/1, 31 July 2007.
Sivakumaran S (2007) Sexual violence against men in armed conflict. The European Journal of International Law 18(2): 253–276.
Sivakumaran S (2010) Lost in translation: UN responses to sexual violence against men and boys in situations of armed conflict. International Review of the Red Cross 92(877): 259–277.
Skjelsbaek I (2001) Sexual violence and war: Mapping out a complex relationship. European Journal of International Relations 7: 211–237.
Solangon S, Patel P (2012) Sexual violence against men in countries affected by armed conflict. Conflict, Security and Development 12: 417–442.
Stemple L (2009) Male rape and human rights. Hastings Law Journal 60(2): 605–645.
Stemple L (2011) Op-Ed by Lara Stemple. The International Herald Tribune, 2 March. Available at: www.nytimes.com/2011/03/02/opinion/02stemple.html?_r=1&.
Storr W (2011) The rape of men. The Guardian, 17 July. Available at: www.theguardian.com/society/2011/jul/17/the-rape-of-men.
SVRI (Sexual Violence Research Initiative) (n.d.) Care and support of male survivors of sexual violence. Briefing paper. Available at: www.svri.org/CareSupportofMaleSurviv.pdf.
Symington A (2004) Intersectionality: A tool for gender and economic justice. Women’s Rights and Economic Change 9: 215–248.
UNHCR and RLP (UN High Commissioner for Refugees and Refugee Law Project) (2012) Working with men and boy survivors of sexual and gender-based violence in forced displacement. Available at: www.stoprapenow.org/uploads/advocacyresources/1343219299.pdf.
United Nations, Action Against Sexual Violence in Conflict, Analytical and Conceptual Framing of Conflict-related Sexual Violence, endorsed by the UN Action Steering Committee in May 2011. Available at: www.stoprapenow.org/uploads/advocacyresources/1321456915.pdf.
United Nations, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women, 27 October 1995.
United Nations, Commission of Experts Yugoslavia. Annex II, Rape and Sexual Assault: A Legal Study, Final Report of the UN Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), n.4. Doc S/1994/674/Add.2 (Vol. I), 28 December 1994.
United Nations, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), General Recommendations Nos 19 and 20, adopted at the Eleventh Session, 1992 (contained in Document A/47/38), 1992, A/47/38.
United Nations General Assembly, CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women), 18 December 1979.
United Nations General Assembly, Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 10 December 1984.
United Nations General Assembly, Declaration of Commitment to End Sexual Violence in Conflict, 24 September 2013. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/244849/A_DECLARATION_OF_COMMITMENT_TO_END_SEXUAL_VIOLENCE_IN_CONFLICT__TO_PRINT….pdf.
United Nations General Assembly, Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, A/RES/48/104, 20 December 1993.
United Nations General Assembly, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 19 December 1966.
United Nations Human Rights Council, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1, 23 November 2011. Available at: www.refworld.org/docid/4edde9d02.html.
United Nations, Provisional Guidance Note Implementation of Security Council Resolution 1960, June 2011. Available at: www.refworld.org/pdfid/4e23ed5d2.pdf.provisional guidance note
United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the Implementation of Security Council Resolutions 1820 (2008) and 1888 (2009), A/65/592–S/2010/604, 24 November 2010.
United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on Conflict-Related Sexual Violence, A/66/657*S/2012/33*, 13 January 2012.
United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict, A/67/792–S/2013/149, 14 March 2013.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325, S/RES/1325, 31 October 2000.
United Nation Security Council Resolution 1820, S/RES/1820, 19 June 2008.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1888, S/RES/1888, 30 September 2009.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1889, S/RES/1889, 5 October 2009.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1960, S/RES/1960, 16 December 2010.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 2106, S/RES/2106, 24 June 2013.
UN Security Council Resolution 2122, S/RES/2122, 18 October 2013.
Zarkov D (2001) The body of the other man: Sexual violence and the construction of masculinity, sexuality and ethnicity in the Croatian media. In: Moser C, Clark F (eds) Victims, Perpetrators or Actors? Gender, Armed Conflict and Political Violence. London: Zed Books, pp. 69–82.
List of interviewees
Adams Kate, War Child UK, Skype interview on 2 October 2013, emails received on 1, 3, 17, 18, 19 October 2013.
Anderson Christopher, MaleSurvivor US, interview on 2 October 2013, emails received on 1, 2, 14, 15 October 2013 and 5 June 2014.
Clearwater Ken, MSSAT New Zealand, interview on 14 October 2014, emails received on 18 October 2013 and 4 and 9 June 2014.
Dolan Chris, Refugee Law Project, Skype interview on 15 October 2013, emails received on 8, 14, 16, 17 October 2013 and 21 May and 1 July 2014.
Hannah Ann, Preventing Sexual Violence Initiative of the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office, emails received on 8, 14, 16, 17 October 2013.
Hilton Alastair, First Step Cambodia, interview on 14 October 2014, emails received on 1, 10, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 23 October 2013, 30 May 2014 and 10 and 12 June 2014.
Jones Adam, UBC, emails received 1, 8, 13 October 2013.
Koller David, Watchlist, emails received (multiple per day) on 30 September and 1 October 2013.
Lew Mike, Next Step Counselling and Training Centre, emails received on 4, 9, 14 October 2013.
Stemple Lara, UCLA, interview on 17 October 2013, emails received on 3, 15, 16, 17, 19, 22 October 2014 and 7 June 2014.
Cite article
Cite article
Cite article
OR
Download to reference manager
If you have citation software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice
Information, rights and permissions
Information
Published In
Article first published online: October 18, 2015
Issue published: November 2015
Keywords
Authors
Metrics and citations
Metrics
Journals metrics
This article was published in European Journal of Women's Studies.
VIEW ALL JOURNAL METRICSArticle usage*
Total views and downloads: 4195
*Article usage tracking started in December 2016
Articles citing this one
Receive email alerts when this article is cited
Web of Science: 21 view articles Opens in new tab
Crossref: 19
-
Sexual Violence Against Men in Civil Conflict
-
Post-Traumatic Growth, Resilience and Social-Ecological Synergies: Som...
-
Common Themes Among CSA Survivors: A Content Analysis
-
Emotional and Gendered Sense-Making through Apologies for Conflict-Rel...
-
Examining Militarized Masculinity, Violence and Conflict: Male Survivo...
-
“When It’s a Girl, They Have a Chance to Have Sex With Them. When It’s...
-
A feminist reflection on male victims of conflict-related sexual viole...
-
Gender, rights and responsibilities: The need for a global analysis of...
-
Male and LGBT survivors of sexual violence in conflict situations: a r...
-
Vulnerable women and barbaric rapists: legitimisation of UN interventi...
-
Gender and New Wars
-
“Homosexualization” revisited: an audience-focused theorization of war...
-
The ‘war’/‘not-war’ divide: Domestic violence in the Preventing Sexual...
-
Guilty by Association: The Issue of Gender Violence and the Targeted K...
-
Apuntes para entender la violencia sexual contra los hombres en el mar...
-
Male Help-Seeking After Sexual Assault: A Series of Case Studies Infor...
-
‘My heart was already cooked’: girl soldiers and situated moral agenci...
-
Measuring and reporting campus sexual assault: Privilege and exclusion...
-
Support Programs for Male Survivors of Conflict-Related Sexual Violenc...
Figures and tables
Figures & Media
Tables
View Options
Get access
Access options
If you have access to journal content via a personal subscription, university, library, employer or society, select from the options below:
loading institutional access options
Alternatively, view purchase options below:
Purchase 24 hour online access to view and download content.
Access journal content via a DeepDyve subscription or find out more about this option.
