Nabhan, A.; Widinly, N.; Memesh, A.; Khorsheed, M.; El-Sorogy, A.S., and Tawfik, M., 2023. Sedimentological and geomorphological characteristics of Jabal Kudumbul Island, southeast Red Sea, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Coastal Research, 39(6), 1114–1123. Charlotte (North Carolina), ISSN 0749-0208.
A marine geological survey of the Quaternary volcanic island of Jabal Kudumbul in the rifted southeastern Red Sea in Saudi Arabia has been conducted for the first time. The survey aimed to document sedimentological and geomorphological characteristics from sample collection and interpretation of high-resolution satellite images taken in the last decade. Beach, sand dune, and sand sheet sedimentary facies types were identified. The volcanic mountain in the western zone of the island and the low-lying sandy shorelines in the eastern zone represent the main geomorphic landforms related to wave and current processes in the study area. The volcanic cone showed three volcano-stratigraphic facies units: basalt rocks, phreatomagmatic lapilli tuff, and vesicular basalt/scoria, indicating that they might have been formed during eruption and interaction between rising magma and shallow seas. The coastline constantly changes over time due to longshore processes and spring tides. A suite of complex wind, wave diffraction, longshore current, and biological processes and episodic synrifting in the area played dominant roles in facies and landscape creation and the overall development of Jabal Kudumbul Island. These findings provide important information for future studies on the arid islands in the Red Sea region beyond modern surficial deposits.
INTRODUCTION
Sedimentary and geomorphology studies of arid islands and coasts in a rift setting have been given limited attention. These sedimentological and geomorphological characteristics of Quaternary deposits can be compared to those on humid volcanic islands and coasts (Davis and Fitzgerald, 2004; El-Sorogy, 2002, 2008; Mindrescu and Gradinaru, 2014; Mutaqin et al., 2021; Oppenheimer, 2003; Tucker et al., 2020). Sedimentary facies characteristics and processes on coasts with arid conditions have gained increasing interest in the last few decades because of climate changes, tourism projects, and economic projects such as wind energy production (e.g., Basaham et al., 2014; El-Sorogy, Almadani, and Al-Dabbagh, 2016; Garzanti et al., 2001; Nabhan and Yang, 2018, 2022; Petrovic et al., 2022; Sen, 2008; Tawfik et al., 2021). Most carbonate sediments in arid coasts exhibit different grain-size distributions due to abundant skeletal debris derived from reefs that are intensely affected by waves, currents, and wind. The sedimentological characteristics in arid coasts are controlled by a suite of complex physical, chemical, and biological processes (Nabhan and Yang, 2018). These interactions among deposits, water column, and wind regime are the main factors forming facies and geomorphological units. On humid coasts, hydrodynamic processes are the major controlling processes along the coast.
The Jabal Kudumbul volcanic island area is a part of the Red Sea rift and is located offshore on the southeast margin of the rift between latitude 17°53′19″ N and longitude 41°41′33″ E (Figure 1A,B). This area sits on a shallow N-NW–oriented platform. The cinder is one of 200 cinder cones that appear to have been less than 150 m high and associated with Pleistocene basaltic flows extruded along the southeast Red Sea coast (Coleman, Gregory, and Brown, 1983). This basaltic flow has been called the Al Birk basalts (Harrat Al Birk) (Bakhsh, 2017). Rifting initiated ∼25 million years ago, separating the Arabian and African plates (Stern and Johnson, 2010). This volcanic field has resulted in rift shoulder uplift, basin subsidence, and deposition of shallow to deep marine facies (As-Saruri, Sorkhabi, and Baraba, 2010; Coleman et al., 1977; Nabhan and Yang, 2018; Prinz, 1984). In the Paleogene and Neogene periods, tectonic movements along the southern Red Sea coast were accompanied by widespread volcanic activity, which resulted in layered gabbro, granophyre, and rhyolitic dikes occupying the NW-trending faults (Jado and Zotl, 1984). Proterozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks constitute the basement exposed behind the basaltic escarpment farther to the east of the coast (Hadley, 1981).
Figure 1
(A) Location map of Jabal Kudumbul Island, Saudi Arabia. (B) Simplified geological map showing the general geology of the study area (simplified after Prinz, 1984). (C) Facies and geomorphologic characteristics and sample locations. The base map is a 2022 IKONOS image.
Jabal Kudumbul Island is hot and arid. The monthly maximum mean temperature is about 38 °C, and the monthly minimum mean temperature is 22 °C (PME, 2012). June to September are the hottest months in the study area. Low precipitation equals 6.6 mm/y on average based on records for 2002 to 2012, and evaporation is high with 1200 mm/y (Nabhan and Yang, 2018; PME, 2012), resulting in a sea surface salinity of 36.5‰ on average (Petrovic et al., 2022). Seasonal and regional variations in speed and direction characterize the wind regime. The prevailing wind direction is from the W during summer, with strong wind events from June to August, causing dust storms to spread over the southern Red Sea coast (Hickey and Goudie, 2007). The wind blows SW during winter, ranging from 2 to 50 km/h (PME, 2012). Longshore currents are generated by waves and winds along the coastal area. The tidal range is from 0.2 to 0.3 m, the spring tide is 0.9 m, and the fall tide is 1.4 m (Nabhan and Yang, 2018). Saline plants occur on the island and are generally characterized by herbaceous species, commonly Suaeda monoica (Nabhan, 2015).
The main contribution of this study lies in its originality as the first geological and geomorphological study conducted on the islands located in the southern part of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which is consistent with Saudi Vision 2030. The objectives of the present study were: (1) to describe the modern sedimentary facies and geomorphological characteristics of Jabal Kudumbul Island along the southern Red Sea in Saudi Arabia using field investigation and laboratory methods, (2) to document the major processes controlling sedimentation in the study area, and (3) to investigate the temporal variation of the studied shoreline using high-resolution satellite images taken during 2013 to 2022. The results of this study will add an important case study to the limited repository of geological studies in an arid and active rift setting and can be used to interpret the depositional environments for ancient rock records.
METHODS
In the Jabal Kudumbul Island region, field investigations have been done involving sampling and reconnaissance surveys, documenting, and photographing of geomorphological characteristics (Figure 1C). High-resolution IKONOS satellite images with spatial resolution greater than 1–4 m were acquired from the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST); atmospheric, radiometric, and image enhancement (stretching) corrections were carried out using ERDAS Imagine software (version 2020). The investigation of temporal variation of the shoreline and characterization of geomorphological features on the island for the period 2013 to 2022 were undertaken using true color image bands 3 (red), 2 (green), and 1 (blue). Facies areas were measured and mapped using ArcGIS software. In total, 17 sediment samples were collected from beach facies, 13 sediment samples were collected from sand sheet facies, and 7 samples were collected from sand dunes. These 37 samples were analyzed for texture, including gravel, sand, and mud weight percentages, by dry sieving after removal of the mud fraction using a 0.063 mm sieve. The gravel fraction was separated from sand using a 2 mm sieve. The graphic mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis were calculated using the formulae of Folk and Ward (1957). Four samples were collected from red and black scoria, coral fragments, and gravelly sandstone. Three major sedimentary facies were identified, described, and measured. The measurements were converted to a weight percentage of variable-size fractions. Graphic mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis were calculated using the formulae of Folk and Ward (1957).
RESULTS
This section describes the results of the sedimentary facies analysis (i.e. beach, sand dunes, and sand sheets) and the geomorphological characteristics (i.e. volcanic mountains and shorelines) from the field and laboratory examinations and IKONOS images. The sedimentary and geomorphological features help to account for the sedimentation processes and the formation of volcanic cones.
Sedimentary Facies Analysis
The southern Red Sea coast in Saudi Arabia contains complex and rapidly changing facies areas. The modern siliciclastic deposits in the area are controlled by sedimentary processes and climatic and tectonic conditions (Garzanti et al., 2001; Nabhan and Yang, 2018; Tawfik, El-Sorogy, and Al-Kahtany, 2023). The following subsections provide detailed descriptions of these sedimentary facies, from textural and compositional points of view. (See also Supplementary Tables 1 (coas-39-05-07_s01.pdf) and 2 (coas-39-05-07_s01.pdf).)
Beach
Beaches consist of an accumulation of loose fine sand to large cobbles transported and deposited by waves and currents. Sandy beach systems are found along about 20% of the coasts worldwide (Davidson-Arnott, 2010). The beach consists of supratidal and intertidal sand deposits parallel to the shoreline. The beach includes a foreshore and a backshore separated by a berm (Figures 1C and 2). The foreshore slopes seaward and has a swash and a surf zone between low and high tidal lines. The backshore zone experiences alternately both wind and storm processes. It can be subdivided into eastern and western parts. The eastern part is composed of sandy deposits, and it is wide with a gentle foreshore slope. In the eastern foreshore part, gravelly volcanic deposits are overlain by sandy backshore sands (Figure 2A,B). The depositional gradient of the sandy beach is up to 2 m and 0.5 m in the SE and W parts of the island, respectively. Sand mounds and burrows appear in the carbonate crust in the SW part of the island, dug by ghost crabs during low tide. They destroy primary sedimentary structures and mix sediments on the berm and backshore while wind and storm surges rework the berm and back beach. A shallow pond can be observed on the eastern part of the island (Figure 1C). In the narrow northeastern beach of the island, along a rocky coastline cliff, the beach has shell fragments extending about 146 m with a maximum width of 5 m (Figure 2C,D). The southwestern part of the island has massive basaltic rocks extending along the rocky coastline cliff. The western part is narrow, poorly developed rocky headlands with pocket beaches filled with shell fragments eroded by waves and currents, which represent the most important source of intertidal sediments, especially coarse fractions (Nabhan, 2015).
Figure 2
(A) Foreshore and backshore facies of the beach sediments on the island's northeastern part. (B) Beach facies in the southeastern part of the island, including foreshore, berm, and vegetated sand dunes. (C) Accumulation of shell fragments along the rocky coastline cliff in the narrow northeastern beach of the island. (D) Foreshore, backshore, and narrow rocky beach in the southwestern part of the island, consisting of massive basaltic rocks constituting the rocky coastline cliff, winnowed by wave and longshore currents.
The composition and size of the beach sediments reflect the source material primarily and the processes of sorting, abrasion by wave action, and chemical weathering by hydrolysis secondarily (Woodroffe, 2002). The texture of 17 samples from eastern sandy deposits from the berm and foreshore were analyzed. The samples contained mainly sands, ranging from 86.55 to 99.72 wt%, with an average of 96.73 wt%. Gravel varied from 0.04 to 13.12 wt%, with 2.79 wt% on average. Mud varied from 0.07 to 2.41 wt%, with 0.81 wt% on average. Grains ranged from moderately sorted to well sorted. All grains were angular (87.84% on average) or subangular (28.43%) to subrounded (56.86%). Graphic mean size ranged from 0.02Φ to 1.47Φ as coarse to medium sands with an average of 0.86Φ. The standard deviation ranged from 0.42Φ to 0.95Φ and 0.62Φ on average, indicating that these sediments are well sorted and moderately sorted. The skewness ranged from 20.39 to 20.03 and averaged 20.03, representing very coarse to nearly symmetrical skewness. The kurtosis ranged from 0.8 to 1.40, from platykurtic to leptokurtic, with an average of 1.08 mesokurtic (Figures 3 and 4).
Sand Dunes and Sand Sheets
Eolian facies in the island are represented by the widespread occurrence of vegetated dunes and sand sheets (Figure 5). The dunes, with maximum heights of 3 m, occur mainly in the northwestern sandy part of the island and are largely absent in the southeastern part. The dunes occur along the coast. Sparse beachgrass vegetation includes Suaeda monoica, Halopeplis perfoliata, and Ammophila arenaria in the backshore areas, representing nabkha dunes trending N-NW (Figure 5B). Sand sheets cover most of the east part of the island. They are flat, with gentle slope facies, and in some parts, gravels creep over the sand sheets.
Figure 5
(A) Vegetated dunes and sand sheets of the eolian facies in Jabal Kudumbul Island. (B) Vegetated sand dunes with sparse beachgrass vegetation in the northwestern sandy part of the island. (C) The volcanic cone of Jabal Kudumbul Island, consisting of basaltic rocks (blocky lava flow), basaltic tuff, red and black vesicular basalt (scoria), and ash. (D) A marine cave formed by erosion and wave action in the western part along the coastline of the island.
The seven dune samples contained mainly sands ranging from 92.73 to 99.56 wt% and 97.74 wt% on average. Gravel varied from 0 to 1.43 wt% and 0.32 wt% on average. Mud content varied from 0.42 to 5.84 wt% and 1.93 wt% on average. The graphic mean size ranged from 1.19Φ to 1.54Φ as medium sands. The grains were angular (with 29.41% on average), subangular (11.76%), and subrounded (58.82%). The average standard deviation ranged from 0.44Φ to 0.71Φ, and 0.50Φ on average, indicating that these sediments are well sorted and moderately sorted. The skewness ranged from 20.08 to 0.02, which is nearly symmetrical. The kurtosis ranged from 0.95 to 1.08, indicating a mesokurtic distribution.
Thirteen samples of sand sheets had a graphic mean size ranging from 0.12Φ to 1.28Φ as coarse to medium sands. Sands varied from 44.30 to 99.42 wt%, with an average of 82.58 wt%. Mud content ranged from 0.24 to 54.62 wt%, averaging 14.31 wt%. Gravel varied from 0.27 to 4.05 wt%, with an average of 1.46 wt%. The grains were angular (with 29.40% on average), subangular (11.76%), and subrounded (61.2%). The standard deviation ranged from 0.57Φ to 0.95Φ, indicating the sediments are moderately well sorted to moderately sorted. The skewness ranged from 20.14 to 1.43, i.e. coarse skewed to fine symmetrical. The kurtosis ranged from 1.1 to 1.33, indicating a mesokurtic to leptokurtic distribution (Figures 3 and 4).
Geomorphologic Characteristics
Jabal Kudumbul Island is subdivided into two principal geomorphic features, a volcanic mountain in the western zone of the island and the low-lying sandy shorelines in the eastern zone (Figure 1C). Winds, currents, and temperature are the main factors controlling the movement and distribution of sediments and the formation of various geomorphic landforms on the arid coast of the Red Sea (Basaham et al., 2014; Nabhan and Yang, 2018).
Volcanic Mountain
The volcanic cone covers approximately 0.11 km2 of the island and is nearly 100 m high northwest of the Jabal Kudumbul Island shoreline. It is composed of basalt rocks (blocky lava flow), basaltic tuff, red and black vesicular basalt (scoria), and ash, but it does not have a visible crater. The volcanic cone showed three volcano-stratigraphic facies units: basaltic rocks, phreatomagmatic lapilli tuff, and vesicular basalt/scoria (Figures 2C,D and 5B). The sequence consists of massive basalt facies at the base with an older paleosurface overlain sequentially by a thick succession of basaltic tuff and scoria facies. Massive basalt flows surround the cinder cone as pyroclastic flows containing a high density of lava blocks. Phreatomagmatic lapilli tuff, dominated by pyroclastic beds/deposits, including thickly bedded glassy pyroclastic material, poorly indurated material, and an ash-fall layer, forms a deposit about 32 m thick (Figure 5C). Scoria is reddish to black, has a highly vesicular and glassy structure, and is mafic in composition. Three joints were recognized in the southeastern part of the island crossing the volcanic mountain trending NW, suggesting that the fracture was synchronous to the deposition of carbonate and basaltic tuff on the island.
Basaltic rocky headlands are nearly 27 m high on the northwest part of the island shoreline. In between, a pocket beach is included between rocky cliffs in the SW part of the mountain (Figure 5C). The shoreline in this part of island is bounded by resistant headlands, causing the refraction of waves to strike the rugged rocky coastline cliffs. Interaction between refracting waves and erosion of the reef platform and rocky headland by waves and currents occur on the west island where the pocket beach is located. A marine cave occurs on the western part of the island (Figure 5D) and is ∼12 m long and ∼8 m in width. The volcanic tufa and scoria make up the primary cave structure. Shell fragments with minor amounts of angular pebble and cobble basaltic fragments cover the bottom of the cave. This cave formed by erosion of a weak zone of the headland host rock and wave action along the coastline. Erosion of the fringing coral reefs and headlands by waves was the source of the shell fragments and basaltic pebbles and cobbles in the cave deposits.
Shorelines
The shoreline is often defined loosely as the swash limit or the landward edge of the backshore (Davidson-Arnott, 2010). The eastern zone of Jabal Kudumbul Island is branded by a low-lying coast and sandy deposits, with a wide and gentle foreshore slope (Figure 1C). The nearshore shelf zone of the island coast is considered to be an active carbonate depositional region of fringing coral reefs, and it gently slopes seaward up to the edge of the reef flat. This reef limestone platform significantly increases carbonate sedimentation on the east and southeast parts of the island, protecting sediments from erosion by waves and currents, to form direct deposition as skeletal components on the island. Results of satellite imagery from 2013 to 2022 indicated that the island's shoreline has been changed due to longshore processes and spring tides (Figure 6). Beach facies sediments are supplied by a coral reef surrounding the island, caused by wave diffraction, and they are transported from NE to SE and NW to SE by longshore currents (Figure 1C). A shallow pond resulted from the extension of a sand spit, which strongly suggests a change of direction in the coastline (Summerfield, 2013), where the sand spit and barrier extended straight from the turning point of the coastline and then the pit of sand recurred inward (San-nami et al., 2014). Spring tide and storm overwash can be large and carry water and sediments over the berm, resulting in coarse deposits. Crab and other burrowers destroy primary sedimentary structures and mix sediments on the fore and back beaches, while wind and storm surges rework the berm and back beach (Nabhan and Yang, 2018).
DISCUSSION
Because more documentation is needed on arid islands such Jabal Kudumbul, this discussion focuses on the evolution of the dunes and beaches and the origins of sands and carbonates. It also explains the causes of textural variations in sediments. Last, the geological factors that controlled the origin of Jabal Kudumbul, as well as the reasons for the presence of basalt on the island, are addressed.
Processes Controlling Sedimentation
The wind, longshore currents, and wave processes have controlled the pattern of transport, sorting, and accumulation of sediments along the island's beach. The sand grains are picked up and moved by winds at low tide. Extensive low dune fields form near the beach. The initiation and evolution of these dunes result from interaction with vegetation (Nabhan and Yang, 2018). Various bed forms generated by current, wind, and biogenic structures are common in western beach facies. The well-sorted and unimodal grain size distribution of the eastern carbonate sandy beach on the island indicates intense reworking by swash and longshore currents and wind. Beach facies are the predominant shallow marine biogenic sediments, which are composed of gastropods, bivalves, corals, echinoids, seagrass, and other skeletons of microorganisms drifted by wave diffraction from offshore and transported from NE to SE and NW to SE by longshore currents to be deposited on the beach foreshore. The less energetic backwash can transport only fine and medium sands, leaving behind the coarse sands on the beach face. Beach facies are enriched with shell and coral fragments, indicating transportation from reefal limestone platforms (El-Sorogy and Al-Kahtany, 2015; El-Sorogy et al., 2018). Variations in skewness of well and moderately sorted sand dunes indicate that sands originated from the beach and drowned into the sand dunes with an excess of fine sands (Nabhan and Yang, 2018). These dunes result from interaction with vegetation and enable sand dunes to accrete seaward and parallel to the shoreline, and they cause sand accumulation by lowering wind speed to create a complex pattern of low-relief sand dunes (Nabhan and Yang, 2018).
The beaches to the north, west, and south are narrow and characterized by rocky highlands and pocket beaches. At the same time, the swash and longshore currents are generated by waves impinging on the reef limestone platform cliffs and headlands, transporting shell fragments and minor basaltic pebbles sorted through the backwash of refractive waves. In the northern part of the island, shell fragments stretch along the cliffs. Massive basaltic boulders surround the southern part of the island, indicating intense, strong waves impinging on the cliffs and transporting fine sediments by longshore currents to the eastern part of the island to be accreted on the eastern beaches. A pocket beach in the western part has shell fragments and little basaltic pebble rocks caused by wave erosion of the reef limestone platform and headlands. Longshore swash currents transport the sediments to be accreted on the pocket beach and represent the most important source of swash sediments, especially coarse fractions, on the island.
The variations in the textural characteristics suggest a complex interaction between marine processes along the beach. High topography, narrow widths, and gravelly sediments in the north, south, and east parts of the island reflect erosion along these coasts. Boulders, pebbles, and gravelly coarse sands are probably due to high-energy waves and longshore currents. Fine sediments accumulating in the island's eastern part have resulted from low-lying topography and dissection by overwash and cross-shore processes.
Formation of the Cinder Cone Volcano
The morphological observations made on the Jabal Kudumbul Island volcanic cone indicate that it does not have a crater because the scoria and erosion products cover the crater. Dóniz-Páez (2015) found that sometimes volcanic cones are composed of pyroclastic rocks such as scoria, ash, and bombs, without a visible crater. Jabal Kudumbul Island is controlled by multiple complex geological factors operating on a large scale during the Pleistocene along the southern Red Sea coast, accompanied by widespread volcanic activity occupying the NW-trending main tectonic zones (Jado and Zotl, 1984; Prinz, 1984). The age of the basalt flow rocks in the Al Birk basalts defines an older group dated along the coastal plain as 11.8 ± 1.5 Ma and a younger group of basaltic flow with ages ranging from 0.3 and 5.0 Ma (Coleman et al., 1977; Prinz, 1984). The Pleistocene basaltic hills on the island are composed of a thick succession of lava extruded across the coastal plain (Prinz, 1984).
The Jabal Kudumbul Island volcanic cone indicates that the massive basalt facies and basaltic tuff and the scoria facies may have been caused by two periods of a volcanic eruption that built up a thick succession of lava associated with the tectonics of the Red Sea region (Stern and Johnson, 2010). Kereszturi and Németh (2012) recognized lava spatter or lava flow, scoria cones, and tuff cones as monogenetic volcanoes and monogenic eruptions in every tectonic environment based on the morphological aspects and dominant eruption styles of the volcanoes. A small volume of massive basalt flow surrounds the cinder cone, as pyroclastic flows contain a high density of lava blocks. Scoria cones result in each type of Strombolian-style eruption (Kereszturi and Németh, 2012). The succession of the Jabal Kudumbul Island volcanic cone has basal phreatomagmatic lapilli tuff dominated by pyroclastic bed/deposits, which is capped by scoria-dominated facies, suggesting that there was interaction between the rising magma and shallow sea. Therefore, it is classified as a Surtseyan-style volcano, which commonly develops on volcanic islands in coastal regions (Moufti and Németh, 2016; White and Houghton, 2000).
CONCLUSIONS
The sedimentology and geomorphology of the arid Jabal Kudumbul Island were surveyed using field investigations and high-resolution satellite images. Jabal Kudumbul Island is sensitive to various geological processes and is considered to be an unstable zone that comprises marine and terrestrial domains. Complex wave, tidal, current, wind, and biological processes are responsible for the development of the coastal geomorphic features. The variation in the textures and compositions suggests that sediments migrate through the current onto the shore. Due to winnowing processes, the grain size indicates that the foreshore sediments are fine to medium sand and well sorted to moderately sorted in sandy beaches in the SE part of island. The western beaches are narrow, with poorly developed rocky headlands and a pocket beach filled with shell fragments, which drifted by waves and currents. Eolian deposits include sand dunes and sand sheets that occur in the SE part of the island, and they are controlled by wind processes. The initiation and evolution of these dunes resulted from interaction with vegetation. Interpretation of the statistical grain size parameters indicated strong winds in different morphodynamical conditions and poor sorting due to vegetation baffling. Geomorphologically, Jabal Kudumbul Island is subdivided into a volcanic mountain in the western zone of the island and low-lying sandy shorelines in the eastern zone. The western zone has a narrow and poorly developed beach, basalt cliffs, pocket beach, and marine cave in the embayment of the cliffs. They were formed by erosion and abrasion of a weak zone in the headland host rock by wave action and currents along the coastline. Shorelines are ever-changing over time due to longshore processes and spring tides. Different geological factors have shaped the Jabal Kudumbul Island volcanic cone and marine sediments over thousands of years to create one of the most important Quaternary islands along the Red Sea, which may serve as an important data point in the future studies of arid volcanic islands and active rift settings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was a part of the Al Qahmah and Al Birk Marine Project of the Center of Survey and Exploration at the Saudi Geological Survey (SGS). The authors would like to express their gratitude to the president of SGS, Eng. Abdullah Al Shamrani, for his support and encouragement. Sincere thanks go to Mr. Naser Al Jahdali, vice president of the Geological Program, Adel Al Jarees, Ahmed Alosime, Yahya Mufarreh, and Turki Sehli for their help.
©Coastal Education and Research Foundation, Inc. 2023
