The use of synonymous codons at unequal frequencies, the codon usage bias, is characteristic of all biological systems (
26,
27). The strength and direction of codon usage bias are related to the genomic G+C content and the relative abundance of different isoaccepting tRNAs (reviewed in references
1,
16, and
53). Codon usage can affect the efficiency of gene expression. In bacteria (
Escherichia coli) (
26,
75), yeast (
Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (
5,
27), plants (
Arabidopsis thaliana) (
12), nematodes (
Caenorhabditis elegans) (
16), and insects (
Drosophila melanogaster) (
50), the most highly expressed genes use codons matched to the most abundant tRNAs (
2). In contrast, in humans and other vertebrates, codon usage bias is much more strongly correlated with the G+C content of the isochore where the gene is located (
51,
71) than with the breadth or level of gene expression (
16) or the number of corresponding tRNA genes (
28,
30). Despite the weak correlation between codon usage and the levels of gene expression in mammalian cells (
16,
71), imbalances between codon usage and tRNA abundance can sharply reduce the levels of gene expression.
Codon usage bias in human RNA viruses generally appears to be low, and differences in codon usage are most strongly correlated with the genomic G+C content (
29), which ranges from ∼35% in rotavirus (
17) to ∼70% in rubella virus (
15). Codon usage in vertebrate genomic DNAs and most eukaryotic RNA viruses is also shaped by the suppression of CG dinucleotides (
33). Polioviruses and the closely related species C human enteroviruses have moderate and similar (43% to 47%) G+C contents in their RNA genomes (
8), apparently low codon usage biases (
29), and low abundances of CG dinucleotides (
33,
57,
61,
70).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Virus and cells.
The Sabin Original +2 (
64) master seed of the Sabin type 2 OPV strain (P712 Ch 2ab) was kindly provided by R. Mauler of Behringwerke AG (Marburg, Germany). The virus was grown at 35°C in suspension cultures (
63) of HeLa S3 cells (human cervical carcinoma cells; ATCC CCL-2.2) (
11) or in monolayer cultures of HeLa (ATCC CCL-2) (
11) or RD (human rhabdomyosarcoma cells; ATCC CCL-136) cells. Some initial plaque assays were performed with HEp-2C cells (
11).
Preparation of infectious Sabin 2 clones.
Poliovirus RNA was extracted from 250 μl of cell culture lysate (from ∼75,000 infected cells) by using TRIZOL LS reagent (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) and further purified on Centri-Sep columns (Princeton Separations, Adelphia, N.J.). Full-length cDNA was prepared by reverse transcription (42°C for 2 h) of ∼1 μg of viral RNA in a 20-μl reaction mix containing a 500 μM concentration of each deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP; Roche Applied Science, Indianapolis, Ind.), 200 U Superscript II reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen), 40 U RNase inhibitor (Roche), 10 mM dithiothreitol, and 500 ng primer S2-7439A-B [CCTAAGC(T)
30CCCCGAATTAAAGAAAAATTTACCCCTACA] (
13) in Superscript II buffer. After reverse transcription, 2 U RNase H (Roche) was added and incubated at 37°C for 40 min. Long-PCR amplification of viral cDNA was performed using TaqPlus Precision (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.) and AmpliWax PCR Gem 100 beads (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.) for “hot start” PCR in thin-walled tubes. The bottom mix (50 μl) contained a 400 μM concentration of each dNTP (Roche) and 250 ng each of primers S2-7439A-B and S2-1S-C (GTAGTCGACTAATACGACTCACTATAGGTTAAAACAGCTCTGGGGTTG) in TaqPlus Precision buffer. A wax bead was added to each tube, and samples were heated at 75°C for 4 min and cooled to room temperature. The top mix (50 μl) contained 2 μl of cDNA and 10 U TaqPlus Precision in TaqPlus Precision buffer. The samples were incubated in a thermal cycler at 94°C for 1 min and then amplified by 30 PCR cycles (94°C for 30 s, 60°C for 30 s, and 72°C for 8 min), followed by a final denaturation step of 94°C for 1 min and a final extension step of 72°C for 20 min.
PCR products were purified using a QIAquick PCR purification kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, Calif.) and sequentially digested for 2 h at 37°C with the restriction enzymes SalI and HindIII prior to gel purification. PCR products were ligated into pUC19 plasmids following standard methods (
65), and ligated plasmids were transformed into XL-10 Gold supercompetent
E. coli cells (Stratagene) (
65). Sequences of the inserts were determined by cycle sequencing using an automated DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems) (
43).
Virus preparation.
Full-length cDNA plasmids were linearized with HindIII and purified on QIAquick columns prior to RNA transcription from 1 μg of plasmid DNA using a Megascript T7 in vitro transcription kit (Ambion, Austin, Tex.). RNA yields were estimated by using DNA Dipsticks (Invitrogen), and RNA chain lengths were analyzed by electrophoresis on 1% agarose-2.2 M formaldehyde gels (
40) prior to transfection. RD cells were transfected with transcripts of viral RNA by using Tfx-20 reagent (Promega, Madison, Wis.). Briefly, semiconfluent RD cells in 12-well cell culture plates were inoculated with 500 μl minimum essential medium (incomplete MEM) (GIBCO, Carlsbad, Calif.) containing 0.1 μg viral RNA transcript and 0.45 μl Tfx-20 reagent. Plates were incubated for 1 h at 35°C prior to the addition of 1.5 ml complete MEM (incomplete MEM supplemented with 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 μg/ml streptomycin, 2 mM
l-glutamine, 0.075% NaHCO
3, and 10 mM HEPES [pH 7.5]) (GIBCO) containing 3% fetal bovine serum (FBS; HyClone, Logan, Utah). Negative controls were performed using RNA transcribed from pBluescript II SK(+) (Stratagene) containing a cDNA insert of the incomplete viral genome (truncated at base 7200 by digestion with BamHI) in reverse orientation from a T3 promoter. A complete cytopathic effect (CPE) was observed for most viruses after incubation at 35°C for 18 to 20 h, at which time 400 μl from each transfected well was transferred to a confluent RD cell monolayer in a 75-cm
2 flask containing complete MEM. In this second passage, complete CPE was observed after 24 h at 35°C for all but the most highly modified viruses (e.g., S2R23), which were incubated for an additional 24 to 48 h. Viruses were liberated from the infected cells by three freeze-thaw cycles and clarification by centrifugation (15,000 ×
g, 15 min). The sequences of all virus stocks were verified by in vitro amplification of two large overlapping fragments and sequence analysis of the PCR products.
Site-directed mutagenesis.
Single base substitutions were introduced by using a QuikChange site-directed mutagenesis kit (Stratagene). Briefly, two complementary primers containing the desired mutation were designed for PCR amplification of the plasmid containing the Sabin 2 cDNA insert. Amplification was performed using Pfu Turbo DNA polymerase on 5 ng of template DNA for 15 cycles at 95°C for 30 s, 50°C for 1 min, and 68°C for 15 min. PCR products were digested for 1 h at 37°C with 10 U of DpnI prior to transformation into XL-1 Blue supercompetent E. coli cells. Colonies were grown and screened by sequencing as described above.
Construction of recombinant cDNA plasmids by assembly PCR and exchange of mutagenesis cassettes.
Multiple base substitutions were introduced by assembly PCR (
68). Primers were designed to span the region of interest, with complementary 40-mers overlapping by 10 nucleotides (nt) on each end. A first round of assembly (30 PCR cycles of 94°C for 45 s, 52°C for 45 s, and 72°C for 45 s) was performed with a 20-μl reaction mixture containing TaqPlus Precision buffer, 10 U TaqPlus Precision, 5 pmol of each primer, and a 200 μM concentration of each dNTP. A second round of assembly (25 PCR cycles of 94°C for 45 s, 50°C for 45 s, and 72°C for 2 min) was performed, using the outermost sense and antisense primers in a 100-μl reaction mixture containing TaqPlus Precision buffer, 2 μl of product from the first assembly round, 10 U TaqPlus Precision, 15 pmol of each primer, and a 400 μM concentration of each dNTP. PCR products were purified on QIAquick PCR columns prior to digestion, ligation, and transformation into XL-10 Gold supercompetent cells. Clones were grown and screened by sequencing of the insert as described above.
The sequence of our full-length Sabin 2 infectious cDNA construct, S2R9, differed from the published sequence of a reference Sabin 2 strain (
59) at three synonymous third codon positions, i.e., G
2616 (in the VP1 region; A was replaced to introduce an EagI restriction site), T
3303 (in the VP1 region; A was replaced to introduce an XhoI site), and A
5640 (in the 3C
pro region). The virus derived from the S2R9 construct was used as our reference Sabin 2 strain. Recombinant cDNAs having different combinations of blocks of replacement codons were constructed using standard methods (
37).
Plaque assay.
Plaque assays were performed by a modification of previously described methods (
78). Briefly, confluent HeLa (or HEp-2C) cell monolayers in 57-cm
2 cell culture dishes were washed, inoculated with virus in incomplete MEM, and incubated at room temperature for 30 min prior to the addition of 0.45% SeaKem LE agarose (BioWhittaker Molecular, Rockland, Maine) in complete MEM containing 2% fetal bovine serum (FBS). Plates were incubated for 60 h at 35°C, fixed with 0.4% formaldehyde, and stained with 3% crystal violet. Plaque sizes were quantified from digital images of the plates made with a FOTO/Analyst archiver system (Fotodyne, Hartland, Wis.) and by subsequent image analysis using Scion Image for Windows (Scion Corp., Frederick, Md.).
Cell culture infectivity assay.
Virus infectivities were also measured by the limiting dilution method, using HeLa (or RD) cell monolayers cultured in 96-well plates. Plates were monitored for CPE for up to 7 days, and 50% cell culture infectious dose (CCID
50) titers were calculated by the method of Kärber (
32).
Single-step growth curves.
HeLa S3 suspension cells (1 × 107 cells in 2.5 ml) were infected at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 5 PFU/cell, with stirring, for 30 min at 25°C. Cells were then sedimented by low-speed centrifugation and resuspended in 2.5 ml warm complete medium (MEM lacking calcium salts) containing glutamine, 5% FBS, penicillin-streptomycin, and 25 mM HEPES (pH 7.5). Incubation was continued at 35°C in a water bath, with orbital shaking at 300 rpm. Samples were withdrawn at 2-h intervals from 0 to 14 h postinfection and titrated by plaque assay at 35°C.
Preparation of radiolabeled viral proteins in infected HeLa cells.
Confluent HeLa cell monolayers (∼1.6 × 10
6 cells per 9.5-cm
2 well; six-well plates) were infected with virus derived from the S2R9, S2R19, or S2R23 cDNA construct at an MOI of 25 PFU/cell and incubated at 35°C for 4 h in a 5% CO
2 incubator in 2.0 ml complete MEM with 2% FBS. The medium was replaced with 1.9 ml of labeling medium (200 μCi [
35S]methionine in a 1:7 mixture of complete MEM and MEM without methionine, supplemented with 2% FCS). Cultures were incubated in a CO
2 incubator at 35°C for 3 h. The radioactive medium was removed, and cells were rinsed twice with phosphate-buffered saline. Cells were lysed in 1 ml lysis buffer (1% NP-40 in 10 mM NaCl, 10 mM Tris-Cl [pH 7.5], and 1.5 mM MgCl
2) at 35°C for 1 min (
6). Lysates were transferred to microcentrifuge tubes on ice and centrifuged at 2,000 ×
g for 2 min at 4°C, and the supernatants were transferred to new tubes. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) was added to the supernatants to a final concentration of 1%, and samples were frozen. Labeled viral proteins were separated by SDS-10% polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-10% PAGE) (
38). Gels were fixed, washed, dried, and exposed to Kodak BioMax film for 1 to 3 days at room temperature.
In vitro translation.
Viral RNAs transcribed from recombinant plasmids were translated in vitro in nuclease-treated rabbit reticulocyte lysates (Promega) supplemented with uninfected HeLa cell extracts as previously described (
6,
7,
80). Briefly, 35 μl micrococcal nuclease-treated, supplemented rabbit reticulocyte lysate was mixed with 7 μl HeLa cell extract, 1 μl 1 mM amino acid mix (without methionine), various amounts of RNA (0.2 μg to 1 μg), 30 μCi [
35S]methionine (1,200 Ci/mmol), and 40 U Protector RNase inhibitor (Roche) in a final volume of 50 μl. The reaction mixtures were incubated at 30°C for 3 h. Samples were analyzed by SDS-10% PAGE as described above.
Preparation of purified virions.
Viruses were propagated in RD cells, liberated by freeze-thawing, and concentrated by precipitation with polyethylene glycol 6000 (
52). Virions were purified by pelleting, isopycnic centrifugation in CsCl, and repelleting, essentially as described previously (
52). The number of virus particles in each preparation recovered from the CsCl band with a buoyant density of 1.34 g/ml was calculated from the absorbance at 260 nm, using the relationship of 9.4 × 10
12 virions per optical density unit at 260 nm (
62).
Measurement of viral RNAs in infected cells.
The production of viral RNAs in infected HeLa cells during the single-step growth experiments described above was measured by quantitative reverse transcription-PCR using a Stratagene MX4000 PCR system programmed to incubate reaction mixtures at 48°C for 30 min and 95°C for 10 min, followed by 60 PCR cycles (95°C for 15 s, 60°C for 1 min). Sequences within the 3′ half of the 3D
pol region of Sabin 2 were amplified using primers S2/7284A (ATTGGCACACTCCTGATTTTAGC) and S2/7195S (CAAAGGATCCCAGAAACACACA), and the amplicon yield was measured by the fluorescence at 517 nm of the TaqMan probe S2/7246AB (TTCTTCTTCGCCGTTGTGCCAGG), with 6-carboxyfluorescein attached to the 5′ end and BHQ-1 (Biosearch Technologies, Novato, Calif.) attached to the 3′ end. Stoichiometric calculations used a value of 2.4 × 10
6 for the molecular weight of Sabin 2 RNA (
36,
70).
Infectivities of RNA transcripts.
Transcripts (0.1 μg) from constructs S2R9, S2R19, and S2R23 were transfected onto monolayers of 2.5 × 105 HeLa cells as described above for RD cells. After 12 h of incubation at 35°C, viruses were liberated by three freeze-thaw cycles, and the clarified supernatants were assayed for infectivity by the limiting dilution method on HeLa cell monolayers as described above.
Serial passage of recombinant virus in HeLa cells.
Poliovirus constructs S2R9, S2R19, and S2R23 were passaged 25 times in HeLa cell monolayers in T75 flasks incubated at 35°C for 36 h, with input MOIs ranging from 0.1 to 0.4 PFU/cell (measured on HeLa cells). Every fifth passage, virus plaque areas, plaque yields, and the genomic sequences of the bulk virus populations were determined, and the MOI was readjusted to ∼0.1 PFU/cell.
Analysis of RNA secondary structure.
Predictions of the secondary structures of the RNA templates of virus constructs S2R9, S2R19, and S2R23 were performed using the mfold v. 3.1 program (
47,
54,
82), which implements an energy minimization algorithm that finds a structure with the calculated minimum free energy (MinE). The MinE structure is plotted and color annotated with P-num values, which provide a measure of the number of alternative pairings for each nucleotide base (
82). The running parameters were set to default values, except for the folding temperature (
T), which was set to 35°C. Structures with suboptimal thermodynamic stabilities having increased free energy increments (ΔΔ
G35°C) of 4 kcal/mol, 8 kcal/mol, and 12 kcal/mol were analyzed by using color-annotated energy dot plots (
82).
Nucleotide sequence accession numbers.
Complete genomic sequences of the poliovirus constructs S2R9, S2R19, and S2R23 were submitted to the GenBank library under accession numbers DQ205099, DQ205098, and DQ205100, respectively.
DISCUSSION
Replacement of the original capsid region codons of the Sabin 2 OPV strain with synonymous nonpreferred codons resulted in sharp reductions in virus replicative fitness in HeLa cells. The reductions in fitness, as measured by plaque areas and virus yields, were approximately proportional to the numbers of replacement codons. Plaque areas were reduced ∼90% and virus yields were reduced >98% in the abcd virus, in which the replacement interval spanned nearly the entire capsid region. The observed fitness declines in the codon replacement viruses cannot be attributed to amino acid substitutions because all viral genomes encoded the same reference Sabin 2 polyprotein sequence.
The inverse relationship between replicative fitness and the number of codon replacements suggests that the observed phenotypes are the cumulative effects of numerous nucleotide substitutions. However, the contributions of individual replacement codons or of the nine different categories of codon replacements are presently unknown. We attempted to identify the most critical codon replacements by monitoring which substitutions accumulated in the genomes of codon replacement viruses upon serial passage in HeLa cells. Only one substitution, G3120→A, a direct back mutation to the original sequence, was shared between derivatives of the ABCd and abcd viruses after serial passage. The 19 other independent substitutions found among the ABCd and abcd high-passage derivatives were associated with 12 different codon triplets. Codon replacement in the VP1 region appeared to have proportionately greater effects on replicative fitness than replacements in other capsid intervals, an observation reinforced by the finding that 8 of the 13 sites that varied upon serial passage of abcd mapped to the VP1 region. Replacement of VP1 region codons in the genome of the unrelated wild poliovirus type 2 prototype strain, MEF-1, also appeared to have a disproportionately high impact on growth (R. Campagnoli, unpublished results).
Multiple synonymous capsid codon replacements appear necessary to effect any discernible reductions in poliovirus fitness. In our initial experiments, replacement of 3 to 14 Arg codons in VP1 (0.3% to 1.6% of capsid codons) with CGG (among the least preferred codons in the poliovirus genome) (
61,
70) did not result in any apparent reduction in plaque areas. The requirement for multiple codon replacements for evident impairment of gene expression is consistent with the effects of codon replacements in the phosphoglycerate kinase gene of yeast (
23) and in the L1 and L2 capsid protein genes of bovine papillomavirus (
81). In contrast, the introduction of small numbers (1, 6, and 10) of strongly nonpreferred CUA Leu codons into the 5′ region of the alcohol dehydrogenase gene of
Drosophila did result in significant reductions in enzyme activity (
10). Our ability to detect small declines in poliovirus fitness might be improved by replacing the plaque assay, which invariably gives heterogeneous plaques, with a more consistent biochemical assay. The major advantage of the plaque assay and the other virus infectivity assays used in this study is their high sensitivities to very low levels of biological activity.
The underlying biological mechanisms controlling the observed fitness reductions in the codon replacement viruses are not well defined. By analogy with bacterial (
4), yeast (
23), insect (
10), and viral (
81) systems, we had originally hypothesized that reliance on a restricted set of nonpreferred codons for the synthesis of capsid region polypeptides might cause a local depletion of the pools of minor tRNAs, thus retarding translocation of the ribosome along the viral mRNA. Ribosomal pausing at nonpreferred codons might impair poliovirus protein synthesis and processing in various ways, such as by amino acid misincorporation (
55), by increasing the costs of translational proofreading (
9), by frameshifting (
18), by premature polypeptide chain termination (
55), by degradation of the RNA template (
23), and by disruption of the proteolytic processing of the polyprotein (
56). On the other hand, it has been suggested that the nonrandom locations of nonpreferred codons between structural elements may facilitate proper folding of the nascent capsid proteins of poliovirus (
19) and hepatitis A virus (
66). However, we did not detect any major alterations in vivo or in vitro in the synthesis and processing of the viral proteins of the codon replacement viruses. It is possible that more direct measurements of the rates of polypeptide chain elongation, the dynamics of protein folding, or the kinetics of protein processing might reveal differences not evident from the initial experiments described here.
One possible explanation for our results is that poliovirus RNA is not equivalent to a highly expressed gene, as it is not translated as efficiently as mRNAs of the most highly expressed mammalian genes. Polypeptide chain elongation rates are ∼220 amino acids per min for poliovirus in HeLa cells at 37°C (
58), compared with ∼600 amino acids per min for the α chain of hemoglobin in rabbit reticulocytes (
25). Moreover, some codons rarely used in poliovirus genomes are frequently used in highly expressed mammalian genes, such that the levels of the tRNAs for these codons may be high and therefore difficult to deplete.
The pattern of reversion among high-passage progeny of the codon replacement virus constructs suggests that increased numbers of CG dinucleotides may contribute to reductions in fitness. Our strategy for codon replacement raised the number of CG dinucleotides in the poliovirus complete ORF from 181 (
ABCD) to 386 (
abcd). Although the biological basis for CG suppression in RNA viruses is poorly understood (
33), selection against CG dinucleotides during serial passage of
ABCd and
abcd appeared to be sufficiently strong at some sites to drive amino acid substitutions in the normally well-conserved poliovirus capsid proteins. In every instance, CG suppression was incomplete and was frequently reversed upon further passage. The most stable trends toward CG suppression involved nucleotide positions 3120 and 3150 and were not associated with amino acid changes.
The maintenance of a flexible mRNA secondary structure has been suggested to be a possible factor for codon selection (
16,
21,
23,
33). The increased G+C contents of our constructs, which were higher than those found in any known natural poliovirus templates, might impede translocation of the ribosome by favoring the formation of new highly stable stem structures. However, the increased fitness of the
ABCD,
ABCd, and
abcd progenies after serial passage was not associated with any predicted decreases in RNA secondary structure. Poliovirus genomes are evidently capable of accommodating abrupt shifts in the potential pairing structures within the ORF, as would likely occur following natural recombination events (
42,
77). It remains unknown whether perturbations in RNA secondary structure contribute in any way to the observed reductions in virus replicative fitness.
The observation that the eclipse phases in the single-step growth experiments were increasingly prolonged as the number of replacement codons increased suggests that codon replacement viruses were less efficient at completing an early step (or steps), following attachment and uncoating, of the infectious cycle. This view is reinforced by the observation that the specific infectivities of the virus particles and the RNA transcripts decreased sharply with the number of replacement codons. It thus appears that a larger number of codon replacement virus particles (and genome equivalents) is required to initiate a replicative cycle but that once the cycle has started, the synthesis and processing of viral proteins are nearly normal. Although the total viral RNA yield was reduced only ∼3-fold in the most highly modified abcd virus, its viral RNA amplification was only ∼20-fold, suggesting that an impairment of viral RNA synthesis may contribute to reduced replicative fitness.
Despite our incomplete understanding of the underlying biological mechanisms, it may yet be possible to refine our basic strategy for fitness modulation in poliovirus. Additional (e.g., AUA [Ile], AAA [Lys], and CAU [His]) and redesigned (e.g., UCG [Ser]) codon substitutions that are better matched to the least abundant tRNA genes in the human genome (
28) may further reduce replicative fitness. It is also possible to incorporate an additional 159 CG dinucleotides across capsid region codons without altering the encoded amino acid sequences. Targeting codons for conserved amino acids may further stabilize the reduced fitness phenotype, as most pathways for phenotypic reversion would likely favor synonymous substitutions only. If nonpreferred codons at strategic sites facilitate proper folding of capsid proteins (
19,
66), then their replacement with preferred codons might further reduce fitness. In the absence of a clear understanding of the molecular mechanisms, the approach toward minimizing replicative fitness by the replacement of capsid region codons remains empirical and may involve tradeoffs between different mechanisms. It is important that the most highly modified virus,
abcd, with an infectious yield of <10 PFU/cell in both HEp-2C and HeLa cells, already appears to be near the threshold of viability. Therefore, the margin for further fitness reductions may be quite narrow, although it may still be possible to obtain improvements in phenotypic stabilities.
The systematic modulation of RNA virus replicative fitness by deoptimization of codon usage may have applications for producing RNA viruses having well-defined replicative properties. If, as we suggest, the observed fitness reductions in the codon replacement viruses are the cumulative effects of multiple substitutions whose individual selection coefficients for reversion are small (
10), then full phenotypic reversion may require numerous mutational steps occurring over many replication cycles. Such viruses would likely be much more stable than most RNA virus point mutants (
72) and could lead to the development of live, attenuated RNA virus vaccines with superior genetic stabilities.