Bryan Hanks

Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia challenges current interpretations of the emergence, development, and decline of social complexity in the steppe region of China and the former Soviet Union. Through a thematic investigation of archaeological patterns ranging from monument construction and use and production and consumption of metals to the nature of mobility among societies, the essays in this volume provide the most up-to-date thinking on social and cultural change in prehistoric Eurasia. Collectively, they challenge broader theoretical trends in Anglo-American archaeology, which have traditionally favored comparative studies of sedentary agricultural societies over mobile pastoralist or agro-pastoralist communities. By highlighting the potential and limitations of comparative studies of social complexity, this volume sets the agenda for future studies of this region of the world. It emphasizes how the unique nature of early steppe societies can contribute to more comprehensive interpretations of social trajectories in world prehistory.

The development of Neolithic lifeways represented fundamental shifts in social organization and human-environment relationships within local ecological settings. An understanding of this process in the Balkans peninsula has remained intriguing and challenging in the broader context of European prehistory. Evidence for Neolithization processes in the Balkans begins around the seventh millennium BC in the south-east at important tell sites such as Nea Nikomedia and Sesklo where rectangular house structures and other elements of the “Neolithic package” strongly resemble those of the Levant. The northern zone of the Balkans peninsula, however, presents a different situation, with small  flat sites with intrusive later occupation making patterns of early Neolithization difficult to discern. This paper reports recent field research in Central Serbia (Šumadija region, Gruža River valley) where Early Neolithic occupation related to the Starčevo culture has been found at the newly identified site of Kneževac through systematic pedestrian survey, artifact spatial analysis, and near surface archaeological geophysics. The results of this research are discussed in the context of other Early Neolithic settlement evidence in the region, along with their implications for understanding early agricultural populations in Central Serbia.

By sequencing 523 ancient humans, we show that the primary source of ancestry in modern South Asians is a prehistoric genetic gradient between people related to early hunter-gatherers of Iran and Southeast Asia. After the Indus Valley Civilization’s decline, its people mixed with individuals in the southeast to form one of the two main ancestral populations of South Asia, whose direct descendants live in southern India. Simultaneously, they mixed with descendants of Steppe pastoralists who, starting around 4000 years ago, spread via Central Asia to form the other main ancestral population.
The Steppe ancestry in South Asia has the same profile as that in Bronze Age Eastern Europe, tracking a movement of people that affected both regions and that likely spread the distinctive features shared between Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages.

Objectives

We tested the hypothesis that the purported unstable climate in the South Urals region during the Middle Bronze Age (MBA) resulted in health instability and social stress as evidenced by skeletal response.
Methods

The skeletal sample (n = 99) derived from Kamennyi Ambar 5 (KA‐5), a MBA kurgan cemetery (2040‐1730 cal. BCE, 2 sigma) associated with the Sintashta culture. Skeletal stress indicators assessed included cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, dental enamel hypoplasia, and tibia periosteal new bone growth. Dental disease (caries, abscess, calculus, and periodontitis) and trauma were scored. Results were compared to regional data from the nearby Samara Valley, spanning the Early to Late Bronze Age (EBA, LBA).
Results

Lesions were minimal for the KA‐5 and MBA‐LBA groups except for periodontitis and dental calculus. No unambiguous weapon injuries or injuries associated with violence were observed for the KA‐5 group; few injuries occurred at other sites. Subadults (<18 years) formed the majority of each sample. At KA‐5, subadults accounted for 75% of the sample with 10% (n = 10) estimated to be 14‐18 years of age.
Conclusions

Skeletal stress markers and injuries were uncommon among the KA‐5 and regional groups, but a MBA‐LBA high subadult mortality indicates elevated frailty levels and inability to survive acute illnesses. Following an optimal weaning program, subadults were at risk for physiological insult and many succumbed. Only a small number of individuals attained biological maturity during the MBA, suggesting that a fast life history was an adaptive regional response to a less hospitable and perhaps unstable environment.

Interpretations of prehistoric enclosures worldwide have varied from those that see the primary role of enclosures as defensive features to others that explore the symbolic, ritual, social, and ideological dimensions of separating space into an inside, an outside, and an in-between. Such evidence and interpretative accounts are inevitably linked to wider anthropological discussions on modes of social interaction and reproduction in the past, whether altruistic or predatory, and evolutionary narratives regarding changes in the level of intergroup violence over the course of human history. Growing evidence indicates that many Neolithic settlements in Europe were enclosed by a complex system of ditches, ramparts, and palisades. We present a case study from the central Balkans at the Neolithic Vinča culture site of Oreškovica-Selište in Serbia, dated to the last centuries of the sixth millennium BC, where recent geophysical surveys, stratigraphic excavation, and accelerator mass spectrometry dating document the existence of an early enclosed settlement with multiple enclosure features. We interpret these features as defensive and discuss the social dynamics that led to the founding and abandonment of this short-lived occupation in the context of other contemporaneous settlements in the Balkans.

Objectives
This paper investigates infant feeding practices through stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotopic analyses of human bone collagen from Kamennyi Ambar 5, a Middle Bronze Age cemetery located in central Eurasia. The results presented are unique for the time period and region, as few cemeteries have been excavated to reveal a demographic cross-section of the population. Studies of weaning among pastoral societies are infrequent and this research adds to our knowledge of the timing, potential supplementary foods, and cessation of breastfeeding practices.

Materials and Methods
Samples were collected from 41 subadults (<15 yrs.) and 27 adults (15+ yrs.). Isotopic reference sets from adult humans as well as faunal remains were utilized, as these form the primary and complementary foods fed to infants.

Results
Slight shifts in δ13C and δ15N values revealed that weaning was a multi-stage process (breastfeeding, weaning, and complete cessation of nursing) that began at six months of age, occurred over several years of early childhood, and was completed by four years of age.

Discussion
Our results indicate that weaning was a multi-stage process that was unique among late prehistoric pastoralist groups in Eurasia that were dependent on milk products as a supplementary food. Our discussion centers on supporting this hypothesis with modern information on central and east Eurasian herding societies including the age at which complementary foods are introduced, the types of complementary foods, and the timing of the cessation of breastfeeding. Integral to this work is the nature of pastoral economies and their dependence on animal products, the impact of complementary foods on nutrition and health, and how milk processing may have affected nutrition content and digestibility of foods. This research on Eurasian pastoralists provides insights into the complexities of weaning among prehistoric pastoral societies as well as the potential for different complementary foods to be incorporated into infant diets in the past.

Studies of Bronze Age mortuary evidence in the steppes of Central Russia have highlighted an apparent similarity with religious rites described in the Rig Veda.  Although these texts are clearly important to wider scholarship, we argue that there is significant scope in the archaeological evidence to develop more nuanced understandings of how elements of material culture were valued in life and incorporated in death. It is apparent that the selection, placement and value of specific objects changed through time in the context of life, death and the burial event. This paper examines practices connected with the use and deposit of metal objects over a 1,500  year period in the Southern Urals of Russia. Our discussion of Bronze Age burial evidence from this region focuses on two key areas of research; the detailed analysis of metal objects, and key shifts in the nature of metal deposits in burials. Mortuary patterns indicate substantial change in burial treatment by approximately 1,700 BC. The inclusion of copper alloy objects in the form of weaponry (battle-axes and spear heads) and personal adornment provide a unique view of the contrasting values that surround  specific object types, material, and identity through life and into death. A preliminary study of these objects by the authors has identified new forms of alloy procurement and selection and a greater sophistication connected with the color and acoustic characteristics of ornamental objects. Concurrently, the composition of metal weapons shows less enhancement and development. Such patterning indicates specific choices by these early communities in the procurement of non-local metals, new forms of alloying and metal fabrication, and how metals were employed  in new fields of social discourse. Such patterning and associated value reflect importantly on our perceptions of death and the afterlife as they were possibly understood by these late prehistoric communities in the Eurasian steppes.