478 047 aÆnaÂuhma, aÆnaÂuema, aÆnauematiÂzv aÆnaÂuhma, aÆnaÂuema 1. Greek literature. The noun aÆnaÂuhma is first found in Homer with a metaphorical sense, in connection with things that embellish a banquet, like music (Od. 1.152; 21.430); in its more common sense – an offering – it appears first in Herodotus (Hist. 1.14, 92, etc.). The form aÆnaÂuema is attested as early as the 5th century B.C.E. in inscriptions (™ 2.) and the 3rd century B.C.E. in literary sources; originally it does not differ in meaning from aÆnaÂuhma, and one finds the poetic form aÍnuema as well (Callimachus, Epigr. 5; Theocritus, Epigr. 13; Anth. Gr. 6.47, 48, 68, 128, 162, etc.). The two spellings shall be attributed separate meanings only later on, as shown by the works of 2nd century C.E. lexicographers, for whom aÆnaÂuhma designates an offering, whereas aÆnaÂuema means “ban”, “cursed thing or person” (Ptolemy of Ascalon, Diff. vocab. a 27; Herennius Philo, Div. verb. signif. a 6). For the Suda, however, the two spellings can still refer to that which is dedicated to a god (Suda a 1869, 1878). The term is built on the same root as the verb aÆnatiÂuhmi and is often used together with it (aÆnauhÂmata aÆnatiueÂnai). It designates an object that has been erected or hanged, most often on a monument or in a temple, but not systematically so (see Theocritus, Epigr. 13: the statue [aÍnuema] of Aphrodite has been consecrated in the house of the couple). The aÆnauhÂmata represent a type of offering (sometimes a votive offering) clearly distinct from sacrifices, which often has a decorative function (Herodotus, Hist. 1.164; 2.182 [Pharaoh Amasis offers a portrait of himself to the Greek temple of Cyrene]; Callimachus, Epigr. 5; Polybius, Hist. 4.62.2). All kinds of objects may become aÆnauhÂmata: sil- ver and gold – objects rather than coins, although money may be included too (see Lysias, Bon. Aristoph. 39) –, statues, paintings, steles, obelisks, tripods, kraters, vases, cups, bowls, pieces of clothing or garments, and even ordinary objects used in everyday life (e.g. the lamp offered by a lover in Anth. Gr. 6.162). An aÆnaÂuhma may have been a tithe levied on spoils that was set aside and dedicated to the gods (Herodotus, Hist. 9.81; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Ant. Rom. 8.17.6). That was common practice in ancient Greece, and weapons were frequently part of the aÆnauhÂmata (especially shields). Finally, a person who dedicates him- or herself to the service of a god worshipped in a given sanctuary (often a slave freed by his or her former master) may also be designated as aÆnaÂuhma (Euripides, Ion 310; ™ 2.). An aÆnaÂuhma dedicated to a god cannot be taken back by the person who donated it; the consecration is irrevocable. On the other hand, in opposition to one of the meanings of aÆnaÂuema in the LXX (™ 3.), it is never to be destroyed; on the contrary, it is carefully preserved (cf. Rudhart, Notions fondamentales, 218). Stealing or destroying aÆnauhÂmata was considered a great sacrilege in the Greek world (Polybius, Hist. 5.9.1–3). 2. Papyri and inscriptions. The term aÆnaÂuhma/aÆnaÂuema is very common in inscriptions (hundreds of occurrences), because inscriptions were often meant to commemorate the name of the donor and the circumstances of the dedication, be it in a temple or in another place (see SEG 47.1218, 157/156 B.C.E., Delos, the honorary decree of the Athenians for Pausanias of Melite, who was gymnasiarch in Delos). In some cases, the names of the donors were written down in records that were kept in the sanctuary (see e.g. IG VII 303.39–48, 3rd 479 aÆnaÂuhma, aÆnaÂuema cent. B.C.E., Oropus, a decree concerning the repair and recasting of dedicated metal objects in the sanctuary of Amphiaraus). The term has a technical meaning, “offering” or “dedicated object/person”; the objects called aÆnauhÂmata in inscriptions do not vary much from those found in literary texts, and include prestigious gifts such as buildings (see SEG 33, 1035–1041, end of the 2nd cent. B.C.E., the honorary decrees for a woman who had a temple built on the agora, with an altar of Homonoia and porticos) as well as more modest offerings (in IG XI,2 161.B.12–15, 278 B.C.E., Delos, the aÆnaÂuhma is a bowl). Noteworthy is the fact that inscriptions confirm the practice of consecrating a person to a sanctuary (™ 1.): the person (often a slave freed by his/her former master) would dedicate him-/herself to the service of the god worshipped in that sanctuary, as aÆnaÂuhma (see Darmezin, Les affranchissements, 157–158). The meaning “curse” or “accursed thing”, which is frequent in late Christian literature, can be found only in a curse tablet from Megara dating from the 1st or 2nd century C.E. (DefixTab 41.B.17, spelling aÆneÂuema); this pagan document, however, seems to reflect some sort of Jewish influence (see e.g. Deissmann, LAE, 92–93; Curse Tablets, 183–184). Finally, the spelling aÆnaÂuema is found in inscriptions at least from the end of the 5th century B.C.E. onward (see IG I3 389.17, ca. 408/407 B.C.E., Attica). In papyri up to the 2nd century C.E., conversely, the term is rarely found. One papyrus dating from the 2nd century C.E. refers to dedicated offerings in temples (SB 6.9016.2.4–5, dealing with Soter’s temple in Coptus). Another text from the same period seems to refer to offerings as well, but the context is broken (SB 6.9373.13, Tebtunis). Finally, P.Oxy. 12.1449.1.fr1+2.7–10, mentions a list of aÆnauhÂmata among temple property at Oxyrhynchus, but it is dated from the beginning of the 3rd century C.E. (213–217). 3. Septuagint. a) Statistical observations. There are 26 occurrences of aÆnaÂuhma/aÆnaÂuema in the LXX, nearly half of which appear in Joshua (12 occurrences), followed by Deuter- 480 onomy (5 occurrences). In the other books, the word is only marginally present. The form aÆnaÂuhma is used only five times: Deut 7:26 (bis); Jdt 16:19; 2 Macc 9:16; 3 Macc 3:17. In the books translated from Hebrew, the form aÆnaÂuema is clearly favored, but again a semantic difference is not necessarily attached to the spelling; for instance both forms appear in Deuteronomy with the same meaning. However, in works written directly in Greek, which stick to the classical meaning of the term (see below), the form aÆnaÂuhma is favored. b) Hebrew equivalents. In the LXX, the only Hebrew concept translated by aÆnaÂuema/aÆnaÂuhma is hēræm: the noun hēræm, the name Hormāh ˙ that derives from˙ it (Num ˙ the absolute infinitive of hāram hi., 21:3), and ˙ often used together with the conjugated verb as a mark of insistence (Deut 20:17: aÆnaueÂmati aÆnauematieiÄte ayÆtoyÂw). However, hēræm may ˙ to insist also be translated differently, either on the idea that a consecrated thing is separated from the goods or properties available to the Israelites (in Lev 27:21, śedēh hahēræm is translated by hë ghÄ hë aÆfvrismeÂnh, and˙ similarly in Ezek 44:29 hēræm becomes aÆfoÂ˙ idea of destruction in risma), or to express the a more neutral way (Isa 34:5 uses aÆpvÂleia). c) LXX use. There is a clear difference between the use of the term in books translated from Hebrew and in those written in Greek. In the books translated from Hebrew, aÆnaÂuema is used in roughly three different ways: (1) It refers to a consecrated object that is not destroyed, but given to the priests who are the only ones to benefit from it (Lev 27:28) – this use is the one that comes closest to the classical Greek meaning. (2) It designates a consecrated human being who must be killed (Lev 27:29, in which the word aÆnaÂuema is not repeated, but implied). (3) It corresponds to something or someone that is put to the ban, usually because of idolatrous practices that make it or him abominable to God and therefore doomed to destruction. This is the case for instance in Deut 7:26 in connection with the cultic objects of the Canaanites; or in Deut 13:16, 18 concerning the Israelite town in 481 aÆnaÂuhma, aÆnaÂuema which idolatry is committed; or in Josh 6:17–18, according to which Jericho and everything that is contained in it (except Rahab and her family) are aÆnaÂuema (hence the sin of Achan and his punishment, referred to in several passages: Josh 7:1, 11–13; 21:20; 1 Chr 2:7). In Zech 14:11, aÆnaÂuema probably designates something that is abominable to God and could lead to Jerusalem’s destruction. In all these cases, the aÆnaÂuema is in no way considered an offering to God. The meanings 2 and 3 therefore represent a semantic neologism or a semantic Hebraism, that is, a Greek term with a meaning that so far existed only in its Hebrew counterpart (cf. Dorival, “Dire en grec les chose juives”, 531). On the other hand, in the books written in Greek, like 2 and 3 Maccabees (and in that respect Judith, even if its original language is still debated), aÆnaÂuhma retains its classical Greek meaning, “offering” or “dedicated thing”, with no connotation of destruction. Thus, Judith dedicates the booty found in Holofernes’s tent to God and offers the canopy she had taken herself as an aÆnaÂuhma (Jdt 16:19), certainly to adorn the Jerusalem temple. According to 2 Macc 2:13, records of the gifts (aÆnauhÂmata) made to the temple were kept in the archives. Before his death, Antiochus IV is said to have vowed to adorn the Jerusalem temple with the most beautiful offerings (kalliÂstoiw aÆnauhÂmasin kosmhÂsein, 2 Macc 9:16). Similarly, Ptolemy IV Philopator declares that he had the intention to honor the temple through the most beautiful offerings (kalliÂstoiw aÆnauhÂmasin, 3 Macc 3:17). 4. Jewish literature in Greek. The same meaning, corresponding to the classical use of the term in Greek literature and inscriptions, is also found in other Jewish texts written in Greek. Thus, Ep. Arist. 40 refers to the emissaries of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who bring offerings to the Jerusalem temple. Philo mentions the offerings in the Sebasteum (or Caesareum) in Alexandria (Legat. 151), as well as those in the Jerusalem temple, like the gifts offered by Augustus, Agrippa, or Julia Augusta (Legat. 157, 297, 319); he makes the gen- 482 eral statement that offerings in temples must be left untouched (Hypoth. 7.4, using aÆnatÂiuhmi and aÆnaÂuesiw), but also occasionally suggests that true piety does not consist in the multiplication of aÆnauhÂmata and sacrifices (Det. 20; Plant. 126). Josephus too refers repeatedly to the offerings brought to the Jerusalem temple by foreign kings (Ant. 7.367; 12.35 [which parallels Ep. Arist. 40]; Josephus, Ant. 13.78), and even affirms that it was decorated mainly by the aÆnauhÂmata of the Gentiles (Bell. 2.413). On the other hand, PsHecataeus, fr. 1 (as attested by Josephus, Ap. 1.199), describes the interior of the sanctuary as devoid of statues and ornamental offerings. In the works of Philo, one also finds a metaphorical use of the term aÆnaÂuhma, as in Greek literature. According to Somn. 1.243, “the whole heaven and the whole world is an offering (aÆnaÂuhma) dedicated to God”; wise human beings are invited to dedicate their intelligence to God, aÆnaÂuhma aÆnatiueÂnta toÁ synetoÁn kaiÁ toÁ froÂnimon (Mut. 220); because it is a priestly people, Israel as a whole is an aÆnaÂuhma, an offering consecrated to God (Fug. 42). Finally, Philo writes in Decal. 133 that murder is a sacrilege because the human being represents the most sacred of God’s possessions and the holiest offering (aÆnaÂuhma). This meaning of aÆnaÂuhma is a far cry from its designating something or someone abominable that must be destroyed, as in the LXX (™ 3.). It should be emphasized that in Jewish literature written in Greek, one does not encounter the meaning of aÆnaÂuema/aÆnaÂuhma as “ban”; Philo uses the proper noun “Anathema” when he re-writes the biblical account of the Israelites’ encounter with the king of Arad (Num 21:2–3), but he avoids referring to the practice of the ban (Vit. Mos. 1.253). Nor does aÆnaÂuema mean “imprecation”, “curse”, or “excommunication”, as in later Christian literature and inscriptions. 5. New Testament. In the New Testament, one passage stands in line with the classical Greek and Jewish Hellenistic use of the term aÆnaÂuhma, namely Luke 21:5, in which people tell Jesus about the beauty of the 483 aÆnauematiÂzv temple, which is decorated by offerings (aÆnauhÂmasin kekoÂsmhtai). However, contrary to the Jewish literature in Greek examined above (™ 4.), the New Testament contains several occurrences of aÆnaÂuema that are influenced by the semantic neologism of the LXX. Moreover, in certain passages of the New Testament, the meaning of “ban” further develops into “curse” or “accursed thing/person”. In 1 Cor 12:3, Paul affirms that a person who speaks through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit cannot say “Jesus is aÆnaÂuema”. In this context the word has often been translated as “cursed”. However, it is sounder to suppose that aÆnaÂuema here means someone who is doomed to destruction because he leads Israel into idolatry, as in Deut 13. At the end of the letter, Paul states: “If someone does not love the Lord, let him be aÆnaÂuema” (1 Cor 16:22), probably with the meaning “cursed” and “doomed to destruction”, and with the underlying connotation of something or someone that is rejected by God. A similar use of the term is found in Gal 1:8–9, where Paul declares that someone who preaches another gospel than the one he is preaching shall be considered aÆnaÂuema. The term kataÂuema in Rev 22:3 probably has the same connotation: in the New Jerusalem, at the end of time, there will be nothing abominable to God or rejected by God (this meaning is close to that of aÆnaÂuema in Zech 14:11, which may have influenced Rev). Finally, in Rom 9:3, Paul wishes he would be aÆnaÂuema for the sake of the children of Israel, apparently in the sense of being separated from Christ and cursed – probably with the implication “in the place of Israel”. All in all, the uses of aÆnaÂuema in the New Testament are closely linked with the idea of destruction or at least with a threat of destruction or doom, and therefore show much more continuity with the main LXX use of the term than Jewish literature written in Greek does. (On Acts 23:14, ™ aÆnauematiÂzv 5.) 6. Early Christian literature. Outside the New Testament, very few early Christian texts use the term aÆnaÂuema/aÆnaÂuhma. In some cases the term derives directly from the LXX: 484 In Const. Apost. 2.10, reference is made to Achan’s sin when he stole from Jericho’s booty, which was aÆnaÂuema (Josh 7); and Const. Apost. 2.25, which deals with the gifts to the priests, inspires itself from Num 18:14, using the noun instead of the verb. In one instance the term appears in a quotation from the New Testament (Ps.-Ignatius, Ep. 9.7.2, quoting 1 Cor 16:22). The intensive form kataÂuema, already used in Rev 22:3, is also found twice in early Christian texts. According to Did. 16.5, those who remain faithful until the end will be saved from the “curse” (svuhÂsontai aÆp’ ayÆtoyÄ toyÄ kataueÂmatow); in this case, the term means perdition, destruction in the fiery furnace. Noteworthy is the fact that there are also five occurrences of the term aÆnaÂuhma in its Greek classical sense, to designate offerings, but exclusively in a pagan context (Ps.Clem. Hom. 9.17.3; 10.22.2, 4; Sib. 8.490: to bring aÆnauhÂmata to pagan sanctuaries is forbidden to Christians; Act. Thom. 77: the aÆnauhÂmata are actually offered to demons). From the 4th century onward, anti-heretical writings and acts of councils use a standard formula sharing the same pattern as Gal 1:9 so as to exclude people considered as heretics, eiÍ tiw … aÆnaÂuema Íestv “if someone … let him be accursed” (e.g. Epiphanius, Pan. 72.12; 73.10; Council of Ephesus [431 C.E.], ACO 1.1.1, 40–42). aÆnauematiÂzv 1. Greek literature. The verb aÆnauematiÂzv is a neologism created by the LXX translators, which cannot be found in Greek literature before the LXX, and will not be adopted by later writers, except by Christian ones (however, ™ 2.). 2. Papyri and inscriptions. There is only one inscription that uses the verb aÆnauematiÂzv (three times) in a non-Jewish and nonChristian context: the curse tablet from Megara (1st or 2nd cent. C.E.) already referred to above (™ aÆnaÂuhma 2.): DefixTab 41.A, lines 5–6 and 8–9 (probably reflecting Jewish influence, see above). 485 aÆnauematiÂzv 3. Septuagint. There are 14 occurrences of aÆnauematiÂzv in the LXX: three in Numbers (Num 18:14; 21:2–3), two in Deuteronomy (Deut 13:16; 20:17) and in Judges (Judg 1:17; 21:11), six isolated cases in other Historical books (Josh 6:21; 1 Kgdms 15:3; 4 Kgdms 19:11; 1 Chr 4:41; 2 Esdr 10:8; 1 Macc 5:5), and one in DanTh 11:44. In the translated books, the verb aÆnauematiÂzv always corresponds to hāram hi., and therefore it is certainly the ˙case in 1 Maccabees too, whose Hebrew original is lost. Attention should be paid to the fact that hāram hi. is also translated by other Greek ˙terms, such as aÆnatiÂuhmi (“to dedicate”: Lev 27:28–29), aÆfaniÂzv (“to annihilate, to wipe out”: Deut 7:2), foneyÂv (“to kill”: Josh 9:35), aÆpokteiÂnv (“to kill”: 1 Kgdms 15:8; DanLXX 11:44), aÆpoÂllymi (“to make perish”: Isa 34:2; 37:11; 43:28), oÆleureyÂv and above all ÆejoleureyÂv (two neologisms meaning “to destroy” or “utterly destroy”: Exod 22:19; Deut 2:34; 3:6; Josh 2:10; 9:1; 10:11; 1 Kgdms 15:9; 2 Chr 20:23; 32:14, etc.), see also Dae Park, Finding Herem?, 56. The association between hāram hi. and ˙ the idea of destruction is massive. In the instances where the translator chose to use aÆnauematiÂzv, the context is generally that of the wars against the Canaanites or the Amalekites, who are to be put to the ban, or the obligation to destroy the idolatrous elements among the Israelites (Deut 13:16; Judg 21:11). In the case of 4 Kgdms 19:11, though, the verb is used in a more general way, to designate the destruction and the desolation brought by the Assyrians to several countries, with no particular religious connotation. In 1 Macc 5:5 too, the meaning is still destruction but the verb seems to have lost its connection with what is abominable to YHWH. In two other instances, no destruction is implied: in Num 18:14, paÄn aÆnateuematismeÂnon Æen yiëoiÄw Israhl designates any thing consecrated to YHWH by the Israelites; it belongs to the priests, like tithes, offerings and sacrifices. In 2 Esdr 10:8, a person who does not come to Jerusalem to join the assembly will see his property seized and confiscated (aÆnauematisuhÂsetai paÄsa hë yÏparjiw ayÆtoyÄ), probably by the priests. 486 4. Jewish literature in Greek. The verb aÆnauematiÂzv is never used in Jewish literature in Greek outside the LXX, except in the Greek translation of 1 Enoch, Apoc. En. 6.4–5 (v. 6 is missing in this version)/ Apoc. En. Sync. 6.4–6. In chapter 6, the angels decide to take wives among human beings and to beget children, and swear that they shall indeed perform their deed, binding one another by a curse (6.5: toÂte oÍmosan paÂntew oëmoyÄ kaiÁ aÆneuemaÂtisan aÆllhÂloyw Æen ayÆtìvÄ). So the Greek translation of 1 Enoch testifies to the evolution of the meaning of aÆnauematiÂzv (as well as that of aÆnaÂuema) from “ban” to “curse”, an evolution that can also be noticed in the New Testament (™ 5.). The date of the Greek Apocalypse of Enoch remains uncertain, but it probably predates the redaction of the New Testament. 5. New Testament. As in Apoc. En. 6.4–6 (™ 4.), aÆnauematiÂzv with the meaning “to curse” or “to bind oneself by a curse” (while swearing or taking an oath) is found in Mark 14:71, in connection with Jesus’ arrest (see also the parallel passage in Matt 26:74, where the intensive form katauematiÂzv is used). In that context, Peter swears with imprecations that he does not know Jesus. Similarly, in Acts 23:12, 14, 21, some Jews swear with imprecations not to eat or drink before they manage to kill Paul. Once (Acts 23:14), the intensive form is used (aÆnaueÂmati aÆneuematiÂsamen ëeaytoyÂw), probably due to influence of the LXX (cf. Deut 20:17). 6. Early Christian literature. No early Christian text uses the verb aÆnauematiÂzv. It starts to be found in both literary and legal texts from Origen onward. In anti-heretical writings and acts of councils, it occurs frequently with the special meaning “pronounced accursed and seperated from Church” (PGL s.v. C, with examples). However, the form katauematiÂzv is used twice in Justin, Dial. 47.4, when he refers to the Jews in the synagogues who have cursed and still curse those who believe in Christ. In this case, the translation of the verb could actually be “to ban”, “to curse” or “to excommunicate”, but the meaning “to curse” is more probable. 487 Bibliography J. Behm, “aÆnatiÂuhmi ktl.”, TDNT 1 (1964), 353–356. ♦ M. Greenberg, “Herem”, EncJud 8 ˙ “Anathema”, (1972), 344–350. ♦ K. Hofmann, RAC 1 (1950), 427–430. K. Berthelot, “Philo and the Conquest of Canaan”, JSJ 38 (2007), 39–56. ♦ eadem, “The Notion of Anathema in Ancient Jewish Literature Written in Greek”, The Reception of Septuagint Words in Jewish-Hellenistic and Christian Literature (WUNT II 367), ed. E. Bons, R. Brucker, J. Joosten, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014, 35–52. ♦ H. Dae Park, Finding Herem? A Study of LukeActs in the Light of Herem, London: T&T Clark, 2007. ♦ L. Darmezin, Les affranchissements par consécration en Béotie et dans le monde grec hellénistique (EtAnc 22), Nancy: A.D.R.A. / Paris: de Boccard, 1999. ♦ G. Dorival, “‘Dire en grec les choses juives’: Quelques choix lexicaux du Pentateuque de la Septante”, REG 109 (1996), 527–547. ♦ J. Moatti-Fine, “La ‘tâche du traducteur’ de Josué/Jésus”, KataÁ toyÁw o’, “Selon les Septante”: Hommage à Marguerite Harl, ed. G. Dorival, O. Munnich, Paris: Cerf, 1995, 321–330. ♦ J. Rudhardt, Notions fondamentales de la pensée religieuse et actes constitutifs du culte dans la Grèce classique, 2nd ed., Paris: Picard, 1992. ♦ W. C. van Unnik, “Jesus: Anathema or Kyrios (1 Cor. 12:3)”, Christ and Spirit in the New Testament, ed. B. Lindars, S. S. Smalley, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973, 113–126. Katell Berthelot 048 aÆnaidhÂw ™ aiÆdeÂomai 049 aÆnakalyÂptv ™ aÆpokalyÂptv 050 aÆnamimnìhÂskv, aÆnaÂmnhsiw ™ mimnìhÂskv 052 aÆnaÂstasiw ™ aÆniÂsthmi