George Lakoff

"Silence as a cultural phenomenon has been the subject of many linguistic theories. In contrast to the 1970s, when absence of speech was mostly seen as a lack of meaning and intention, later studies revealed that silence was anything but void. In Turkey’s rather patriarchal society where the place of women, especially in rural regions, is often expected to be in the background, silence sometimes becomes eloquent, being a manifestation of traumatic experiences or of an uncomplaining acceptance of one’s fate. However, silence can also be used as a means of creating psychological pressure, thus turning into a powerful weapon. For a thorough analysis of the silence that is characteristic of female characters in Ayfer Tunç’s novel Dünya Ağrısı, some theoretical concepts are helpful. Lakoff ’s feminist approach that creates a link between women’s silence and their invisibility in certain societies is relevant in this context. Sperber and Wilson, Johannesen, Davies, Dauenhauer, Tannen, Ephratt, Fivush and many others provide additional insights into the eloquent aspects of intentional silence. A few personal thoughts Ayfer Tunç shared with me concerning the role of her silent female characters were also taken into account in this article."

The article examines the role of disability in George Lakoff and Mark Johnson’s popular theories of cognitive metaphor and metaphor acquisition, and concludes that these theories are ableist in assuming that bodies have particular physical/cognitive/sensory experiences and related metaphorical expressions. In response, a disability approach to metaphor is suggested that engages the diversity of disability; refrains from policing metaphor; encourages transgression from the disability community; and invites creative and artistic reinterpretations of metaphor. This new approach is grounded in a critique of the metaphor knowing is seeing, which is commonly employed in academic writing and engaged in Lakoff and Johnson’s work.

Strung Together: The Cultural Currency of String Theory as a Scientific Imaginary is the first sustained study of string theory as a cultural phenomenon, synthesizing developments in continental philosophy of science, contemporary cognitive linguistics, and literary criticism to examine the role the imagination plays in the production and dissemination of string theory as scientific knowledge.

The book’s main claim is that the imaginative component of string theory is both integral and indispensable to it as a scientific discourse. In contrast to an orthodox scientific realism that sorts the “pure” concept of mathematical argument from the “illustrative” image of prose exposition, the book defines a scientific imaginary as a complex of images that: one, grounds scientific concepts in the ordinary cognitive linguistic processes that organize embodied human experience; two, mediates between human agency and the agency of the objects a theory posits as real phenomena; and three, situates the theory within a broader cultural context. Without this connective tissue, scientific knowledge such as string theory would have no epistemological footing. Within its technical discourse, an imaginary that complements mathematical argument allows string theorists to project themselves into the cosmos in such a way that strings as phenomena become substantiated and legitimized. It is this imaginary, rather than mathematical argument, that survives the move from technical discourse to popularizations and ultimately to literary texts. In effect, a string theory imaginary facilitates a virtual domestication of a cosmos that was heretofore remote, alien, and incomprehensible. By following the migration of the image of the string through these various discourses, we are able to see how string theory as a cosmic order, with all the cultural authority that this implies, is constructed.

Andy Blunden presents a critical review of theories of Concepts in cognitive psychology, analytical philosophy, linguistics, conceptual change theory and other disciplines. The material convered has led many to abandon the idea of Concepts altogether, particularly those taking an interactionist approach. Blunden responds with an historical review focussing on the idealist philosophy of Hegel, its reception and transformation in the development of positive science and finally the cultural psychology of Lev Vygotsky. Blunden then proposes a approach to Concepts which draws on Activity Theory. Concepts are equally subjective and objective, units of consciousness and of the cultural formation of which one is a part. This continues Blunden's earlier work in "An Interdisaciplinary Theory of Activity" (Brill 2010).

In this essay, I analyze the metaphors Lewis employed to explore how metaphor can be used rhetorically to unite a hostile audience during a time of crisis.  Because Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual theory of metaphor emphasizes relational mappings between the culturally and socially constructed beliefs underlying metaphor I will use it as a lens for the analysis. Before beginning the analysis, though, I outline an overview of metaphor as a subcategory of analogy. Then, I address some philosophical perspectives of metaphor as rhetoric, and explain why Lakoff and Johnson’s Conceptual Theory of Metaphor best serves my above-mentioned purpose.  From Lakoff and Johnson’s theory, I derive a set of criteria by which to analyze Lewis’ work and then evaluate the metaphors of Mere Christianity, focusing on the following metaphors: basic Christianity as a hall of many doors; the human as machine; and morality as a fleet of ships for the analysis. Implications to rhetoric are discussed in the last section of the essay.

George Lakoff 's work in cognitive linguistics has prompted a surge in social scientists' interest in the cognitive and neuropsychological dimensions of political discourse. Bringing cognitive neuroscience into the study of social movements and of environmental communication, however, is not as straightforward as Lakoff 's followers suggest. Examining and comparing Lakoff's “neuropolitics” with those of political theorist William E. Connolly, this article argues that Connolly's writings on evangelical-capitalist and eco-egalitarian “resonance machines” provide a broader model for thinking about the relations between body, brain, and culture. Environmentalists, it concludes, should pluralize their “frames” and pay greater attention to the micropolitical and affective effects of their language and practices on the communities within which they act, communicate, and dwell.

Since the Enlightenment, the reconciliation of religion and science has been a primary concern for religious devotees. In the past two decades, one could consider controversies in the United States such as the teaching of Darwinian evolution in public schools or disagreement about the root causes of climate change as evidence of modern society’s continual negotiation between religious and scientific thought. Much work remains to be done, especially in integrating religion with scientific fields that have only recently emerged—for example, cognitive linguistics.
This paper pursues a cognitive linguistic examination of metaphors used in Christianity, one of the three Abrahamic religions that, according to the CIA World Factbook, account for fifty-six percent of the world’s worshippers (2010). Besides their widespread influence, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are all text-based religions and thus strong candidates for study by cognitive linguists. According to Tracy, within these faith systems “certain texts serve not only as charter documents for the religion but as ‘scripture’ in the strict sense: that is, as normative for the religious community’s basic understanding and control of its root metaphors and thereby its vision of reality” (92).
This paper considers the relationship between cognitive linguistics and religious scripture and argues for readings based in “embodied realism.” Research was conducted through Emory University library databases, a literature review, and personal discussion with linguistics faculty. The purpose is to delve into Christian texts and uncover metaphors that form Christianity’s “vision of reality,” a la Tracy, or, in the spirit of Lakoff and Johnson, the “metaphors Christians worship by.” In addition, this paper considers the metaphors in the religiolect of evangelical Christian communities to support an “embodied realist” reading of sacred texts.

The conquest and colonisation of the northeastern Baltic Rim in the 13th century durably shaped religious and ethnic identities of and relations between the native population and the arriving crusaders. This article explores the codes and displays of hospitality in the anonymous ‘Livonian Rhymed Chronicle’, which are seen here as ways of conceptualising the relationship and conflicts between the Teutonic Knights and the pagan or apostate people in Livonia. It asks which consequences the framing of the host-guest relations might have had for the self-comprehension of the chronicle’s author and his audience. The analysis of the chronicle is pursued along three lines: the first focuses on the questions of chivalry, courtesy, and conversion; the second explores different renditions of a miracle story of inhospitality from the 1220s; the third focuses on the conceptual metaphors of hospitality as a way in which the Teutonic Knights accommodated their adversaries’ viewpoints. In its conclusions, the article argues how a broad focus on the institutions, concepts, and discourses of hospitality can help account for both confrontational and amicable attitudes between the colonisers and the colonised both on the Baltic frontier and among other European frontier societies.

Our approach to translation is based on Eugenio Coseriu’s linguistic theory and on the American cognitive view of extralinguistic semantics. In order to illustrate the translation from Romanian into French of metaphors used in spoken language, we propose a selection of metaphors organised into six specific traditional fields. The case study regarding certain metaphors aims at demonstrating the fact that the object of translation is not the meaning, but the designation and the significance, which highlight differences that are rather cultural than lexical. So as to have access to the designation, we will make use of the work methods which are specific to Lakovian cognitive semantics: the conceptual metaphor and the conceptual mapping.

Beginning with Plato and Aristotle, Western philosophy grounded in the Greek tradition has elided the female body with deformity and dysfunction. Viewed a mutilated male, the female body is framed as an aberration too incapacitated by its reproductive qualities to pursue philosophical endeavors. Consequently, the female body is thus reduced to its functional process and becomes an object instrumental in pursuit of patriarchal goals. In honor of the bicentennial anniversary of Frankenstein (1818), these ideas are explored via the character Justine Moritz. Through her, and the treatment of her, the female body is revealed to be a source of anxiety from the male perspective – a monstrous imitation that complicates issues of subjectivity and objectivity. Using the work of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in the tradition of embodiment philosophy, this paper suggests that disentangling the female body from monstrosity will require the male body to also be contextualized as a reproductive body. A characteristic that has primarily been forced upon its female counterpart leaving the male almost invisible.

This research is dedicated to investigate the orientation of cognitive science called embodied cognition, in its attempt to create an alternative to propositional logic, computational, model of human cognition through the enhancement of individual body experiences in explaining the latter. It is argued in this thesis that the embodied cognition has sought to maintain the unity of the cognitive sciences through efforts at the same time scientific and political, and thus has presented issues that affect not only the multidisciplinary field that studies cognition, but also Philosophy, Culture, therapies, education, and other social activities. Also this thesis postulates that the embodied cognition constitutes a cohesive whole through the articulation of three main research fronts: enactivist, conceptual and affective and, and that, although it is still a new approach, their theses are strong enough to generate consequences in cognitive science and their applications.
Key words: Cognition. Embodied. Intelligence. Enaction. Experience.

Why it Matters How We Frame the Environment " Why it matters how we frame the environment " discusses the place of cognitive framing in informing our understanding and responses to information about the environment and the need for more values and emotion based systems of messaging about environmental problems such as climate change (Lakoff, 2010). This essay aims review and critique elements of Lakoff's (2010) article and furthermore considers the contemporary framing of environmental issues; in light of Lakoff's recommendations, it will consider new alternatives for messaging within organisations. Recently, environmental and ecological concerns such as climate change, have reached unprecedented levels of importance in the public sphere; environmental discourse shapes international forums on development and the economy and coverage of environmental issues have become ingrained in the media landscape. The extent to which messages about the environment are understood in a meaningful way depends entirely on the frames " the central organizing idea or story line " used to receive them (Lakoff, 2010). Lakoff's conceptualization of framing is praised and his discussion of 'hypocognition' prompts further exploration of the issue, however his recommendations for the elevated role framing plays in generating environmental action and understanding, and his reduction of the complexity and plurality of environmental values into a simple duality demand consideration. Outline of the Article Lakoff (2010) argues a new set of coherent frames is necessary before the public can fully understand environmental problems on a deep level because " truth must be framed effectively to be seen at all " (Lakoff, 2010). In propounding this point, Lakoff argues the following: 1. As a cognitive linguist, Lakoff draws together cognitive psychology and neuroscience to shed light on how we develop " frames " or schemas that help us understand the world. Frames are connected to our emotions.

Pentru a pune bazele lingvisticii integrale, Eugeniu Coşeriu propune, cum se ştie, o modificare radicală a perspectivei asupra limbajului, respectiv explorarea întregului câmp fenomenal al "faptelor" lingvistice din punctul de vedere al vorbirii, nu al limbii, avansând, drept cadru preliminar al acestei explorări, o schemă generală a planurilor care se disting în vorbire, precum şi a competenţelor lingvistice corespunzătoare. Capacitatea generală de expresie conţine elementele nonverbale care acompaniază vorbirea şi competenţa lingvistică în totalitatea sa, care este, pe de o parte, psihofizică, iar pe de altă parte, culturală. "Nivelul cultural" al vorbirii este caracterizat drept activitate umană universală, care se realizează în situaţii determinate prin vorbitori individuali, ca reprezentanţi ai unor comunităţi lingvistice tradiţionale. Sunt distinse în acest fel cele trei planuri pe care se manifestă activitatea culturală a vorbirii: cel universal, comun tuturor limbilor, cel istoric, ce contine vorbirea într-o anumită limbă, si planul individual. În ceea ce priveste palierul individual, Coseriu subliniază că vorbirea este întotdeauna o executie individuală, nu „corală”, iar pe de altă parte, ea are loc întotdeauna într-o situatie determinată.

The present work investigates the language of the coronavirus during the outbreak of the pandemic in the UK (2020); in the specific, the study focuses on those metaphors employed by Prime Minister Boris Johnson during his official statements about the pandemic development in the UK. The conceptual metaphor theory of Lakoff & Johnson and the analytic research method of Charteris-Black represent the principal sources on which the study is based.

This overview of major contributions to the study of fairy-tale symbolism examines the ideas of Max Müller, the Brothers Grimm, Sigmund Freud and followers, Carl Jung and followers, Joseph Campbell, Alan Dundes, Bengt Holbek, Maria Tatar, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and Vladimir Propp. Drawing on insights contributed by these authors, as well as on the ongoing work of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, this essay gauges the metaphorical clockwork of fairy tales and suggests a way forward in the study of fairy-tale symbolism.

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This article provides an overview of metaphor theories and research on their own terms, as well as their use in Hebrew Bible (HB) studies. Though metaphor studies in the HB have become increasingly popular, they often draw upon a limited or dated subset of metaphor scholarship. The first half of this article surveys a wide variety of metaphor scholarship from the humanities (philosophical, poetic, rhetorical) and the sciences (e.g., conceptual metaphor theory), beginning with Aristotle but focusing on more recent developments. The second half overviews studies of metaphor in the HB since 1980, surveying works focused on theory and method; works focused on specific biblical books or metaphor domains; and finally noting current trends and suggesting areas for future research.

The Body in the Mind Meets the Body Without Organs: Francisco Varela and Gilles Deleuze Critique Lakoff, Johnson and Turner
1996 Conference of the Society for Literature and Science
Atlanta, Georgia, October 10 - 13, 1996
The Cultural Work of Cognitive Science: Session 2F
Martin E. Rosenberg, Eastern Kentucky University

The influential claims of Lakoff, Johnson and Turner for an epistemological and moral. imagination grounded by the bodily basis for meaning deserve to be tested against the work of cognitive scientist Fransisco Varela and the philosophers Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari. Fransisco Varela, in his The Embodied Mind (Co-authored with Eleanor Rosch and Evan Thompson), argues that consciousness involves two antithetical though perhaps complementary cognitive processes: bottom-up emergence, which is necessarily contingent and which involves the spontaneous confluence of heterogeneic lower-order processes into a global state; and top-down repression of those heterogeneic processes, often described as a superimposition of categories or schema onto complex sensory data in a way resonant with the epistemological legacy of Immanuel Kant. So, while the "global state" is indeed a fiction, it constitutes a fiction necessary to ensure the survival of the aggregate, which may refer to a computer or a human being, or even a bureaucratic system. This distinction becomes interesting from the perspectives of epistemology and social philosophy in the following way: for the first, the emphasis is placed on the total control of the trajectories of symbolic manipulation; any loss of control brings down the computational house. For the second, the emphasis is placed on the connections among elements of systems, the deliberate relinquishing of control of those elements, and the observance of the contingent emergence of new forms of order among the connected elements that might not necessarily be predicted. The top-down exertion of control, and the contingencies of bottomup emergence, represent epistemological and ideological stances toward cognitive functioning, and in the study of human cognition, there is no question that both processes go on simultaneously, and perhaps even at cross purposes. I would like to argue that Deleuze and Guattari, among all social philosophers, have played out the ideological implications of these two styles of cognitive functioning through their writings concerning the rhizome and, more important, the Body Without Organs (BWO), a term which refers to what might be called a preexisting condition of wholeness. In other words, the BWO is the Global State itself, a field of immanence from which emanate both bottom-up emergences and top-down constraints, the reductio ad absurdum of which is the schizophrenic dream of the rubber body suit without any openings for breathing, eating, defecating. Consistently described in terms of the spherical wholeness of the egg prior to the complete formation of the embryo, in terms of hierarchical strata and of planes of consistency through which rhizomes must propagate but only by avoiding detection, the BWO constitutes the regime through which the exertion of constraints on various becomings may occur. Philosophically represented by Spinoza's ethics, psychoanalytically represented by the analysts' intrusion in the imaginary and symbolic formations of the patient, by the betrayal of desire in the form of the hypochondriac body, the schizoid body, the drugged body, the masochist body, the BWO can be understood simply as the superimposition of constraints on the lower order cognitive processes emanating from the organs of the body or from the nervous, autonomic, circulatory and immune systems. This correlation between bottom-up and top-down cognitive and social processes may help to frame a discussion of why Lakoff, Johnson, and Turner's assumption of the bodily basis for meaning is finally unsatisfactory. We will begin by questioning the cognitive schema and metaphorical and moral extensions of the term "balance," made concrete through a critique of Mark Johnson's reference in The Body in the Mind to Michael Polanyi's discussion of the bicycle rider from Personal Knowledge as paradigmatic of their claims for the embodied origins of metaphoricity.

Scholars of slavery have long been divided between those who define slaves primarily as human property and those who define slaves primarily as kinless outsiders. This article reconciles these competing definitions by using the new understanding of definitions popularized by George Lakoff in his book Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. The two formal definitions that have been offered are really two sides of the same coin. Slaves in Africa were property because they were kinless outsiders, while slaves in the United States were kinless outsiders because they were property. Slaves in other societies also had this dual character as both property and kinless outsiders. Slavery is a human institution that began in the psychological dependence caused by the shame of kinlessness experienced by isolated individuals. It was thus a mechanism for the incorporation of new members into a society. It spread and developed in human societies, coming to have various extensions in different societies, but always so recognizably similar that slaves could easily be transferred between cultures that had very different understandings of slavery.
Résumé
Un clivage existe depuis longtemps chez les universitaires spécialisés dans l'étude de l'esclavage, entre ceux qui définissent fondamentalement l'esclave comme une propriété humaine et ceux qui le considèrent essentiellement comme un être sans attaches familiales. Cet article réconcilie ces deux définitions concurrentes en recourant à la nouvelle conception de définitions popularisée par George Lakoff dans son ouvrage Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. Ces deux définitions proposées sont comme bonnet blanc et blanc bonnet. En Afrique, les esclaves étaient considérés comme une propriété, parce qu'il s'agissait d'individus sans attaches familiales, tandis qu'aux Etats-Unis, les esclaves étaient des individus sans attaches familiales, justement parce qu'ils étaient la propriété d'autres personnes. De même, dans d'autres sociétés, les esclaves présentaient également cette double caractéristique d'être à la fois propriété et personnes sans attaches familiales. L'esclavage est une institution humaine née de la dépendance psychologique provenant du sentiment de honte d'être dépourvu d'attaches familiales, honte ressentie par certains individus. Il représentait ainsi un mécanisme d'intégration de nouveaux membres au sein de la société. Il s'est étendu et s'est développé au sein des sociétés humaines, à travers diverses ramifications, qui présentaient cependant de fortes similitudes, à tel point que les esclaves étaient aisément transférables d'une culture à l'autre, cultures qui présentaient pourtant des conceptions très différentes de l'esclavage.

The ability to select and apply type sensitively is an art form that requires an astute knowledge of the communicative complexity of letterforms. However, as a designer and design educator, I have observed that many designers frequently select and apply typefaces inappropriately or arbitrarily because they are simply unaware of the complex meanings underlying letterforms, as well as the power of the communicative choices they make. Many designers with even a basic understanding of type still tend to prefer to use illustration, illustrative graphics, icons or photography as their primary media of communication. In the event that type is indeed used, designers tend to choose ‘clean’ typefaces because they appear to detract less from the communicative aspects of other rhetorical texts already at play in their design. In other instances, letterforms may be chosen to achieve an array of elaborately intricate design layouts that are often superficially strewn across decorative, trite and eye-candied designs.

From these observations, I have therefore dedicated my study to delineating and discussing two default modes or methods used for selecting and applying type – type as experiential form and type as iconic form – in order to illustrate the powerful, yet intricate communicative facets of the letterform. The first mode relates to how designers select type based on a typeface’s experiential form. By this, I refer to the connotations that we derive from our physical and sensual perceptions of letterform shapes. I refer to George Laukoff’s experiential metaphor theory, as well as sound-image symbolism theory (synesthesia) in order to identify reminiscent and intuitive letterform perception. The second describes several ways in which designers invoke symbolic connotation by selecting iconic typefaces. Here, I investigate historical and cultural narratives woven into iconic typefaces and how these narratives may be signified, resignified and repurposed.

As a means of understanding the interconnected nature of meaning embodied by the letterform, my final objective is to highlight letterform communication from a visual rhetorical perspective. By conducting an in-depth case study of the Fraktur typeface (as communicating at once
experientially and symbolically), I stress several tensions that exist as a result of overlapping meaning and the interconnected nature of the two default modes of type selection. I thereby argue that designers need be aware of the communicative implications of their default modes or strategies to typeface selection. My point of departure is that a more holistic approach to selecting and applying typefaces could be followed and that rhetorical theory may provide an analytical framework for such an inclusive perspective. I maintain that if the communicative
complexity of letterforms is viewed from a visual rhetorical perspective, where rhetorical intricacies of meaning embodied in the letterform are thoughtfully and holistically considered (where designers may question their default modes of type selection), designers can be more strategic in directing meaning through type.

This paper presents the results of a study in the field of speech linguistics, which studies linguistic phenomena starting from the activity of speaking, not from language. From the perspective of the three linguistic levels proposed by Eugenio Coseriu, the creation of metaphors is situated at the universal level. This paper investigates the common ground that integral linguistics and cognitive semantics share. An illustrative case study is proposed in order to highlight the manner in which the two semantic approaches may complement one another to the benefit of research in the field of metaphor.

Στην εργασία με τίτλο: Εννοιακή Μεταφορά, Μουσική και Ελληνική Γλώσσα αρχικά παρατίθενται οι ποικίλες προσεγγίσεις του φαινομένου της μεταφοράς με έμφαση στη θεωρία της εννοιακής μεταφοράς (Lakoff & Johnson 1980).  Έπειτα, εξετάζεται η σχέση εννοιακής μεταφοράς, μουσικής και Ελληνικής γλώσσας. Συγκεκριμένα, γλωσσικές εκφράσεις της Ελληνικής που πραγματώνουν εννοιακές μεταφορές σχετικές με τη μουσική αποδελτιώνονται, κατηγοριοποιούνται και αναλύονται. Τα δεδομένα προέρχονται τόσο από γραπτό (άρθρα κριτικής μουσικής, βιβλία σχετικά με τη μουσική) όσο και προφορικό (τηλεοπτικές εκπομπές) λόγο. Αποδεικνύεται πως η αφηρημένη έννοια της μουσικής γίνεται κατανοητή μέσα από πληθώρα εννοιών που προσεγγίζονται μέσω της σωματικής εμπειρίας όπως οι άνθρωποι, τα ζώα, τα φυτά, ο πόλεμος, το φαγητό, τα κτήρια κ.ά. Στο τελευταίο κομμάτι, επιχειρείται η αξιοποίηση πορισμάτων διεθνών ερευνών σχετικών με το θέμα και η παρουσίαση εναλλακτικών θεωριών για τη μεταφορά, τη μουσική και τη γλώσσα.

Λέξεις Κλειδιά: εννοιακή - εννοιολογική μεταφορά (conceptual metaphor), μουσική, Ελληνική γλώσσα, γνωσιακή γλωσσολογία.

In the dissertation entitled: Conceptual Metaphor, Music and Greek Language,  the relationship between conceptual metaphor, music and Greek language is examined. Firstly, the various approaches to the phenomenon of metaphor are presented with emphasis on conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff & Johnson 1980). After that, linguistic expressions of Greek that materialize conceptual metaphors related to music are  indexed, categorized and analyzed. The data come from both written texts (music criticism articles, music books) and oral speech (TV shows). It turns out that  the abstract concept of music is being understood through a multitude of concrete concepts such as people, animals, plants, war, food, buildings and others. The findings are in line with those of international research. At the same time, they are enriched by cataloging more metaphors. In the final part, the author discusses findings of international researchers and presents alternative theories that link metaphor, music and language.

Key Words: conceptual metaphor, music, Greek language, Cognitive Linguistics.

G. Lakoff ve M. Johnson'ın metafor kuramı, metaforun yalnızca bir edebî sanat olmayıp algı ve davranışlar üzerinde etkisi olan bir psikolojik ve bilişsel mekanizma olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu çalışmanın ilk kısmında Lakoff ve Johnson'ın metafor kuramına değinilmekte, onların İngilizce için verdikleri bazı metafor örneklerinin Türkçedeki mukabillerinden bahsedilmektedir. Çalışmanın ikinci kısmında; Eski ve Orta Türkçede tüşür-, kir-kötür-, yüd-, tart-, çek-fiilleriyle kurulan birleşik fiillerde artzamanlı olarak yük metaforunun izi sürülmekte, çek-ve tart-fiilleriyle kurulan birleşik fiiller Farsça mukabilleriyle karşılaştırılmaktadır

This article critically analyzes two leading cognitive scientists, George Lakoff and Steven Pinker, as competing secular political “theologians”. The idea of Science as savior is at the heart of the set of stories modernity tells about itself. The modern world, it is assumed, has left the age of religion and reached the age of Science. Lakoff and Pinker, who advocate opposing moral and political worldviews, make their claims on the basis of their scientific work, but it is implicit narratives and ontologies that give force to their broader views about morality and politics.

Resumo: Esta tese se caracteriza como um ensaio filosófico sobre uma questão que atravessa diferentes produções musicais, discursos e práticas que tem no rap sua razão de ser. Trata-se do
que chamo de clamor performativo do rap – isto é, a ideia de que este é um gênero musical dotado de diferentes “poderes de fazer”. No entanto, se esta performatividade assume, para os artistas, atores culturais e fãs ligados ao rap feições positivas – como o poder de transformar a realidade, de conscientizar socialmente ou de se fazer um instrumento de luta –, é também por um clamor performativo que autoridades estatais e discursos midiáticos muitas vezes atrelam ao rap o poder de incitar ao crime e à desordem pública, ou ainda de ameaçar valores estruturantes de uma convivência social pacífica e até mesmo a integridade física de pessoas reais. Assim, a formação de cadeias metafóricas performativas parece ser central para a apreciação, aceitação, rejeição e, eventualmente, assimilação sociocultural e econômica deste gênero. O ensaio aqui apresentado tenta pensar sobre os impactos, a necessidade e os riscos envolvidos na metaforização performativa do rap como gênero musical no qual estética e
política articulam e tensionam os limites entre o cotidiano e a ficção.

Abstract: This dissertation is a philosophical essay on an issue related to musical productions, speeches and practices that do not have rap as their raison d'être. It is what I call rap's performative claim – the idea that it is a musical genre endowed with different “powers of doing”. However, if this performativity assumes for artists, cultural actors and rap-related fans positive features – such as the power to transform reality, to become socially aware or to turn rap music an instrument of struggle – it is also through a performative claim that state officials and media speeches often harness to rap music a power to incite crime and public disorder, to uphold the structuring values of peaceful social coexistence and even the physical integrity of an individual. Thus, a formation of performative metaphorical chains seems to be central to the
appreciation, acceptance, rejection and, eventually, sociocultural and ecological assimilation of such music genre. This essay tries to think over the impact, the need, and the risks encompassed
in rap’s performative metaphorization as music genre, in which aesthetics and politics articulate and stress the boundaries between everyday life and fiction.

Resumen: Esta tesis se caracteriza por ser un ensayo filosófico sobre un tema que cruza diferentes producciones musicales, discursos y prácticas que tienen su razón de ser en el rap. Esto es lo que llamo el clamor performativo del rap, es decir, la idea de que el rap es un género musical dotado de diferentes “poderes de hacer”. Sin embargo, si esta performatividad asume, para artistas, actores culturales y aficionados rasgos positivos al rap – como el poder de transformar la realidad, sensibilizar socialmente o hacerse instrumento de lucha – también es por medio de un clamor performativo que las autoridades estatales y los discursos de los medios de comunicación a menudo imputan al rap un poder para incitar el crimen y el desorden público, para amenazar la estructuración de los valores de la convivencia social pacífica e incluso la integridad física de personas reales. Por lo tanto, la formación de cadenas metafóricas performativas parece ser central para la apreciación, la aceptación, el rechazo y, finalmente, la asimilación sociocultural y económica de este género. El ensayo presentado aquí intenta pensar sobre los impactos, la necesidad y los riesgos involucrados en la metaforización performativa del rap como género musical en el que la estética y la política articulan y tensan los límites entre la vida cotidiana y la ficción.

The article investigates whether cognitive science and its notion of congenital unconscious metaphor can inform Jungian psychology. The backside of ingrained transcendental thinking in Western culture, and how we are still caught up in the conceptual patterns of Cartesius and Kant, is discussed.

Keywords: metaphor, archetype-as-such, ontology, animism, transcendentalism, folk theories, Kant, Plato, Carl Jung.

This presentation suggests that processes of realizing new bodily movements in dance are metaphorically constructed. I will propose the term “Dancing Metaphors” in order to follow embodied cognitive processes of realization within dancing. Following Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology of perception the presentation will demonstrate the lack of a situated reason within dancing, and therefore its perceptual complexity. The term “Dancing metaphors” relates physical movements that their processes of designing are enacted in terms of other physical experiences in order to define their motor-intentionality. Following cognitive (and embodied) accounts in metaphor studies, this term considers the act of dancing as a case of imaginative rationality, which is embodied. Moreover, within the act of dancing metaphors there is another layer of embodiment; the metaphoric act is physically incorporated within the design of bodily movements.

The file attached is ESA 2017 abstracts booklet.

Konzepte von Geist und Atem stellen in verschiedenen Kulturen eine Einheit dar. Dies gilt etwa für den biblischen Hauch Gottes, das griechische pneuma und den lateinischen spiritus, das prana des Sanskrit, das chinesische Ch’i. Die Diskursivierung lässt den Geistatem jeweils als »absolute Metapher« im Sinne Hans Blumenbergs erscheinen. Er füllt eine Leerstelle im Wissenssystem und setzt eine ästhetische Gestalt an die Stelle rationaler Ergründbarkeit. Damit kann die Atemhaftigkeit des Geistes aus logischer Sicht nur ein Entwurf sein und unbestimmt bleiben. Der gleichzeitigen Bestimmbarkeit im Rahmen einer ästhetisch-motorischen Gestaltbildung (einem Morphom) gilt diese Untersuchung.

This article draws together overlapping cognitive analyses of political thought, emotion, and language and shows how they can be supplemented with literary analyses of genre to illuminate the workings of the French Revolution debate of 1790s Britain. It focuses on enriching George Lakoff 's theory of the multiple levels of framing in discourse, concentrating on the interplay of argument and narrative frames. Studies of emotion and mood in narrative genres are adapted to refine Lakoff 's account of narrative , making it more complex, systematic, and sensitive to historical context. Applying the revised theory, the essay characterizes contrasts between Edmund Burke's and Thomas Paine's thought at all levels of framing. It shows how their lexical frames for "revolution" diverge as their main arguments craft opposing issue-defining frames for the central moral issue of revolution versus reform. Those arguments highlight different key figures and events yet draw on similar narrative genres to frame them. Importantly, high genres of heroic romance inspire elevation toward one's own side by celebrating victories and lamenting tragedies, and low genres of satire inspire contempt toward opponents by ridiculing deserved failures and absurd successes. Thus narrative genre ties surface-frame phrases like "rights of man" and "swinish multitude" to deep-frame assumptions about more fundamental concepts (human nature, society, government).

Pensiero politico e scienza della mente George Lakoff, Edizioni Bruno Mondadori, Aa. 2009, pagine 339, euro 26 «Il linguaggio non esprime solo identità: può cambiare l'identità. Il linguaggio è uno strumento di creatività e potere, un mezzo per connettersi con gli altri o per alienarseli, una forza di coesione sociale o di separazione» (G. Lakoff, Pensiero politico e scienza della mente).

The field of interactive music systems (IMSs), beginning in the 1980s, is still relatively young and fast moving. The field of music theory-analysis, during the same period (since 1980), has undergone a major transformation in terms of technological innovations, flexibility, and breadth. The two fields have not really caught up with each other. It will be interesting to see what arises as they do — especially as both fields have become more concerned with the role of the body and embodied cognition. Framed in terms of contrasting epistemological orientations, this essay considers some relevant developments in IMSs, music cognition, and music theory and analysis, leading up to the present.  The most popular approaches to music cognition and to IMS design are rationalist (Ashby 2010), exploiting the ‘correct’ embodiments of music (Godøy 2004, Leman 2007, Paine 2009) based on affordances (Gibson 1977, Kelso 1998). This essay, however, advocates a pragmatist (Ashby 2010) approach inspired by music analysis and exploiting the potential of kinesthetic learning (associative learning). Prompted by a progressive approach to music analysis, theory, perception, and cognition (Dubiel 1999, Mailman 2007), interactive music technology can also be constructive, flexible, and progressive, by exploiting kinesthetic learning from immersion in new and unusual motion-to-sound mappings derived from dynamic formal processes in analysed music. In this way, immersive interactive systems offer an opportunity systematically to learn new associations based on principles theorised in response to analysis. Experience of these systems essentially ‘rewires the brain’, thereby exemplifying what Korsyn (2004) has attributed to Lewin’s (1986, 1987) approach to music perception: the ironist approach, as formulated by Rorty (1989). Thus a pragmatist ironist experimental (PIE) approach is articulated. Rather than committing to any particular ways music is already embodied, this approach acknowledges the flexible nature of embodied musical experience. It forges and uses interactive music technologies continually to redescribe and therefore reform how music is embodied, thereby disembodying to re-embody music, expanding how music is heard, contemplated and experienced.

Conceptual blending is the basic idea that the human mind and brain interact with the surrounding world by combining or "blending" different kinds of thoughts and feelings. Much of human history, culture, and imagination since the Upper Paleolithic Age (c. 50,000 to 10,000 years ago) has resulted from the cognitive development of the human brain, language, and conceptual blending. This development allowed humans to interact in creative and productive new ways with their environment and other humans, and this interaction gave them the capacity to have increasingly complex mental experiences. This ongoing process also underlies much of religious thought and experience. The American comic book and cinema superhero Spiderman is an example of conceptual blending. Spiderman is a fictional character that blends together the qualities of a human being, a spider, and the basic superhero concept. As originally written by Stan Lee for the comic book series, a powerful and mysterious spider bites young Peter Parker during a class trip to a museum, and he eventually turns into Spiderman. Although the actual idea of a part-spider, part-human being is odd and biologically impossible, in the mind it makes perfect "sense." The modern theory of conceptual blending has its roots in earlier cognitive-scientific ideas of framing thoughts and feelings and more recently in contemporary metaphor theory. This recent theory considers the deeper aspects of metaphor, especially how it influences people's experiences and perceptions of the world. The term metaphor, derived from an ancient Greek word for "carrying over," means carrying over the meaning of one word or image to another. For example, the metaphor of "Life is a journey" helps to frame the abstract notion of "life" by projecting onto it the more tangible details and qualities of a journey. Related statements might include "

Gülün Tam Ortası, 1950’lerde Batı’da “Bilişm Devrimi” olarak adlandırılan entelektüel bir hareketin kuramsal zemininden hareketle, aynı zaman diliminde Türk şiirinde öne çıkan bir yönelişi, İkinci Yeni’yi irdeleme çabası taşıyan değerlendirmeler içeriyor. İkinci Yeni, Türk şiirinde yeni bir gerçeklik anlayışının kendisini hissettirdiği, sıradışı bağdaştırmalarla yeni imgesel tasarımların üretildiği, reel olanın irreel olanla yan yana geldiği bir arayışın şiiridir. Şiirimizin böylesine dikkat çekici bir döneminin, bilişsellik kuramlarından hareketle incelenmesi büyük önem taşımaktadır.

The paper bridges the fields of political theory and methodology. It focuses on a central concept of the discipline, democracy, and proposes a novel way of understanding concept formation and the problem of category boundaries, an essential issue in comparative analysis, through the work of George Lakoff in cognitive science. Four historical competing conceptions lay claim to the core meaning of democracy: representative democracy, which has achieved hegemonic influence; participatory democracy, which ebbs and flows; democracy as the sovereignty of the people's general will, the historical main core of the concept; and "people's democracy," on the Marxist left. Each conception purports to best embody what rule by the people means, or should mean.  Advances in cognitive studies are used to address the problems of conceptual definition and category boundaries that arise when concepts are contested. Particularly troublesome is that each conception--or "subtype"--of a contested concept does not always share a set of defining particular attributes with other "subtypes" of the same category, as in family resemblance. In radial category, however, the resemblance may be faint. The notion of "radial category", taken from George Lakoff, is used to confront the methodological problem posed by contested concepts and to illuminate the structure of relations among politically competing conceptions of democracy.

Governments’ policies and actions often precipitate public blame firestorms and mediated scandals targeted at individual or collective policy makers. In the face of losing credibility and resources, officeholders are tempted to apply strategies of blame avoidance which permeate administrative structures, operations and language use.

Linguistic aspects of blame avoidance are yet to be studied by discourse analysts in great detail. In this article, I contribute to filling this gap in knowledge by proposing an improved heuristic for understanding typical macroconversational discursive practices adopted by officeholders in the circumstances of blame risk to achieve the goal of positive self-presentation.

Based on a multidisciplinary review of scholarly literature, I show how personal and institutional risk aversion involves the application of certain strategies of argumentation, framing, denial, social actor and action representation, legitimation and manipulation. I use concrete textual examples from public statements of UK government officeholders to illustrate how blame avoidance works at the highest level of administration.

I argue that to understand blame avoidance as a dominant recurring theme in public communication we should look beyond current linguistic approaches to conflict talk. This could lead to the application of new useful analytic tools within discourse studies and open new avenues of critical research into language use in politics and bureaucratic organisations.

[Forthcoming in Sebastian Greve's edited collection,
Wittgenstein and the creativity of language,
2015.]

I offer a Wittgensteinian take on infinity and deduce from this some Wittgensteinian criticisms of Chomsky on ‘creativity’, treating this as one among many examples of how metaphors, following the understanding of Lakoff and Johnson, following Wittgenstein, can delude one into metaphysics. As per my title: ‘metaphysics’ turns out to be, really, nothing other than metaphorics in disguise. Our aim in philosophy, then, is to turn latent metaphors into patent metaphors. When we do this, the charm of metaphysics evaporates. Or again: its charm, if still felt, is properly contextualised: ‘metaphysics’ becomes at best a kind of accidental or un-self-aware poetry, rather than something like a super- or supra-science.
I then briefly sketch some outlines of a positive picture of Wittgenstein on creativity, inspired by Cavell and Kuhn (here going beyond the work I did in this regard in my recent book Wittgenstein among the Sciences), and the important work on context by Hertzberg and Travis, which in my view suggests a far more ‘open-ended’ picture of creativity in language than is present in Chomsky, while (as I sketch) not being committed to fantasies of actual-infinity. For what Hertzberg and Travis, following Wittgenstein, demonstrate, is that context, and human responsiveness thereto (including, I would add, through creativity in tone of voice, gesture, etc., etc.), allows an indefinitely wide and dense capacity to mean, linguistically. In the course of this, I dispatch the red herring of Wittgenstein’s alleged linguistic ‘conservatism’.
I close by offering some thoughts that I think follow, on the pros and cons of our creative capacities in terms of (our capacities for) persuasion, propaganda, etc. That is to say: I close by discussing political 'reframing', in thoughts inspired by Lakoff, and that loop back to Chomsky on political language. For, in relation to politics, as opposed to in relation to philosophical linguistics, Chomsky, like Wittgenstein, Kuhn and Lakoff, can I believe help us to bring words back ‘from their metaphysical to their everyday use’.

Denna artikel diskuterar den svenska högerradikala populismen
utifrån ett feministiskt perspektiv. Norocel kartlägger Sverigedemokraternas omtolkningar av den nationella metaforen om ”det svenska folkhemmet” och analyserar konstruktionen av maskuliniteter inom svensk högerradikal populism. Norocel för fram en specifik tolkning av den begreppsliga metaforteorin, en tolkning som innefattar den genealogiska tanken om svenskhet och som avslöjar centrala heteronormativa maskuliniteter i skärningspunkten mellan kön, klass och ”ras”. Analysen, som utgår ifrån partiledaren Jimmie Åkessons bidrag i partiets tidning SD–Kuriren, visar att Åkesson i sin (om)tolkning av folkhemsbegreppet kombinerar en nostalgisk välfärdschauvinism med en kryptorasistisk konservativ attityd, med målet att bevara den vita patriarkala heteronormativiteten och den ”svenske” mannens hegemoni inom den ”svenska” nationella familjen.

V diplomskem delu sem želela s pomočjo metodologije kognitivnega jezikoslovja prikazati, kako se v slovenskem jeziku odražata vidno in tipno zaznavanje.
Predpogoj za aplikacijo danih teoretičnih izhodišč na slovensko jezikovno gradivo je bilo ovrednotenje te jezikoslovne smeri v smislu iskanja njenega pozitivnega prispevka v (slovensko) jezikoslovje pa tudi odkrivanja njenih pomanjkljivosti. S tem sem se ukvarjala v poglavju O KOGNITIVNEM JEZIKOSLOVJU. Na kratko povzemimo bistvene ugotovitve:
1. Kognitivno jezikoslovje izhaja iz predpostavke, da je jezik del procesa spoznavanja in da ga je potrebno obravnavati v tem okviru.
2. Oblikovalo se je kot zavračanje načel tvorbno-pretvorbne teorije, in sicer zlasti na področju raziskovanja slovnice (Langacker) in metafore (Lakoff).
3. Povezuje se z drugimi znanstveni disciplinami – je interdisciplinarna veda.
4. Kritiki kognitivnim jezikoslovcem očitajo:
• nenatančnost, pretirano posploševanje in opiranje na subjektivni občutek pri jezikovnem opisu,
• v zvezi s slednjim zavračanje teorije in priseganje izključno na empirijo,
• nekritičnost do kognitivne metodologije, tj. pretirano rabo (zlorabo) pojmovnega aparata kognitivnega jezikoslovja,
• predvsem pa samozadostno zanikanje jezikoslovne tradicije.
5. Kognitivno jezikoslovje torej ponuja prenovljen pogled na jezik, vendar le v kombinaciji s spoznanji predhodnih jezikoslovnih smeri.
6. Kognitivizem je na Slovenskem ubral zmernejšo, bolj zadržano (skeptično?) pot.

Tretje poglavje, PODOBA VIDNEGA IN TIPNEGA ZAZNAVANJA V SLOVENŠČINI, je z vsebinskega vidika trojno.
Prvi del (3.1 O zaznavanju) je posvečen enciklopedični predstavitvi značilnosti vida in tipa, v kateri sta dana čuta prikazana s fiziološkega in z antropološkega vidika. To t. i. znanstveno podobo vida in tipa je bilo v nadaljevanju naloge mogoče primerjati s podobo teh dveh čutov, kakršna se kaže v analiziranem jezikovnem gradivu. Čutno zaznavanje je ena od temeljnih človekovih izkušenj, kar se zrcali tudi v jeziku.
Sledita teoretično naravnani poglavji 3.2 in 3.3, v katerih so predstavljeni temeljni pojmi, ki sem jih kasneje uporabila pri analizi gradiva. Pojem kategorizacije sem prikazala v luči dihotomije klasična/aristotelovska kategorija vs. prototipska kategorija, ki jo poudarjajo kognitivni jezikoslovci. Ukvarjala sem se predvsem z manj znanim pojmom prototipske kategorije, ki je organizirana na podlagi t. i. družinske podobnosti med njenimi elementi, in predstavila tudi oba tipa organiziranosti takšne kategorije (tj. glede na prototip in glede na shemo). Po drugi strani je izpostavljena potreba po dvojnem pojmovanju kategorij: obstajajo bodisi pojmovne (ki združujejo lekseme, povezane v isto pojmovno področje) bodisi pomenske kategorije (tj. lekseme s specifično pomensko strukturo). To delitev sem upoštevala v kasnejši jezikovni analizi. Nekoliko podrobneje je predstavljen tudi pojem osnovne ravnine kategorizacije, ki jo kognitivizem v hierarhiji kategorizacijskih ravnin izpostavlja kot spoznavno najbolj ekonomično. Analiza je pokazala, da tako kategorije tip, vid kot tudi tipati, videti spadajo na osnovno ravnino kategorizacije, saj so s spoznavnega vidika bolj informativne kot druge ravnine iz istega pojmovnega polja. V razdelku 3.2.3 je s teoretičnega vidika predstavljeno kognitivno pojmovanje strukture pomenskih kategorij. Kognitivisti tudi pri preučevanju leksikalne večpomenskosti uporabljajo teorijo prototipskosti: lekseme vidijo kot prototipske kategorije s posebno razvrščenostjo elementov okoli središča, prototipa, v smeri proti obrobju kategorije. Avtorjem, katerih poglede navajam v tem poglavju (Taylor, Lakoff, Langacker), je skupno spoznanje o medsebojni povezanosti pomenov iz iste pomenske kategorije. Obširneje sem se posvetila Langackerjevemu pojmu mrežnega modela, s katerim je mogoče shematično ponazoriti pomensko zgradbo (večpomenske) kategorije, in kategorizacijskih razmerij med vozlišči na tej mreži, zlasti (metonimične in metaforične) širitve iz prototipa in razvijanje sheme (ki poteka bodisi v smeri abstrakcije, shematizacije bodisi v smeri ponazoritve, konkretizacije). V poglavju 3.3 Pomen v luči kognitivne semantike je prikazan pristop kognitivnega pomenoslovja k vprašanju leksikalnega pomena. Sledi oris nekaterih ožje pomenoslovnih pojmov, ki sem jih uporabljala dalje pri analizi leksemov: predvsem t. i. spoznavnega področja (oz. temu sorodnih pojmov drugih avtorjev) ter profiliranja.
Poglavje 3.4 POMENSKA ANALIZA NEKATERIH LEKSEMOV, POVEZANIH Z VIDNIM IN TIPNIM ZAZNAVANJEM je gradivno omejeno na lekseme, ki so v ožjem smislu povezani s pojmom vida oz. tipa, tj. na samostalniški poimenovanji za ta dva čuta (tip, vid) in na glagole, katerih denotat je dejavnost vidnega oz. tipnega zaznavanja (videti, tipati in druge pomensko sorodne glagole).
V prvem delu sem analizirala strukturo omenjenih pomenskih kategorij. Pokazalo se je, da:
• je vid večpomenska kategorija, v središču katere je pomen 'čut za zaznavanje vidnega sveta z očmi', tip pa je kategorija z enim samim vozliščem.
• sta tako kategorija videti kot tudi tipati večpomenski. Pomen (2) 'zaznavati z očmi', pri katerem je v ospredje postavljena dejavnost (vidnega) zaznavanja, je izhodišče za številne metonimične in metaforične širitve v druge pomene in tako središče kategorije videti. Kategorija tipati je sicer manj razvejana kot videti, vendar je tudi v njenem središču pomen, pri katerem je v prvem planu dejavnost zaznavanja, (1) 'zaznavati s prsti (oz. z roko)', iz katerega izhaja največ pomenskih širitev.
• sta kategoriji čut in čutiti, ki se kategorizacijsko nahajata nad osnovno ravnino s kategorijami vid, tip in videti, tipati, za te v marsičem shematični.
• analiza slovarskega gradiva dokazuje, da je vidno zaznavanje v slovenščini pogosteje ubesedeno (in zato tudi pomensko bolj pestro) kot tipno zaznavanje.

V drugem delu tega poglavja sem opazovala paradigmatska razmerja med tistimi glagoli, ki se v ožjem smislu nanašajo na sposobnost oz. dejavnost vidnega in tipnega zaznavanja.
1. Razčlemba glagolov iz pojmovne kategorije vidno zaznavanje je pokazala, da je denotat glagola videti sposobnost za zaznavanje (oz. uporaba te sposobnosti), gledati se nanaša predvsem na (fizično) dejavnost zaznavanja, pri zreti, strmeti, opazovati, buljiti, bolščati pa je v ospredju podstavnega koncepta način gledanja.
2. Izkazalo se je tudi, da tvorjenke iz videti niso le vidski pari (nedovršnega) podstavnega glagola, ampak imajo predponska obrazila (predvsem) besedotvorno vlogo, pomenska povezava s skladenjskopodstavnim glagolom pa je močno zabrisana. V tvorjenkah, ki jih motivira glagol gledati, imajo predpone večinoma funkcijo vidskega morfema, hkrati pa priklicujejo védenje, ki prispeva k drobnim pomenskim razlikam. Opazila sem tudi, da se v tvorjenkah iz omenjenih glagolov ponavadi realizira eno od spoznavnih področij (oz. pomenov) motivirajočega glagola.
3. Lahko rečemo, da se na tipno zaznavanje v ožjem smislu kot namerno in usmerjeno dejavnost, povezano s spoznavnimi procesi, nanaša le leksem tipati in tvorjenke iz njega (ter, jasno, njegova neknjižna vzporednica šlatati z vidskimi variantami). Glagol dotikati se / dotakniti se je pomensko splošnejši in (načeloma) ni povezan (izključno) z namernostjo zaznati določene lastnosti prizadetega predmeta; leksem aktivira predstavo o bližini in stiku med udeležencema dogodka ter o tem, da med njima obstaja določeno razmerje, ki je lahko dveh vrst (glede na vršilca ali povzročitelja dejanja).
4. Tudi tvorjenke iz tipati so načeloma aktualizacija enega (redko več) spoznavnih področij skladenjskopodstavnega glagola. Vloga predponskih obrazil je predvsem vidska, obenem pa je s temi morfemi navadno realiziran kateri od pomenov motivirajočega glagola.

Ugotovitve o strukturi pojmovnih in pomenskih kategorij, pridobljene na podlagi analize slovarskega gradiva, sem v četrtem poglavju, EMPIRIČNA ANALIZA POJMOVNIH IN POMENSKIH KATEGORIJ, preverjala tudi z anketo. Ta je sestavljena iz dveh nalog: v prvi so morali vprašanci našteti čute – na podlagi tega sem ugotavljala, ali je vid res v središču, tip pa na obrobju pojmovne kategorije čut –, v drugem delu pa so morali v omejenem času napisati kar največ povedi z glagolom videti in tipati, kar naj bi pokazalo, ali sta v okviru pomenskih kategorij videti in tipati res središčna pomena, ki sta se za takšna izkazala po gradivu iz SSKJ.

This case-study on the origins and the historical development of Ezekiel’s wedding-metaphors (God is a groom; Israel is a bride) intends to illustrate that content and pragmatic function of these metaphorical themes changed over the centuries. Against the backdrop of his findings the author asks in how far the experiential grounding hypothesis put forward by Lakoff and Johnson is useful in the interpretation of metaphors with a strong diachronic component such as biblical metaphors. The issue in those cases is in whose (so-called) experience the metaphor is rooted. He observes that metaphors can be invested with new and highly emotional meanings without any knowledge at all of the original settings out of which they emerged. The author concludes that metaphors can also shape one’s experience of the sacred instead of expressing it.