Wood Decay Fungi

The current study aims to elucidate and compare ultrastructure alterations that occurred in larch wood (Larix decidua Mill.) and beech wood (Fagus sylvatica) which were artificially infested with the selected fungi; Aspergillus niger, Pencillium chrysogenum, Chaetomium globosum, (soft-rot fungi) Trichoderma viride and Alternaria alternata (surface mold). Environmental scanning electron microscope were utilized to examine the wood samples which were left three years. Microscopic examination showed differences in the patterns and mechanism of decay in the two wood species and cell types invaded by the selected fungi. A. nigar and P. chrysogenum can cause wood degradation more aggressively than C. globosum. Surface mold fungi, e.g. T. viride and A. alternata may cause alterations in wood ultrastructurally like soft-rot fungi. The results of this study encourage adding stain fungi and surface mold to wood destroying fungi classification, also recommending examination their enzymatic system.

This paper aimed to evaluate the fungicidal activity of essential oil from two Brazilian savannah species (Lippia origanoides Kunth and L. lacunosa Mart. & Schauer) and from clove [Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry], tested against two wood decay fungi (Gloeophyllum trabeum and Trametes versicolor). Additionally, it was tested an adapted diffusion method along with digital images to assess the biological response. Four essential oil concentrations (100, 50, 25 and 12.5%) were tested. It was found that the essential oil from L. origanoides showed the highest fungicidal activity against G. trabeum and T. versicolor in any concentration tested. This activity is attributed to thymol, the major component of L. origanoides, and its several modes of action. L. lacunosa also showed fungicidal activity but dependent on the concentration used. The results showed that, in some cases, the essential oils presented higher inhibitions indexes than a commercial fungicide. The use of digital images has demonstrated the feasibility of making easier biological essays especially those in which there is growth without a specific geometric shape. Besides that, it gives a more sensibility and reliability to the process, since it is more accurate than human visual measurement.

Fungi share an ancient historical bond with humans which is completely fascinating.
The Strange History of Life
Humans have always been fascinated with life in all its forms, but thousands of years ago, we only classified life on Earth into two categories – plants and animals. We can thank Aristotle for that, and he further divided animals into those with and without blood, as well as those in the land, sea, and air. That rudimentary system remained in place until the 1600s. In the 18th century, Carolus Linnaeus divided life into the kingdoms of animals and plants, and then further began dividing those into different genera and species, which is why we have the two-part naming system in science (Homo sapiens, for example; Homo is the genus and sapiens is the species.

It wasn’t until the middle of the 19th century that single-celled organisms were finally given their due as a separate kingdom of life (Protista). Seventy years later, single-celled organisms were divided into eukaryotes and prokaryotes, so bacteria became the 4th kingdom of life. Although fungi had been recognized as a unique part of the animal kingdom, it was not separated into its own kingdom until 1969. This five-kingdom system remains the most widely accepted format for classifying life on Earth.
All classifications of life until recently, including the expansion from two kingdoms to five, were based on physical observations of how things looked, even under a microscope. This is how the closeness and relationships between species, genera, classes, orders and kingdoms were decided. Given that fact, it comes as no surprise that most people classified fungi as plants for so long. The similarity in appearance is pretty clear, like little red and white trees…

However, thanks to modern technology, the analysis of genetic relationships between species and organisms is now possible, and it shows something very interesting. By examining the genes of different species, both animal and fungi, the mutational changes can be observed, and genealogical relationships can be determined that go back millions of years.

As it turns out, animals and fungi share a common ancestor and branched away from plants at some point about 1.1 billion years ago. It was only later that animals and fungi separated on the genealogical tree of life, making mushrooms more closely related to humans than plants. Most likely, this common ancestor was a single-celled organism that had sperm-like characteristics (like an animal) and then a later developmental stage with a stronger cell wall (fungi).

Are mushrooms vegetables?
Simple answer? No, it’s not a vegetable. Mushrooms are fruiting bodies of macroscopic filamentous fungi. Earlier when mycology (the study of fungi) arose, it was a part of botany. This happened as fungi were considered to be primitive plants. The major difference between a plant (vegetable) and mushroom is how they acquire their food. In the case of plants, they possess chlorophyll and make their food via photosynthesis. Fungi, on the other hand, exist on decaying material in nature. Also the obvious structural differences, such as lack of leaves, roots, and seeds.So fungi now have their own kingdom on the basis of cellular organization.

However, this is the science side of things. Now let us take a look at the other side, the side of food! In terms of food and nutrition, mushrooms are often put in the category of vegetables. The reason for this lies in the nutritional value. Mushrooms and plants have similar nutritional attributes. The nutrients provided by mushroom are spread across various core food groups such as meat and grains. All this has made mushroom a valuable asset in the kitchen both for taste and nutrition.

The Connection Between Mushrooms and Men
Haven’t you ever noticed that eating a perfectly cooked portobello mushroom is closer to eating meat than a salad? Well, that isn’t exactly a scientific explanation of the connection, but this new revelation of our link to fungi does shed some light on the trouble we have with fungal infections in the body. It is notoriously difficult to treat fungal infections, rather than viral and bacterial pathogens, and this close genetic link may explain why.

Fungi and animals are both eukaryotes, with nuclei and other complex structures inside their cell membranes, whereas bacteria are much simpler – composed of just genetic material and a cell wall. Therefore, when we try to fight a bacterial infection, the body is able to easily differentiate and neutralize the threat. Unfortunately, with fungal infections, the body sometimes thinks that the infection is…. us. Drugs that are synthesized to fight the cells of fungal infections may also attack healthy human cells, as there is very little structural difference.

Kayu merupakan komoditas alam yang hingga saat ini masih dipilih sebagai bahan bangunan dan meubel karena beberapa keunggulannya yaitu, warna, corak, kekuatan serta mudah dalam pengerjaan.. kekurangan dari produk kayu kapur (Dryobalanops sp) yaitu mudah mengalami penurunan kualitas akibat dari faktor kimia, fisika, atau biologi. Salah satu agen penyebab kemunduran yaitu jamur Schizhophyllum commune dapat menyebabkan kehilangan berat hingga 14,14%. Pengujian Kehilangan berat kayu dilakukan dengan inokulasi jamur S.commune menggunakan media PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar) dan diinkubasi selama 4 minggu, Pengujian nilai kerapatan kayu dilakukan dengan menggunakan standar jerman DIN 32182. Hifa jamur S.commune yang menyerang kayu kapur (Dryobalanops sp) dapat dengan mudah terlihat pada sel pori yang selanjutnya hifa melakukan penetrasi antar sel pori serta menyebar ke segala arah. Kehilangan berat kayu kapur tertinggi sebesar 0,77% dan terendah 0%.

The article presents the results of perennial research of wood-destroying basidiomycetes species of the
Southern Urals within the Orenburg region. It shows the distribution in the region and substrate specialization
of 307 species in 121 geni and 43 families belonging to 11 orders of the class Agaricomycetes of the division
Basidiomycota. The results of taxonomic analysis of the mycobiota are given.

The chemical contents in cultivated 3 year-old bamboo culms of Gigantochloa brang, G. levis, G. scortechinii and G. wrayi were studied. Different composition were exhibited in the extractives, holocellulose, α-cellulose, lignin, and ash contents between the four (4) bamboo species, location in the culms and position at the nodes and internodes. The extractive content in four species ranged from 8.30 to 9.23%. The extractive content of G.brang, G.levis, G.scortechinii and G.wrayi were 8.30%, 9:23%, 8:00% and 8.62% respectively. The holocellulose content for G. levis were 85.08%, G. wrayi 84.53%, G. brang 79.94% and G. scortechinii 74.62%. The holocellulose content for the cultivated bamboo genus Gigantochloa were 74% to 85%. The α-cellulose is the chemical constituents in the holocellulose. The highest was G.brang (51.58%) followed by G. scortechinii (46.87%), G.wrayi (37.66%) and G. levis (33.80%). The lignin content ranged between 24.84 to 32.65%.The highest were obtained in G. scortechinii (32.55%), G. wrayi (30.04%%), G. levis (26.50%) and lowest in G. brang (24.83%). The ash content in four species of Gigantochloa bamboo ranged between 0.88 to 2.86%. The ash content is the highest in G. scortechinii (2.83%) follow by G. levis (1.29%), G. brang (1.25%) and the lowest in G.wrayi (0.88%).

The wooden assemblage recovered from Hoyo de los Herreros cave (Reocín, Cantabria, Spain) in northern Iberia has provided an exceptional opportunity to enlarge our knowledge about perishable material culture from a unique medieval context. This case study enhances the information related to ephemeral material culture associated with the occupation of caves during the Middle Ages in northern Iberia, and the role played by wooden crafts in relation to activities performed within these dark and subterrain areas. All the wooden objects have been systematically studied and dated, combining wood analysis and morpho-technological study with the examination of entomological remains recovered from one of the objects which was in an advanced state of decay. The three bowls and a pointed twig recovered inside the cave were probably related to two different episodes of use, the first dated between 9th to 11th centuries CE, and the second between 11th and 12th centuries CE. It was possible to identify different stages of their chaîne-opératoires and the analysis of different aspects of their lifecycle, in tandem with the study of medieval wood crafting, specifically lathe-turning.

Piptoporus betulinus is a wood-rotting basidiomycete found on dead birch trees, and is very common in Britain, fruiting in the latter part of the year.

Some aspects of its epidemiology were investigated with the conclusion that P.betulinus pathogenicity is not a restrictive influence on the growth of birch. Artificial infection was only effective in suppressed trees. A greater percentage of the dead birches in pure stands bore basidiocarps of P.betulinus than those in mixed stands.

P.betulinus was considered to be more genetically variable than most studies to date would indicate for basidiomycetes, and this was discussed in the context of a host-specific, pathogenic lifestyle, and the duration of the monokaryon stage in the wild.

An investigation of the distribution of individuals within trees found single-dikaryon infections to predominate. Multiple-dikaryon infections were postulated to occur as a result of secondary invasion,and single dikaryon infections as a result of prinary pathogenicity.

Intra-specific antagonism between dikaryons was shown to have a comparatively simple genetic basis. Two multiallelic, unlinked loci, h and s, were proposed. H promotes the expression of the line of antagonisn when heteroallelic, and was found in most cases to be expressed only in the dikaryon. S controls the expression of monilioid cells and was found to play a large part in controlling mutual growth inhibition when sexually incompatible monokaryons are paired.

Both loci are only expressed when the .mating-type morphogenetic pathway is not switched on, and the term 'override' was used to describe this. Similarly, in most cases, the s-locus is overriden by heteroallelism at the h-locus.

Nuclear selection was found to act in favour of comparatively unrelated types, and several different ways of analyzing this selection were presented and discussed. A mathematical analysis of the shape of interaction lines was made, with irplications for the analysis of growth and dikaryotization kinetics.

Abydos is a large, complex archaeological site located approximately 500 km south of Cairo in Upper Egypt. The site has served as a cemetery for thousands of years and is where most of the Early Dynastic royal tombs are located. North Abydos includes the Middle Cemetery and the North Cemetery, which are separated from each other by a wadi. The Middle Cemetery was the burial ground for important Sixth Dynasty (2407-2260 BC) officials and over time for thousands of elite and non-elite individuals as well. Excavations at the core area of the Old Kingdom mortuary landscape have revealed many culturally important wooden objects but these are often found with extensive deterioration that can compromise their preservation. The objectives of this study were to characterize the biodegradation that has taken place in excavated wooden objects, elucidate the type of wood degradation present , obtain information on soil properties at the site and identify fungi currently associated with the wood and soils. Light and scanning electron microscopy studies were used to observe the micromorphological characteristics of the wood, and culturing on different media was done to isolate fungi. Identification of the fungi was done by examining morphological characteristics and extracting rDNA from pure cultures and sequencing the ITS region. Wooden objects, made from Cedrus, Juniperus and Acacia as well as several unidentified hardwoods, were found with extensive degradation and were exceedingly fragile. Termite damage was evident and frass from the subterranean termites along with sand particles were present in most woods. Evidence of soft rot attack was found in sections of wood that remained. Fungi isolated from wood and soils were identified as species of Asper-gillus, Chaetomium, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Penicillium, Stemphylium Talaromyces and Trichoderma. Results provide important information on the current condition of the wood and gives insights to the identity of the fungi in wood and soils at the site. These results provide needed information to help develop conservation plans to preserve these degraded and fragile wooden objects. PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.

Two Ganoderma species causing butt rot were collected and isolated from Ficus bengalensis tree at Mansoura and Citrus limon trees at Damietta, Egypt. The two species were identified, based on fruit bodies, culture characterization and taxonomic traditional methods. The DNA sequences analysis of the ribosomal 5.8S rRNA gene including the flanking internal transcribed spacers (ITS) was also performed to confirm their taxonomic position among the other Ganoderma species. The species status was confirmed as G. resinaceum EGM and Ganoderma sp EGDA. For conserving the two Ganoderma species, they were cultivated in sawdust bags of citrus, beech and spruce trees for the first time in Egypt. Primordial initiation and basidiocarp maturation were observed as the sequence of fruit body development in both species. The antler-like formation was only observed in Ganoderma sp EGDA.

Evidence for invertebrate feeding on glossopterid gymnosperms is documented from Middle Permian silicified peats of the Prince Charles Mountains, Antarctica, in the form of coprolites occurring both free in the peat matrix and clustered within excavations in roots, aerial wood and leaves. Observations of coprolites in thin-sections of the peats and from scanning electron microscopy of examples extracted via bulk maceration reveal nine morphotypes distinguished by size, shape, surface texture and contents. These include coprolites with coarse plant debris, spirally ornamented coprolites, coprolites containing spore/pollen remains and fern sporangia, coprolites within Glossopteris leaves, an ellipsoidal morphotype within a fern sporangium, large isolated coprolites between matted leaves, clustered forms filling galleries inside Vertebraria roots and Australoxylon wood, forms with coarse indeterminate constituents and others with fungal contents. Other faunal evidence is limited to indeterminate arthropod exoskeleton fragments. Collectively, the coprolites within the permineralised peat from the Prince Charles Mountains document the presence of diverse feeding behaviours including stem feeding, sporangial feeding, palynivory, root feeding and mycophagy. The first evidence of invertebrate feeding traces in Vertebraria (glossopterid) roots is identified. These findings indicate that herbivory by invertebrates in the high-latitude Permian forest-mire ecosystems of Antarctica was more intense and diverse than previous studies have reported, and affected all parts of the Glossopteris plant, together with components of associated herbaceous taxa.

Organic carbon burial plays a critical role in Earth systems, influencing atmospheric O 2 and CO 2 concentrations and, thereby, climate. The Carboniferous Period of the Paleozoic is so named for massive, widespread coal deposits. A widely accepted explanation for this peak in coal production is a temporal lag between the evolution of abundant lignin production in woody plants and the subsequent evolution of lignin-degrading Agaricomycetes fungi, resulting in a period when vast amounts of lignin-rich plant material accumulated. Here, we reject this evolutionary lag hypothesis, based on assessment of phylogenomic, geochemical, paleontological, and strati-graphic evidence. Lignin-degrading Agaricomycetes may have been present before the Carboniferous, and lignin degradation was likely never restricted to them and their class II peroxidases, because lignin modification is known to occur via other enzymatic mechanisms in other fungal and bacterial lineages. Furthermore, a large proportion of Carboniferous coal horizons are dominated by unlignified lycopsid periderm with equivalent coal accumulation rates continuing through several transitions between floral dominance by lignin-poor lycopsids and lignin-rich tree ferns and seed plants. Thus, biochemical composition had little relevance to coal accumulation. Throughout the fossil record, evidence of decay is pervasive in all organic matter exposed subaerially during deposi-tion, and high coal accumulation rates have continued to the present wherever environmental conditions permit. Rather than a consequence of a temporal decoupling of evolutionary innovations between fungi and plants, Paleozoic coal abundance was likely the result of a unique combination of everwet tropical conditions and extensive depositional systems during the assembly of Pangea. lignin | carbon cycle | wood rot | fungi | lignin degradation

NEW PALAEOECOLOGICAL DATA PROVIDED BY THE PREMERY FOREST CLOSED DEPRESSIONS (BURGUNDYFRANCE)
The closed depressions (CDs) located in the Premery forest on the Nivernais Plateau (Burgundy, France) are suitable natural
archives for palaeoecological studies as formerly demonstrated in the sixties. New pollen and non-pollen palynomorphs (mainly
algal and fungal remains) analyses performed on two  sequences, give complementary information about the context of the CDs infilling formation, and the vegetation dynamics on the Nivernais Plateau. The two cores chronologically complete each other: the first one concerns the Late Glacial and the Early Holocene (from 16 000 to 10 000 cal. yr BP), but it is less suitable for Mid- and Late Holocene because of hiatuses in the sedimentation. The second one documents only the end of the Late-Glacial period (Younger Dryas), but it continuously covers the whole Holocene. Concerning human impact, the indicators of agro-pastoral activities are very scarce and punctual during Prehistory and Bronze Age (from ca 5 000 to 800 BC). Even after this date, and despite further deforestation phases occurring during the Iron Age (800-50 BC), the classical Middle Ages (around 1000 AD) and the Modern period, the woodland remains dominant, and proximal pollen and fungal indicators of human activity are only present in one core, from the 16th to the beginning of the 19th century. However, the forest might be affected for other reasons than agro-pastoral purpose, such as fire wood, timber wood, palaeo-industries… If these two CDs have comparable evolutions during Late-Glacial and Early Holocene, running from a state of small pond to small peat bog, their later histories are different. This fact shows the role of the catchment area variability for each CD infilling process, and it highlights the very local value of each of the palaeoecological information they provide.

The effects of different mixing, bamboo mesh size and heat treatment on the physical and mechanical properties and biodegradability of a polylactic acid (PLA) composite were determined. The results indicated that this composite exhibited high strength in all mechanical properties examined, except hardness using the pure polymer (PLA). The mesh size of the bamboo flour and heat treatment had considerable effects on all tests expect the decay resistance. The water absorbance and thickness swelling of the PLA composite was reduced to nearly zero after 3000 hours immersion in water. Moreover, the fungal decay test results demonstrated that PLA was highly resistant to both Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes fungi. The brown rot fungi, however, produced an extensive mass loss in the composite composed of different levels of bamboo flour.

Thermal modification is an attractive alternative to improve the decay durability and dimensional stability of wood. However, thermally modified wood is generally not resistant to termite attacks, limiting the field of application of such materials. One way to overcome this drawback is to combine thermal modification treatment with an additional treatment. One such treatment is the impregnation of a boron derivative associated with appropriate vinylic monomers, which takes advantage of the thermal treatment to polymerise these monomers for boron fixation. Using this strategy, we recently showed that an impregnation of borax (2 or 4% boric acid equivalent) dissolved in a 10% aqueous solution of polyglycerolmethacrylate followed by thermal treatment under nitrogen at 220°C protects wood from both termite and decay degradations, even after leaching. Additionally, wood samples treated with a 10% polyglycerolmethacrylate aqueous solution and subjected to thermal treatment at 220°C presented improved resistance to termites while avoiding boron utilization. Based on these results, we investigate the effect of impregnation with two types of vinylic monomers, which are already used in the presence of boron, followed by thermal treatments at different temperatures. We evaluate termite and decay durability of wood to evaluate if thermal modification associated with light chemical modification could be a solution for utilization of thermally modified materials in termite-infested areas.

The effects of differing ratios of bamboo/plastic polymers on resistance to fungal attack was assessed using two different decay test methods. Weight losses for non-treated southern pine and Carpinus betulus sapwood blocks indicated that the test conditions were suitable for aggressive decay by Gloeophyllum trabeum and Trametes versicolor.  Mass losses on the bamboo/composites tended to be very low, regardless of the method employed. In general, moisture levels in the composites were extremely low although they were close to the point where fungal attack could occur when only the bamboo components were considered. The standard decay tests indicated that bamboo can be considered a suitable substitute for wood flour in wood-plastic composites.

ABSTRAK Bawang merah (Allium ascalonicum L.) merupakan komoditas sayuran yang mempunyai nilai ekonomi tinggi dan telah dibudidayakan di berbagai wilayah di Indonesia. Salah satu provinsi yang menjadi sentra budidaya adalah Nusa Tenggara Barat. Bawang merah memiliki beberapa varietas unggulan salah satunya varietas Super Philip. Produksi bawang merah varietas super philip yang dibudidayakan di Desa Montong Tangi, Kabupaten Lombok Timur sering mengalami penurunan terutama pada tahap pasca panen ketika disimpan di gudang penyimpanan. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif kualitatif yang bertujuan untuk mengisolasi dan mengidentifikasi fungi penyebab pembusukan pada bawang merah (Allium ascalonicum L. var. Super Philip) saat pasca panen di gudang penyimpanan. Isolasi fungi dilakukan dengan metode penanaman langsung dan diidenifikasi berdasarkan karakteristik morfologi makroskopis dan mikroskopis. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan terdapat 4 isolat fungi yang diduga merupakan genus Fusarium, Aspergillus, Mucor, dan Sclerotinia. Keempat fungi tersebut ditemukan menyerang pada semua bagian akar, batang dan umbi lapis bawang merah var. super philip dan menyebabkan pembusukan pada pasca panen. Kata kunci: Fungi, Bawang Merah, varietas Super philip, Pasca Panen. ABSTRACT Shallot (Allium ascalonicum L.) is a vegetable commodity that has high economic value and has been cultivated in various regions in Indonesia. One of the provinces that is the center of cultivation is West Nusa Tenggara. Shallot has several superior varieties, one of which is Super philip. The production of Super philip shallot cultivated in Montong Tangi Village, East Lombok Regency often decreases, especially at the post-harvest stage when stored in a storage warehouse. This research was a qualitative descriptive study that aimed to isolate and identify the causes of decay in shallots during post-harvest in the storage warehouse. Isolation of fungi was carried out by direct planting method and was identified based on macroscopic and microscopic morphological characteristics. The results showed that there were 4 fungi isolates suspected of being genus Fusarium, Aspergillus, Mucor, and Sclerotinia. The four fungi were found to attack all parts of the root, stem and tuber of the shallot var. Super philip and causes decay during post-harvest.

В статье представлены результаты многолетних исследований видового состава древоразрушающих
базидиальных грибов Южного Приуралья в пределах Оренбургской области. Приводятся данные о распространении в регионе и субстратной специализации 307 видов из 121 рода и 43 семейств, относящихся
к 11 порядкам класса Agaricomycetes отдела Basidiomycota. Приведены результаты таксономического анализа микобиоты.

This study aimed to synthesize titanium dioxide nanoparticles by microwave-assisted hydrothermal method to incorporate them to the structure of Pinus elliottii wood. The color changes and the decay resistance of impregnated wood was investigated. The titanium dioxide nanoparticles were impregnated into Pinus elliottii wood by vacuum-pressure and simple immersion methods. Furthermore, Pinus elliottii wood was treated with chromated copper borate solution tocompare their effectiveness to the titanium dioxide treated wood. The titanium dioxide nanoparticles impregnated by vacuum-pressure were presented especially on the wood surface, forming a homogeneous coating. The titanium dioxide nanoparticles did not change the natural color of wood and, at the same time, decreased the degree of the white rot fungus (Ganoderma applanatum) colonization in the wood structure and the wood decay, compared to the untreated one. The titanium dioxide treated wood samples provided similar protection against decay in comparison to wood treated with chromated copper borate. The impegnation titanium dioxide nanoparticles can be a good alternative to decrease/avoid the fungi proliferation, providing to Pinus elliottii wood a self-cleaning mechanism.

Anatomical characterization of decayed wood in standing light red meranti and identifi cation of the fungi isolated from the decayed area Abstract To further our understanding of wood decay in living light red meranti (Shorea smithiana) trees, microscopic characteristics of the cell and cell wall degradations of S. smithiana wood in the presence of the decay fungi, the identity of the causal fungi, and the decay potential and pattern by an isolated fungus were investigated. Cell wall degradations, including cell wall thinning, bore holes formation , rounded pit erosion, and eroded channel opening were clearly observed under light and scanning electron micro-scopy. In transverse view, many large voids resulting from a coalition of degraded wood tissue appeared in the decayed canker zone. All these observations suggest the well-known simultaneous decay pattern caused by white-rot fungi. By phylogenetic analysis based on the sequences of internal transcribed spacer region of ribosomal DNA, a basidiomy-cete fungus isolated from the decayed wood was identifi ed as Schizophyllum commune. The degradation caused by this fungus on sound S. smithiana wood in an in situ laboratory decay test was classifi ed as the early stage of simultaneous decay, and showed a similar pattern to that observed in the wood samples naturally decayed.

The biodiversity value of production forests is substantially lower than that of natural forests. This is related to differences in hydrology, stand age and amounts of old trees and deadwood. Using a predictive model framework we show that restoring hydrology and old-growth characteristics in a forest formerly managed for timber extraction results in changes to forest composition and structure, ultimately increasing its biodiversity value. We inventoried biodiversity and stand variables in 102 sample plots in a temperate mixed broadleaved forest, which is in focus of a LIFE+ programme aiming to restore hydrology and old-growth structure. We collected presence/absence data for four organism groups (vascular plants, epiphytic bryophytes and lichens, wood-inhabiting fungi) and measured environmental variables associated with species occurrence and influenced by restoration (dead or living tree characteristics, stand age, water level). We investigated biodiversity consequences of restoration towards pristine environmental characteristics by using a space-for-time substitution model. We evaluated how and through what mechanisms species richness is likely to react when pre-forestry hydrological conditions and old-growth structures are restored. The model results show that reversing the effects of a long history of management for timber extraction increased availability of suitable habitat, and hence the local species richness for three of four of the organism groups, compared to the pre-restoration conditions. Furthermore, the increase in soil moisture shifted the forest plots towards an alder carr, while the stand ageing process sustained the shade-tolerant beech despite its low tolerance for high soil humidity. Our prediction shows an increase in species richness for plants directly driven by the restoration of natural water level, and for fungi as an indirect effect of a change in suitable substrate availability. Lichens responded positively to both processes. Plants stabilized their richness levels earlier than tree-dwelling organisms, as water level recovered faster than old-growth structures. The projection of stable bryophytes richness values under restoration is potentially biased by their lower diversity and more limited affiliation to forest structural variation than other groups. We suggest applying our space-for-time approach as a tool to assess forest and biodiversity responses in similar restoration projects involving management actions of open-ended habitat creation, promoting development of natural processes in the long-term. This modelling tool turns to be especially relevant in dynamic habitats where the outcomes for biodiversity are uncertain.

We analyzed the effects of heat treatment on the chemical structure of wood from narrow-leafed Ash (Fraxinus angustifolia), a fast-growing and economically valuable species. We also analyzed the effects of heat treatment on the wood’s resistance to four decay fungi. Narrow-leafed Ash wood samples were heated with saturated steam to 140, 180, 200, and 220°C for 2, 4, and 6 h. The relative contents of extractable components were analyzed, as well as the levels of holocellulose, cellulose, and lignin. In addition, the density, equilibrium moisture content, and pH of the samples were measured. To determine the effects of heat treatment on resistance to decay fungi, the samples were exposed to the white rot fungus Trametes versicolor, dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans, and the brown rot fungi Coniophora puteana and Gloeophyllum trabeum. Changes in the chemical composition of the wood due to heat treatment were correlated with increased resistance to fungal decay. While the hemicellulose content was dramatically reduced with increasing temperature and treatment duration, the lignin content increased proportionately. Thus, heat treatment is an environmentally friendly method of preserving narrow-leafed Ash wood against various decay fungi.

Timer decay is caused by primarily enzymatic activities of microorganisms. For the first time fungal diversity of timber degrading fungi was studied in Gujarat, India. Timber Degrading Fungi belonging to Aphyllophorales are economically important as many of these cause serious damage in sawmills of Gujarat. To find out the association of the timber degrading fungi and timber decay problems in sawmills a survey was conducted during 2007 to 2011 in different sawmills of 5 districts of Gujarat i.e. Vadodara, Ahmedabad, Bharuch, Rajkot and Jamnagar. In the present study teak wood present in sawmills was infected with 14 types of fungi in which Lenzites sterioides and Trametes versicolor damaged the wood severely was reported for the first time. In all 94 sawmills were surveyed, the 28 sawmills were from Vadodara, 29 from Ahmedabad, 12 from Bharuch, 21 from Rajkot and 4 from Jamnagar. Out of 94 sawmills survyed, 84 sawmills were having timber rotting fungi associated with wood. Maximum f...

The anatomical changes of wood decaying caused by white-rot fungus Phlebia brevispora could provide the basis for evaluating and analysis of decay on yellow meranti (Shorea gibbosa) heartwood. By using soil-block test procedure of JIS K-1571 and microscopic analysis, a progressive decay in vitro of S. gibbosa wood caused by P. brevispora was well characterized.The percentage of wood weight loss was ranged from 0.91% to 12.34%in 2-12 weeks' incubation. On the first 6 weeks of incubation of S. gibbosa infected with P. brevispora, the early stages decay, in which pit erosion and slight erosion of cell walls facilitated by hyphal spreading among cells. The intermediate decay features of numerous and conspicuous holes as well as erosion troughs in cell walls were found after 8 weeks' incubation. Furthermore, complete degradation of wood cell components, defined as the advanced stage of decay, was found in some areas of wood after 12 weeks' incubation. The pattern of wood deca...

Background: The fungal genus Serpula (Serpulaceae, Boletales) comprises several saprotrophic (brown rot) taxa,
including the aggressive house-infecting dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans. Recent phylogenetic analyses have
indicated that the ectomycorrhiza forming genera Austropaxillus and Gymnopaxillus cluster within Serpula. In this
study we use DNA sequence data to investigate phylogenetic relationships, historical biogeography of, and
nutritional mode transitions in Serpulaceae.
Results: Our results corroborate that the two ectomycorrhiza-forming genera, Austropaxillus and Gymnopaxillus,
form a monophyletic group nested within the saprotrophic genus Serpula, and that the Serpula species
S. lacrymans and S. himantioides constitute the sister group to the Austropaxillus-Gymnopaxillus clade. We found
that both vicariance (Beringian) and long distance dispersal events are needed to explain the phylogeny and
current distributions of taxa within Serpulaceae. Our results also show that the transition from brown rot to
mycorrhiza has happened only once in a monophyletic Serpulaceae, probably between 50 and 22 million years
before present.
Conclusions: This study supports the growing understanding that the same geographical barriers that limit plantand
animal dispersal also limit the spread of fungi, as a combination of vicariance and long distance dispersal
events are needed to explain the present patterns of distribution in Serpulaceae. Our results verify the transition
from brown rot to ECM within Serpulaceae between 50 and 22 MyBP.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the natural durability of wood submitted to heat treatments and exposed in a field environment. Were used Eucalyptus grandis and Pinus taeda species, being selected five trees selected for each species studied, which were unfolded, dried in a conventional drying kiln, and later submitted to the heat treatments using temperatures of 140 and 160 ºC. Subsequently 75 specimens of each species were prepared, which were tested in the field during six months of exposure, and the evaluations of the samples occurring every 40 days. The evaluation included the analysis of climatic variables, potential of fungal attack and the mass loss (%) of the woods, being the statistical analysis of the data by ANOVA for mass loss (%), in a completely randomized design with triple factorial arrangement, for the factor specie in two levels, factor thermal treatment in tree levels (control, 140 and 160 ºC) and time of exposure in five levels (40, 80, 120, 160 and 200 days of exposure). Eucalyptus and pine treated at 160 ºC presented respectively the highest and lowest resistance to mass loss. All woods are classified by the average values as very resistant. Efeito da modificação térmica na resistência natural da madeira Eucalyptus grandis e Pinus taeda RESUMO: O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar a durabilidade natural de madeiras submetidas a tratamentos térmicos e expostas em ambiente de campo. Foram utilizadas madeiras das espécies Eucalyptus grandis e Pinus taeda, sendo selecionadas cinco árvores para cada espécie, as quais foram desdobradas, secas em câmara de secagem convencional e submetidas à modificação térmica utilizando temperaturas de 140 e 160 ºC. Posteriormente foram confeccionados 75 corpos de prova de cada espécie, expostos em campo durante seis meses, e as avaliações ocorrendo a cada 40 dias. Procedeu-se com a análise de variáveis climáticas, potencial de ataque fúngico e a perda de massa (%) das madeiras, sendo a análise estatística dos dados em ANOVA para a perda de massa (%), em delineamento inteiramente ao acaso com arranjo fatorial triplo para o fator espécie em dois níveis, fator tratamento térmico em três níveis (testemunha, 140 e 160 ºC) e fator tempo de exposição em cinco níveis (40; 80; 120; 160 e 200 dias de exposição). O eucalipto e o pinus tratados a 160 ºC apresentaram, respectivamente, a maior e a menor resistência a perda de massa. Todas as madeiras são classificadas pelos valores médios como muito resistentes. Palavras-chave: biodeterioração da madeira; perda de massa; tratamento térmico

Outdoor durability of wood plastic composites is a major focus of research and development efforts toward development of more robust building materials. Exterior exposure of wood plastic composites  can result in weathering, moisture absorption, fungal and termite attack to various levels of severity depending on the composite formulation. Long-term (> 6 years) field exposure studies of wood plastic composites  are lacking in the scientific literature.  It is the overall goal of this paper to report on a ten-year field study of wood plastic composites  performed in Santiago, Chile. The wood plastic composite  formulations were comprised of polypropylene, wood flour, and various additives. Qualitative measurements were made on the stakes each year including the determination of decay and termite ratings on a scale of 1 to 10 as specified in American Wood Preservers’ Association  Standards. Surface weathering or discoloration, surface fungi colonization, presence of mold, and/or lichen was noted. The amount of dimensional change (swelling) of the samples in ground contact was determined. Determination of flexural properties of the control and 10-year exposed wood plastic composite  stakes were conducted. All the wood plastic composite  stake formulations maintained excellent performance ratings after the 10-year field exposure with ratings of 10 for decay and 10 for termites.The wood plastic composites stakes experienced swelling in contact with the soil with the majority of swelling occurring during the first year of exposure. Although the wood plastic composite  stakes did well regarding decay and termite performance, the portion of the stakes exposed above ground exhibited various amounts of weathering, surface fungal colonization, and mold and mildew depending on the formulation. Flexural properties of the wood plastic composite  stakes decreased or were maintained for the 10-year exposure depending on the composite formulation.

Stem rot caused by Polyporaceae is one of the most important factors determining
the state of aspen stands in Eurasia. Studying the selected species of fungi that cause rot distribution regularities, depending on the characteristics of the habitat and forest stands, allows to make more objective forecast of rot faults extension and to develop measures to limit their spread. The aim of research is to study the regularities of  aspen rot faults extension in the latitudinal range of conditions – from forest-steppe aspen stands of West Urals macroslope to the steppe aspen forest outliers of the dry steppes subzone, and to reveal the relationship of fungi infestation with individual characteristics of forest stands. During the expeditions of years 1994–2016 the wood-destroying basidium fungi living in aspen forests of South Urals and Cisurals have been studied. The main species that cause aspen stem rot are Phellinus tremulae, Phellinus nigricans and Fomes fomentarius. The leading part in the formation of aspen stem rot foci belongs to Phellinus tremulae. For all studied species their contamination of forest stands varies more widely in aspen forests of the forest-steppe zone and floodplain habitats, that is, in conditions of higher moisture. Incidence of aspen forests from the false aspen polypore occurs in close relation with the class of the forest stand age, and is much less dependent on the completeness and stage of
forest stands digression. Other environmental factors have an integrated action, creating conditions for the dissemination of fungi and active development of the decay process in aspen ecosystems. Since a large proportion of aspen forests in the region belongs to the old growth, the risk of development and extension of stem rot
in them is very high. 
Стволовые гнили, вызываемые трутовыми грибами, являются одним из важнейших факторов, определяющих состояние насаждений осины в Евразии. Изучение закономерностей распространения отдельных видов грибов, вызывающих эти гнили, в зависимости от характеристик местообитаний и древостоев, позволяет сделать более объективным прогноз распространения гнилевых фаутов и разработать меры по ограничению их распространения.
Цель исследования – изучение закономерностей распространения гнилевых фаутов осины в широтном диапазоне условий – от лесостепных осинников западного макросклона Урала до степных осиновых колков подзоны сухих степей – и выяснение взаимосвязи зараженности грибами с отдельными характеристиками древостоев. В ходе экспедиций 1994–2016 гг. изучались древоразрушающие базидиальные грибы, обитающие в осинниках Южного Урала и Приуралья. Основными видами, вызывающими стволовые гнили осины, являются Phellinus tremulae, Phellinus nigricans и Fomes fomentarius. Ведущая роль в формировании очагов стволовых гнилей осинников принадлежит Phellinus tremulae. В отношении всех изученных видов зараженность ими древостоев более широко варьирует в осинниках лесостепной зоны и в пойменных биотопах, то есть в условиях более высокого увлажнения. Пораженность осиновых лесов ложным осиновым трутовиком находится в тесной связи с классом возраста древостоев и значительно меньше зависит от полноты и стадии дигрессии древостоев. Прочие факторы среды оказывают интегрированное действие, создавая в экосистемах осинников условия для расселения грибов и активного развития процесса гниения. Так как большая доля осинников региона относятся к старовозрастным, риск развития и распространения стволовых гнилей в них очень высок.