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Korea's Three Kingdoms

Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla
1st Century BCE - 7th Century CE

Korea was settled by people from Manchuria, north China and Mongolia. They were tribal and animistic in beliefs. Women were shamans who could tend to healing and issues of death, a tendency which has extended into modern times despite the influx of patriarchal Buddhism.

The earliest records of Korea stem from the attempts of China to establish colonies, or commandaries, in Korea. The earliest verified conquest by China occurred in the Han dynasty. A few colonies were established, with the primary one being Lelang. Lelang fell to the Korean tribes in 313 AD, and Tai-Fang appears to have fallen shortly afterwards. However, cultural influences from the Chinese remained prominent.

A firm starting date for the period of the Three Kingdoms cannot be defined, in part because of record keeping, and in part due to the situations of flux in that region. It is believed that the kingdom of Goguryeo was formed in 18 BC (37 BC?- there is a source descrepancy), with the other two (Silla and Baekje) forming later. Emperor Dongmyeongseong is credited with the formation of Goguryeo.

Goguryeo (Koguryo) was created by the merging of five tribes in northern Korea. These tribes had travelled in years before from central Manchuria, and now resided primarily in the mountains north of the Amnok River. This region is just north of the current-day political boundary of North Korea. They were a warrior people who took tribute from nearby agricultural folk. They began a revolt against the Chinese occupants of Korea in 12 AD, and had ongoing conflicts with agricultural societies in southern Manchuria. In 313, the kingdom drove out the Chinese from Lelang. Through the fourth century AD, the Korguryo extended their control to the northern two thirds of what is currently Korea.

The southern third of Korea was never directly controlled by the Chinese. It was also tribally-based, and settled by some fifty tribes of Ma Han, 12 tribes of Pyon Han, and 12 of Chin Han. These Han tribes bear no relation to the Chinese dynasty of the same name. The Ma Han lived in the southwast, the Chin Han in the northern portion of the southeast, and the Pyon Han lived in the south.

The Ma Han tribes appear to have been related to tribes arriving in from Manchuria. By the fourth century, they appear to have coaleased into the kingdom of Baekje (Paekcho). Some of the Chin Han were absorbed into Goguryeo, but other tribes formed the kingdom of Silla. Silla originally was closely aligned with Goguryeo. Meanwhile, the Pyon Han did not coalease into a kingdom, but formed something of a league of six tribes (Gaya), which had ties to Japan. Some of the Pyon Han settled in Japan, and it may be this cross-linking family tie that kept the association strong. Japan eventually maintained a garrison in the Gaya region.

The Three Kingdom period is considered to have lasted from the late fourth century into the second half of the seventh. While these were totally native kingdoms, an influx of refugees from the collapsed Han dynasty increased the level of Chinese acculturation in all areas of Korea, although kingdoms like Goguryeo were more directly affected. The Chinese innovations in technology, governing styles, art, and religion were appreciated, and blended in with native life. Buddhism was formally introduced by Chinese missionaries in 372, to Goguryeo. Confucian literature and studies also were introduced around that time. In 427, the seat of Goguryeo government was moved from the town of Kungnae to the old site of Lelang's Chinese government, now named Pyongyang. Goguryeo maintained strong relations with North China during this time.

Baekje, on the other hand, had only ocean access to China, and maintained a strong connection via the seas to South China. Buddhism is considered to have arrived in Baekje from South China in 384. Very little is known about their history or governance, other than the discovery of arts in the region which were heavily influenced by artwork of South China. It is also known that Baekje was instrumental in bringing Buddhism to Japan, so Chinese acculturation must have been strong.

Silla was the kingdom least affected by Chinese culture, and retained its tribal connections while still presenting a strong central government. However, they did establish an embassy in North China by 381.

The Han River in Korea became a bone of contention between the kingdoms of Baekje and Goguryeo. Goguryeo attempted to invade Baekje, but were driven back across their borders in 369. The warfare continued, and the invading men of Baekje killed the Goguryeo king in 371. Three centuries of conflict resulted between the two.

Baekje's advantage was that it was populous and controlled the best farmland. Goguryeo's advantage was that it was better organized for war than the other kingdom, which apparently had tribal fractures. Baekje kept in the running with alliances over time with the Silla or with the Japanese and the Gaya.

Kwanggaet'o (391-413) reigned over Goguryeo, instigating a strong push for territory acquisition, and assuring that for at least a century Goguryeo was the dominant force. Baekje was forced to move its capital southwards twice by Goguryeo raids and expansion.

Meanwhile, Silla kept to itself in the lower southeast part of the penninsula. It was originally a loose confederation of six Chin Han tribes, with lesser contact with Chinese culture. Pophung (514-539) was the ruler who blended these into a kingdom, by making Buddhism the state religion and identifying the kingship with the religion. The Silla rulers adopted useful aspects of Chinese rule, melding them with aspects of their own culture in a fashion that worked particularly well. Hereditary "bone ranks" were developed as a syncretic mode of social structuring, incorporating the Chinese beaurocratic grading system. This system was extremely rigid and caste-like, determining among other things the types of clothing one could wear, and the size of homes. Fighters were not drawn from the peasantry , as in China, but from the aristocracy, and to become one of these warriors was considered an honor.

Art dating from this period of the Silla kingdom indicates a strong animistic inclination, despite the official Buddhism.

During its early history, the Silla had conflicts with both the Baekje and the Gaya/Japanese. However, by 551, the Silla, allied with the Baekje, conquered the upper Han River basin, wresting control from the Goguryeo. Silla then attacked Baekje, collecting the lower Han River valley as spoils, which now provided a western outlet to the Yellow Sea. In 562, Silla took over the Gaya territory.

The Sui Dynasty had finally re-united China, and now turned its eyes to establishing a foothold in Korea. Goguryeo devastated an invasion attempt of one million troops, which helped lead to the downfall of the Sui. The Tang tried again, but Goguryeo kept repulsing the attempts in 644 and 659. The Tang then decided a sea approach to Baekje would be more effective, so they enlisted the Silla as allies, and conquered Baekje. The Japanese tried to rescue Baekje, but in 663 were averted. Baekje was no more.

The Silla and the Chinese then attacked Goguryeo and destroyed that kingdom in 668. Goguryeo had survived for seven centuries. The Chinese hoped to annex these lands, but Silla had other ideas. The Silla, in conjunction with the people who lived in the former Baekje and Goguryeo lands, decided that they didn't want the foreigners there, and forced them to withdraw from nearly all of Korea after a decade more of fighting. Silla now ruled the southern two thirds of Korea. By agreement, Silla paid tribute, but was otherwise not beholden to China. However, now more Chinese culture and political styles came to be incorporated into Silla society. The smaller kingdom of Balhae (Pohai) was formed by the Manchurian border and northern Korea in 713 by remnants of Goguryeo and other Manchurian people. It, too, paid tribute to China, and lasted until 926.

~ A Further Word or Two on Baekje ~

The history of Baekje can be divided into three periods:

Hanseong period (18 ? BCE

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Korea's Three Kingdoms