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THE

GEOGEAPHY OF HERODOTUS.

SHORTLY WILL BE PUBLISHED,

BY THE SAME AUTHOR,

THE LIFE AND TEAYELS OE HEEODOTUS,

In the fifth century before Christ, an imaginary Biography founded on
fact, and intended to illustrate the manners, religion, and social con-
dition of the Greeks, Aegyptians, Hebrews, Phoenicians, Babylonians,
Persians, Scythians, and other nations of the ancient world, as they were
in the days of Pericles and Nehemiah.

LONDON: LONGMAN AND CO.

THE

GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS,

DEVELOPED, EXPLAINED, AND ILLUSTRATED

FROM MODERN RESEARCHES

AND DISCOVERIES.

J. TALBOYS WHEELER, F.E.G.S.

WITH MAPS AND PLANS.

LONDON:

LONGMAN, BEOWN, GEEEJST, AND LONGMANS.

1854.

JOHN niTI/ns AND SON, mrNOAY.

PREFACE.

The object of the accompanying work is to pre-
sent the student with a full development and ex-
planation of the Geography of Herodotus ; and at
the same time to enable the general reader to sur-
vey the ancient world at one of the most important
periods of its history. Accordingly, in the first
place, all the geographical notices and allusions
throughout Herodotus have been brought together
and digested into one continuous system ; and se-
condly, such descriptions and illustrations have
been borrowed from modern geography, as would
correct his errors, reconcile his contradictions, ex-
plain his obscurities, and enable us to identify
ancient sites with existing localities.

The want of such a work has long been felt both
by the Classical and the Biblical student. Herodo-
tus tells of the glorious deeds of Hellas at Marathon
and at Thermopylae, at Salamis and at Plataea ;
and at the same time he describes Babylon and the
great Persian empire as they were in the days of
Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah, and Aegypt as she
probably appeared in the primeval times of the
patriarchs and Pharaohs. But he relates the story
in his own way, and follows a far more natural but

VI PEErACE.

intricate arrangement than would have been adopted
by the modern historian. His geographical descrip-
tions are scattered about in the form of digressions,
and a vast body of information also exists in the
shape of brief notices, allusions, or illustrations.^ It
was therefore impossible for the student to avail
himself of Herodotus's stock of geographical know-
ledge, unless he had thoroughly mastered the entire
history ; whilst a real comprehension of its charac-
ter, as compared with modern geography, was only
to be attained by a labour similar to that which has
been expended on the present volume.

It would be invidious for the author to mention
the defects of his predecessors, but he must confess
that from Rennell's Geography of Herodotus,^ and
from Niebuhr's two well-known Dissertations,^ he
has been unable to derive the assistance he had ex-
pected. Rennell omits the geography of European
and Asiatic Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, Aegypt,
Aethiopia, and the isles of the Aegean, whilst much

^ It may be remarked that the Herodotean geography of Greece
mainly consists of these brief and scattered notices, for as Herodotus pre-
sumed that its various countries were famiUar to his readers, he rarely
alludes to them, excepting when he seeks to illustrate the geography
of other regions.

2 The Geographical System of Herodotus examined and illusti-ated, by
Major James Rennell, F. R. S. Explained by eleven maps. 2 vols. 8vo,
second edition, revised, London, 1830. Rennell's work is not a develop-
ment of the Geogi-aphy of Herodotus, but a series of disquisitions upon
certain portions of it. It thus comprises dissertations upon the itinerary
stade of the Greeks, the Scythian expedition of Darius Hystaspes, the
site and remains of ancient Babylon, the captivity of the ten tribes, the
floods, alluvions, and mouths of the Nile, etc. The most valuable are
those on Scythia, the twenty satrapies of Darius, the Libyan tribes, and
the circumnavigation of Africa by the Phoenicians.

3 Dissertation on the Geography of Herodotus, with a map ; and Re-
searches into the History of the Scythians, Getae, and Sarmatians.
Translated from the German of B. G. Niebuhr, 8vo, Oxford, 1830.

PREFACE. Vli

of his information concerning other regions is either
imperfect or obsolete. Niebuhr's Dissertations are
more valuable, but exceedingly meagre ; and it will
also be seen that his theory concerning the supposed
course of the Ister and the Scythian square, is no
more to be reconciled with the description of Herod-
otus than with the actual geography of the country.
The '' Geographic des Herodot," by Hermann Bo-
brik,' is a far more important contribution to this
branch of science, but unfortunately so limited in its
design as to be of little use to the English student.
It consists of an admirable arrangement of Herod-
otus's geographical notices, but borrows no illustra-
tion from any other ancient or modern author. It
also omits the mythology, manners, and peculiar in-
stitutions of the Aegyptians, and numerous other
particulars which it has been thought advisable to
include in the present volume. Indeed the one
object of Hermann Bobrik has been to develope the
Herodotean ideas, without attempting to reconcile
them with modern geography ; and thus far the
present author has derived much advantage from
comparing and verifying his own digestion of Herod-
otus's geograpliical notices, with the labours of Bo-
brik. Other small works have likewise been consult-
ed, but with much less advantage. Of these may be
specified the " Greographia et Uranologia Herodoti,"
by Bredow; the " Commentatio de Geographia
Herodoti," by Donniges ; a little " Geography of
Herodotus, with Maps," published at Cambridge;

' Geographie des Herodot, vorzugsweise aus dem Schriftsteller selbst
dargestellt von Hermann Bobrik, 8vo. Nebst einem Atlasse von zehn
karten. Konigsberg, 1838.

Vlll PEEFACE.

and the ^' Maps and Plans illustrative of Herodotus,"
published at Oxford.

In preparing tlie present Greography, the author
has thus found it necessary to proceed independently
of the labours of any of his predecessors. In the
first place, he was obliged to make for himself a com-
plete geographical index of Herodotus, arranged
according to subjects ; for though this task had been
already executed by Bobrik, yet the latter had
laboured for a different object, and had therefore
excluded from his work many topics which belonged
to the present design. When this mass of material
had been sufficiently digested and classified, the
whole had to be explained and illustrated by the
light of modern geography. Accordingly general
surveys and descriptions of each country have been
introduced as prefaces to the accounts of Herodotus,
and explanatory matter has been incorporated
wherever it was deemed necessary ; but in order to
prevent confusion in the mind of the reader, those
portions which were derived from Herodotus have
been generally separated from the results of modern
researches. The references at the foot of each page
will in most cases indicate the authorities which
have been consulted ; but a large body of informa-
tion has been long regarded as the common property
of all geographers, and it is impossible to give the
original authority for every statement. The follow-
ing works however may be generally specified as
those to which the writer has been chiefly indebted.
The several commentaries upon Herodotus, espe-
cially those of Baehr and Larcher; the geographies
of Macculloch, Murray, Malte Brun, and Ritter;

PEEFACE. IX

the researches of Remiell, Niebuhr, Leake, Cramer,
Kiepert, Thirlwall, Grote, Miiller, Chesney, Ains-
worth, Hamilton, Rich, Porter, Heeren, Rawlinson,
Cooley, Wilkinson, Vyse and Perring, Kenrick, Long,
Hoskins, and Belzoni ; the classical and geographical
dictionaries edited by Dr. W. Smith, the Journal of
the Royal Geographical Society, and some valuable
articles in the different Cyclopaedias, and the
Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews. The works of
other authors might likewise be named as having
been referred to ; but the student who wishes to go
over the ground by the aid of original authorities,
will find the above amply sufficient for his purpose.^
The author's larger maps of Greece and the An-
cient World, are intended, like his letter-press, to
illustrate Herodotus by the light of modern dis-
covery. The outlines have been drawn in accord-
ance with actual geography, and every reasonable
effort has been made to fix approximate positions
for the nations which Herodotus has described. In
addition to these, a novelty has been introduced in
the shape of historical map diagrams. In various
parts of the present work the author has employed
straight lines, such as could be produced by the
printer's brass rule, as the easiest method for giving
a general idea of continents and regions, and for
placing the several countries within arbitrary, but

' A valuable manual of modem geography has been recently published
by Mr. William Hughes, (London : Longman and Co.,) and is the only
one which contains all the more important results of recent geographical
researches within a moderate compass. The author has much pleasure
in stating this fact, as he has derived much benefit from Mr. Hughes's
experience in preparing the maps of Greece and of the World, in illus-
tration of Herodotus, which are included in the present volume.

X PEEFACE.

sharply defined, boundaries. In these diagrams it
has of course been necessary to sacrifice strict cor-
rectness of detail, for the sake of a clear and bold
mapping out of races and peoples ; and it is hoped
that they will not only assist the reader in retaining
in his memory the relative positions of the more
confusing localities, but also enable him to refer' to
the larger maps with greater ease and interest. In-
deed, whatever objections may be made to their
rough simplicity, the author feels satisfied that they
will generally convey his meaning with far greater
precision than the most elaborate description. For
instance, every scholar has experienced the difficulty
of comprehending and of explaining the relative
position of the Peloponnesian races, both before and
after the Dorian invasion ; and yet by a reference to
the diagrams on pages 35 — 37, the reader will find
them plainly mapped out in a way which requires
no study, and scarcely any explanation.

It may possibly be regarded as an omission, that
whilst the author has pointed out in the letter-press
all the geographical mistakes of Herodotus, he has
not thought proper to represent those errors by
means of a distorted map. It is true that previous
geographers, including Ukert, Niebuhr, Bobrik, and
almost every writer on Herodotean geography, have
endeavoured, with more or less success, to construct
maps according to the imperfect data supplied by
Herodotus himself Bobrik especially has drawn
an entire series of maps, in strict accordance with
Herodotus's apparent views and measurements, omit-
ting all reference to later geographical researches,
and adopting the Greek orthography and characters

PREFACE. XI

in the writing of the proper names. So far there
can be no doubt but that Bobrik has been more suc-
cessfal than Niebuhr, or any other of his prede-
cessors, in representing Herodotus' s peculiar notions ;
and a small map of the World, embodying his results,
will be found in a section of the larger map of the
World in the present volume. But at the same time
it must be remarked that all such efforts are neces-
sarily incomplete and unsatisfactory. The hydro-
grapher may represent in a sharply defined map all
the loose observations of Herodotus concerning the
bearings of different places, all the historian's incor-
rect measurements, and all the errors of his copyists ;
but no geographer can map out with any certainty
those immense regions, and long coast lines, with
which Herodotus was undoubtedly acquainted, but
of which he furnishes us with no measurements or
available descriptions. In Bobrik' s Atlas, Greece is
strangely distorted, because Herodotus apparently
supposed that Megara was farther to the west than
Delphi.^ The river Araxes is drawn in the most
extraordinary manner in order to reconcile all Herod-
otus's statements, which however evidently apply to
different streams bearing a generic name. The neck
of Asia Minor is painfully throttled, because Herod-
otus happened to say that a well-girt man could
walk across it in five days ; and yet will any geogra-
pher assert that Herodotus was ignorant of the real

1 Herodotus merely observes that Megara was the farthest point
towards the west which was ever reached by the Persians, (ix. 14,) whilst
in another place he mentions the expedition against Delphi, (viii. 35 —
37,) which is still farther to the west ; but it is evident that Herodotus
is not alluding to the relative positions of Delphi and Megara, but to the
general course of the Persian invaders.

XU PREFACE.

breadth of that portion of the peninsula ? Western
Eui'ope and Southern Africa are mere fanciftd
sketches, which indeed they must be, for Herodotus
coukl know nothing of the coast, and in fact was not
at all sm-e that there was a coast to Southern Africa
at all.

But in truth Herodotus was more of an historian
than a geographer. His world was not a mere chart
of coast-lines and land-marks, but a vast picture
crowded with living men. Hellas, her countless
cities and her thousand isles. Young Athens with
her restless fleets ; haughty Sparta with her soldier
citizens ; luxurious Corinth with her crowded marts ;
fair Ionia with her blue skies and impassioned
bards. Long processions to national temples. Young
men with gleaming arms ; noble maidens laden with
flowers ; rich sacrifices, pious hymns, and choral
dances. Immense gatherings to national festivals.
Horse and chariot races ; contests of poets, musi-
cians, and athletae ; olive crowns, and Pindaric
songs. The holy mysteries of the venerable Eleu-
sinia; the extravagant orgies of the boisterous and
drunken Dionysia. The spacious theatre open to
the sky. The stately tragedy, and the satirical
comedy; the trained chorus, and the crowded au-
dience. These were the mere centre of his world.
Far away to the beaming sunrise he saw the vast
empire of the Great King, a hundred nations swayed
by a single sceptre. Shushan, the throne of Xerxes
and Ahasuerus. Nineveh, with her winged bulls,
her painted palaces, and her sculptured halls. Baby-
lon, with her lofty towers, her stupendous walls, her
gorgeous temples, and her brazen gates. Regions

PREFACE. XIU

of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. Far away to the
setting sun he could see in his mind's eye the fabled
Pillars of Heracles, the exhaustless riches of Tartes-
sns, the mysterious Gades, and the dim Cassiterides.
Behind him were the wild Thracians of the Balkan,
with their tattooed bodies and bloody suttees. The
nomade Scythians of the Russian steppes, maddened
with strong wine or intoxicating smoke; drinking
from human skulls, scalping captives, or sacrificing
living men to remorseless deities. Still farther on
to the distant interior, merchant caravans reached
the verge of the homes of griffins, but returned laden
with barbaric gold. Before him, to the hot south,
the ancient valley of the Nile stretched on like a
panorama. The land of hoary Aegypt, and the
shadowy realms of Aethiopia and Meroe. Massy
pyramids and colossal temples ; antique writings
and splendid festivals ; adoration of animals, and
profound mysteries touching death and the soul,
and the under-world ; solemn prayers to everlasting
and unapproachable deities. Haughty priests, con-
temptuous as princes, but covetous of gold and offer-
ings. A people strange and mysterious as the gloom
of midnight, yet loving wine and feasting, wild
mirth and lawless jesting. The black Aethiopians
of the burning zone ; the fountain of the sun and
the crystal sepulchres. From thence he caught
faint glimpses of mighty Atlas and bright Hesper-
ides, of fair Cyrene and jealous Carthage, of desert
hordes and verdant oases. Such are a few of the
scenes which that bold artist must depict, who
seeks to represent the ancient world, ad mentem
Herodoti.

XIV PEEFACE.

Here the author would willingly conclude his
preface, but whilst the present work has been pass-
ing through the press, a new attempt has been made
to assail the credibility of Herodotus, and to detract
from his renown as a traveller and historian. The
genius of the great father of history has preserved
his writings nearly intact for twenty-three centuries ;
whilst his character for integrity has outlived the
attacks of every discontented critic from Plutarch to
Voltaire. His present assailant, Mr. Blakesley, is a
scholar of a very different stamp from his prede-
cessors.^ Actuated by no mean jealousy, and yield-
ing to the influence of no scornful wit, he has been
led by a profound love for abstract truth to pro-
nounce somewhat too harshly against the straight-
forward narrative of the old Ionian. That much of
Herodotus's information is only to be received as
secondary evidence, will be readily admitted by all ;
but Mr. Blakesley would regard him as a mere
pleasing compiler, like Oliver Groldsmith ; prevented
from travelling by the exigencies of the time, and
differing but very little, if at all, from the logo-
graphers who preceded him either in critical saga-
city, diligent investigation, or historical fidelity;
blending together in one mass the yarns of mer-
chant skippers, the tales current in caravanserais, the
legends of the exegetae of temples, and the long
details of veteran sailors and septuagenarian hop-
lites ; exercising but little discrimination in the se-
lection of his facts, careless in stating his authorities,

' Herodotus, with a Commentary, by J. W. Blakesley, B. D., 2 vols.
8vo, London, 1854. It is to the Introduction in this work that the
reader is more particularly referred.

PREFACE. XV

laying claim to more experience and personal re-
searcli than he was entitled, and, in fact, belonging
to the same school as Charon, Hellanicus, Xanthus,
Hecataeus, and others, from whom he largely copied
without acknowledgment, and only exhibited per-
haps a doubtful superiority in the style and treat-
ment of his materials.

Mr. Blakesley's reasons for these inferences are
by no means satisfactory. They are three in num-
ber. First, he asserts that the horror of the Greeks
at originality, and their attachment to the social,
political, and religious institutions in which they
had been brought up, would have prevented even
an intelligent and sagacious author, like Herodotus,
from exercising the same kind of discrimination
which we should look for in a modern historian.
Secondly, he quotes doubtful passages from Diony-
sius of Halicarnassus, from Strabo, and from Thucy-
dides, to prove that the successors of Herodotus only
regarded him as a logographer, like his contem-
poraries and immediate predecessors. Thirdly, he
rakes up the old accusation of Porphyry, that Hero-
dotus has taken his descriptions of the crocodile,
hippopotamus, and phoenix picture almost literally
from the Periegesis of Hecataeus, and yet leaves his
readers to infer that he had himself seen those ob-
jects, and was describing them as an eye-witness.
These three reasons must be reviewed in detail.

First, as regards the Greek abhorrence of origin-
ality, and their attachment to their traditions, social,
political, and religious. Herodotus flourished about
B. c. 450. As far as concerns literature and the arts,
the previous age had been marked by striking changes.

XVI PREFACE.

The real glory of the ancient epic had passed away
with the hereditary monarchies. The poet no longer
sungj in solemn and majestic hexameters, the heroic
deeds of the ancestors of reigning princes. He sprung
into new and independent life. He came before the
people as a man with thoughts and objects of his own,
and expressed himself in new and livelier metres.
Hence arose the feeling elegy, the satirical iambus,
the fable and the parody, and last of all the impas-
sioned and impetuous lyric. Music had undergone
similar changes. Terpander had added three strings
to the harp ; Olympus had taught fresh tunes for
the flute. Choral singing and dancing had become
more finished, more elaborate, and more significant.
Sculptm-e had likewise reached its culminating point
in the sublime and mighty works of Phidias; the
archaic had everywhere given way to the ideal.
Painting was also fully developed by Polygnotus,
and established as an independent art. Last of all,
in the generation immediately preceding the birth
of Herodotus, two still more important changes had
taken place; — the ancient epic had ripened into
prose history ; the iambic, lyric, and chorus were
transformed into the mighty drama. The social
customs of the people had undergone similar varia-
tions. The manners and usages of the heroic age
were essentially different from those in the historic
times. At Athens the men had left off wearing
armour, and had become luxurious ; and again,
shortly before the Peloponnesian War, the elders
had discarded their linen tunics and golden grass-
hoppers.' The female fashions were no doubt as

' Thucvrl. i. 6.

PEEFACE. XVll

changeable at Corintli and Ephesus as they now are
at Paris ; and it is certain that the more correct
ladies of Athens wore first of all the Dorian chiton
clasped to the shoulder, then, during the Persian
war, the long and sleeved Ionian chiton,^ and lastly,
in the age of Pericles, returned once more to the
Dorian costume.^ In politics, the Greeks in the
time of Herodotus seem to have only exhibited their
attachment to their political traditions, by a succes-
sion of political revolutions. Oligarchies, tjo-annies,
and democracies were by turns adopted in every
city ; and Herodotus himself having assisted in
overthrowing the tyranny in Halicarnassus, fled
from his ungrateful countrymen to seek for calm re-
tirement at the distant settlement of Tluuium. The
religion of the Greeks had likewise passed through
considerable modifications. The religious concep-
tions of Hesiod are far higher than those of Homer,
whilst those of Aeschylus are still more lofty and
spiritual. In Herodotus himself, who was imdoubt-
edly a very religious man, we find a decided tend-
ency to interpret the ancient mythes on rationalistic
principles. In fact, free-thinking was already exer-
cising considerable influence. The philosophers of
Ionia, where Herodotus passed his youth, and of
southern Italy, where he spent his declining years,
were all, more or less, rejecting the popular notions
of religion, and striking into new paths of specula-
tion on sacred things. In short, a far greater de-
gree of originality than that supposed by modern
criticism to be evinced by Herodotus, was exhibited

1 Herod, v. 87, 88.

^ See the Excui'sus on Dress, in Becker's Charicles.

XVlll PREFACE.

in almost every direction ; and it may be easily in-
ferred that the Ionian Greeks generally, like the
Athenians in the days of St. Paul, spent a large pro-
portion of their leisure time either in hearing or in
telling of some new thing.

Secondly, the passages quoted by Mr. Blakesley
to prove that Herodotus was not more faithful or
industrious than his contemporaries and immediate
predecessors, really prove nothing at all. The
description of the ancient Greek historians by Dio-
nysius of Halicarnassus points entirely, as Mr.
Blakesley himself observes, '' to the superior artistical
skill which Herodotus displays in the choice of his
subject, and the manner of treating it." The quota-
tion from Strabo only proves that that geographer,
like many later critics, was not disposed to put much
faith in the stories of Herodotus. The passage in
Thucydides requires a moment's notice. Thucydides,
in comparing his own work with those of previous
historians who sought for attractive language rather
than truth, ^ is supposed by Mr. Blakesley to refer
most undoubtedly to Herodotus. Thucydides how-
ever, in another passage,^ seems to have the same
historians in his eye when he complains of the
mistake made in supposing that Hipparchus, and not
Hippias, had succeeded Pisistratus in the tyranny;
a mistake which was certainly not made by Herodo-
tus.^ Indeed there is no reason for believing that
Thucydides had ever read the history of Herodotus
at all; he neither mentions his name in any part
of his work, nor gives the slightest indication of
being acquainted with either his life or labours.

1 ThucycL i. 21. « Thucycl. vi. 54. ^ Herod, v. 55.

PREFACE. XIX

In sliortj the genius of Herodotus may be com-
pared to that of Hume ; and judging from extant
fragments, his predecessors bore many points of re-
semblance to the old chroniclers, whilst his contem-
poraries were not much better than so many Tobias
SmoUetts. It was left for Grote and Macaulay, the
Herodotus and Thucydides of modern times, to
exhibit to the world a still happier treatment of a
better selected and more thoroughly digested stock
of sifted materials.

Thirdly comes Herodotus' s supposed piracy from
Hecataeus. In the first place, Herodotus was cer-
tainly as likely to have seen the crocodile, the hip-
popotamus, and the phoenix picture as Hecataeus;
and it is far more possible that some editor or tran-
scriber interpolated his copy of Hecataeus with the
descriptions from Herodotus, than that the latter
should have borrowed such information concerning
a country where he had evidently passed a consider-
able time, and from a writer whose geographical
theories he held in contempt. But even taking it
for granted that Herodotus did borrow from Heca-
taeus, it certainly does not prove that he had not
seen the objects in question. He may have heard
from some hoaxing priest that the crocodile had
tusks, and that the hippopotamus was cloven-footed
and had the hoofs of an ox ; and he may have found
this story confirmed by Hecataeus, and accordingly
adopted the account without attempting to confirm
it by approaching the jaws of a crocodile, or the
heavy toes of the hippopotamus. But even in this case
he cannot be charged with dishonesty for omitting to
mention the name of Hecataeus, for it was not at all

b 2

XX PREFACE.

the custom for an ancient author to check the flow of
his style by introducing the names of authorities.

Last of all comes the ungracious question of
whether Herodotus really did undertake those ex-
tensive travels which have been generally ascribed
to him. Mr. Blakesley's observations upon this sub-
ject are not so valuable as might have been ex-
pected, for he has chiefly laboured to prove that
Herodotus never went to Carthage, a city which
very few critics could have ever supposed him to
have visited. He however states, upon the authority
of Polybius, that until the time of Alexander the
seas swarmed with pirates ; thus totally ignoring the
fact, that during the years when Herodotus must
have performed his travels, namely, between the
Persian and the Peloponnesian wars, the fleets of
the Grreek allies, under the supremacy of Athens,
had cleared the Aegean of pirate and Persian, from
Attica to Asia Minor, and from the shores of Thrace
to the mouths of the Nile. He also quotes the state-
ments of Andocides, that the seas were covered with
war-galleys and pirates; but this was the state of
things at the latter end of the Peloponnesian war,
and not during the time when Herodotus was under ,
taking his voyages. One thing is certain, tha-.
Herodotus must have sailed from Halicarnassus t ■
Samos, from Samos to Athens, and from Athens t
Thurium. Mr. Blakesley will also admit that he
might have visited Aegypt. Beside these countrie
the present author believes, from reasons which ',
has specified in the course of the present volur x
that Herodotus sailed through the Hellesj)ont, a
across the Euxine, as far as the Grreek port of Olbi

PEEFACE. XXI

and that he travelled along the great highway be-
tween Sardis and Susa ; and it was most probably
during this or the return journey that he sailed
down the Euphrates, and reached the great city of
Babylon.^ One fact has been missed, not only by
Mr. Blakesley, but by every commentator on the
Greography of Herodotus whom the present author
has consulted, namely, that the political relations of
Halicarnassus with Persia were especially favour-
able to any well-accredited native of that city, who
desired to visit the Persian capital. Halicarnassus
was excluded from the Dorian confederacy, wor-
shipping at Triopium, and at the time of the battle
of Salamis, was united with the neighbouring islands
of Cos, Calydna, and Nysirus, under the dependent
sceptre of the celebrated Artemisia ; and the Carian
queen gained so much upon the esteem of Xerxes,
that after the defeat, he placed several of his natural
sons under her care to be conveyed to Ephesus.
Herodotus himself openly expresses his admiration
of Artemisia, though she fought on the side of the
Persians ; and the little kingdom continued faithful
to her and her family, even whilst Cimon the Athe-
lian was frightening the whole Asiatic coast by his
•; exploits. Herodotus no doubt belonged to a family
i, ji some consideration at Halicarnassus. At forty
years of age he assisted in the popular revolution,
which deprived the grandson of Artemisia of the
j^ yranny. We may easily infer that he saw the so-
j^ lied Indian ants preserved in the royal palace at
}j, sa ; ^ and it is impossible to account for his acquaint-

h See also Appendix I., " Travels of Herodotus," at the end of the pre-
nt volume.
2 iii. 102.

XXU PREFACE.

ance witli the Persian muster-rolls of the army and
navy of Xerxes, unless this journey to Susa be
admitted by the modern critic.

Thus far the present writer has endeavoured to do
justice to the integrity and practical experience of
Herodotus, without, as he hopes, doing injustice to
the valuable and much-esteemed labours of Mr.
Blakesley. If the theory which has been discussed
had pertained to philology, the writer would have
left it for abler critics to decide. If it had referred
only to the history of Herodotus, he would have
passed it over as not belonging to his subject. But
it directly applied to the value of that geographical
information which has been embodied and illustrated
in the present volmne, and therefore he has been
compelled to investigate the question, and record
and defend his opinions against so learned and emi-
nent a commentator.

Here then the writer concludes his present labours.
Years have passed away since he commenced his
task, and much of it has been accomplished under
circumstances but little favourable to literary com-
position; but however it may be received by the
scholar, he can never regret a toil which has filled
his mind's eye with vivid pictures of the ancient
world, painted by the hand of the Homer of history.
These pictures he hopes to reproduce in a more
popular volume, which is already in preparation,
and which he expects will shortly be submitted to
the indulgence of the public.

London, August 28th, 1854.

CONTENTS.

GENERAL INTEODUCTION.

CHAPTER I.

LIFE AND EDUCATION OF HERODOTUS.

Birth of Herodotus (b. c. 484)
Contemporary state of Greece .
Period of his ti-avels
Halicarnassus, its history-
Herodotus removes to Thurium
Extent of his travels
His general information
Previous state of geographical science .
Homer, his notions of the universe (b. c. 900)
Extent of his geographical knowledge .
Hesiod (b. c. 750) ....
Aeschylus (b. c. 500)

Pindar .....

Scylax of Caryanda
Hecataeus of Miletus ....

Conjectures of philosophers passed over by Herodotus
Review of his old age ....

Page

ib
2

ib
3

ib
4
5

ib
6
7
8

ib
9

CHAPTER II.

THE WORLD AND ITS DIVISIONS.

The winds considered as fundamental powers of nature . . 12

Regarded as peculiar properties of countiies ... 13

Heat and cold at different periods of the day referred to the sun . ib

General simplicity of Herodotus's ideas ... 14

Early attempts to describe the earth's circumference . . ib

Opinions of Herodotus upon the subject . . . 15

Extent of his knowledge ...... ib

Divisions of the earth . . . . . . 16

Separation of Em-ope and Asia ..... 17

Separation of Asia and Libya ..... 18

Seas bounding the earth's extremities . . . .19

XXIV

CONTENTS,

Mediterranean .

Atlantic ....

Eiythraean

Voyages of Sesosti'is and Sataspes .

Page

19
ib
ib
20

EUEOPE.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL SURVEY.

Extent of Herodotus's knowledge . . . .

Western Europe . . . . ^

Region north of the upper coast of the Ister

Region north of the lower course of the Ister .

Caravan route over the Ural . . . .

Nations on the frontier towards Asia .

Nations south of the lower course of the Ister

Seas of Europe . . .

Pontus Euxinus . .

Palus Maeotis (Maeetis)

Propontis . . . . . .

Caspian . .

Adriatic . .

. . ib

Ionian . . . .

CHAPTER II.

GREECE, OR HELLAS.

Hellas of Herodotus, its wide signification

European Greece, general description

Pindus range running southward from the Balkan

Eastern arms, Olympus and Othrys

Western arm to the Ceraunian mountains

Ossa and Pelion

Northern limits

Mount Oeta . . . .

Thermopylae . . . •

Parnassus , .

Cithaeron ....

Pames . . . . .

Oenean Mountains . .

Mountains of the Peloponnesus

General face of the country

Herodotus's account of Hellas : its central position

FertiHzed by rain

26
27
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
29
ib

ib
30
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
31
ib

CONTENTS. XXy

Page

Subject to storms and earthquakes ... 29

Lions

Sillikyprion

Character of the people .

Temples . . . •

Markets

Trade . • • •

Miscellaneous notices

Art of writing

Obscm-ities in the history of the people

Herodotus's account ..... ib

Hellas anciently called Pelasgia, and peopled by Pelasgians and

other tribes . . . . . ib

Character of the Pelasgians . . . .32

Mythical origin of the Hellenes . . . ib

Dorian wanderings . . . . ■ . ib

Invasion of the Peloponnesus by the Heracleids . . 33

Achaeans unknown . . • . . ib

Aeolians and lonians considered as Pelasgians . . ib

In historical times inhabitants all called Hellenes . . ib

CHAPTER III.

SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

Division of the Peloponnesus into nine districts . . 34

Herodotus's account of the Peloponnesian races . . 35

settlements of the races prior to the Dorian invasion . . ib

settlements in the time of Herodotus ... 36

I. Arcadia, general description . . . .37
Herodotus's account ..... 38
topography : Tegea, Mantinea, . . . . ib

Orchomenus, Phigalea, Trapezus, Paeos, Dipaea, Nonacris,

Mount Parthenion, Stymphalian lake . . .39

II. Argolis, general description . . . ib
Herodotus's account . . . , . ib
Topography: Argos, Epidaurus, Hermione, . . 40

Troezene, Pogon, Mycenae, Tiryns, Nauplia, Orneae, Eiver

' Erasinus, Grove of Argos . . . 41

""■I. CoRiNTHiA, general description . . . ib

'rigin of its commercial importance . . . ■ ib

Herodotus's account . . . . .42

City of Corinth . . . . . ib

Petra . . . . . . ib

The Isthmus ..... ib

IV. SiCYONiA, general description . . . . ib

Herodotus's account : her enmity against Argos . . 43

Expulsion of the Argive hero Adrastus . . . ib

Changes in the names of the Sicyonian tribes . • ib

XXVI

CONTENTS.

V. Phxiasia .....
Phlius . . . . . .

VI. AcHAlA, general description

Herodotus's account .....

Topogi'aphy : Pellene, Aegii'a, Aegae, river Crathis,

Bura, Helice, Aegium, Rhypes, Patrae, Pharae, Olenus,
Dyma, Tritaea .....

VII. Elis, general description ....
Herodotus's account .....
Aetolians, Caucones, Minyae ....
Elean seers . . ...

No mules bred in Elis ....

Topogi-aphy : EUs, Pisa, Olympia ....
Minyan cities : Phrixae, Nudium, Epium, Macistus, Lepreum, Pyrgus

VIII. Messenia, general description ...
History ......

Herodotus's account .....

Topography : Pylus, Asine, Stenyclerus, Ithome .

IX. Lacoxica, general description ....

History ......

Herodotus's account .....

Description of the Laconians ....

Rights and privileges of their kings : in war ;

in peace ; at public sacrifices, feasts, and games ; right of
appointing the proxeni and pj^hii ; daily allowance of food ;
keepers of the oracles ; commissioners of the highways ; en-
titled to a seat in the council of twenty-eight
Manners and customs of the people : .

bmial of kings ; hereditary professions ; miscellaneous
Topogi-aphy : Sparta, Therapne, Pitane, Cardamyle, Oresteum,
Mount Thornax, Mount Taygetus, Cape Taenarum
Cape Malea .....

Page

44
ib
ib
ib
ib

45
ib
ib
ib
46
ib
ib
ib
ib
47
ib
48
ib
49
ib
50
ib

51
52
ib

53
54

CHAPTER IV.

NORTHERN GREECE.

Division into ten districts

I. Megaris, general description
Herodotus's account
Erroneously supposed to be the most westerly point in Greece
Topogi-aphy : Megara, Nisaea, Scironian Way

II. Attica, general description
Ancient histoiy: kings, archons
Herodotus's account : oiigin of the Athenians
lonians enter Attica

Ionian migi'ation ....
Athenians regarded as Ionian Pelasgians
Manners, customs, etc.

56
57
ib
ib
ib
ib
58
59
60
ib
ib
61

CONTENTS. XXVll

Page

Herodotus's description of Attica and Athens . .61

Four ancient divisions of the Athenians ... 62

Re-classification into ten tribes . . . . ib

Each tribe formed ten demi .... ib

Three factions . . . . . . ib

PubUc buildings, etc. : temple of Aeacus, sepulchre of Cimon, grotto

of Pan, temple of Boreas, Enneacrunos . . ib

Barathron, temple of Heracles, Areiopagus, harbours of Phalerum,

Munychia, and Piraeus . . . .63

The Acropolis, general description . . . ib

Herodotus's account : sanctuary of Aglaurus, ancient wooden

hedge, Pelasgic wall .... ib

Temple of Erectheus, the Serpent, the salt Spring, the sacred

Olive, trophies in the Propylaea ... 64

Topography: Eleusis, Marathon, Lipsydrium, Alopecae, Oenoe,

Hysiae, Bram-on, Dece.lea, Thoricus, Anaphlystus, Oropus,

Pallene, . . . . . .65

Anagyi-us, Aphidnae, Sphendale, Thriasian plain. Cape
Sunium, Mount Laurium, Cape Colias, Zoster, Paeonia,
Mount Hymettus, Mount Aegaleos, Mount Cithaeron, . 66

River Ilissus ..... 67

III. BOEOTIA, general description : History . . . ib
Herodotus's account: Cadmeans ... 68
Topography : Thebes, with the temple of Amphiaraus, the oracle,

and the gifts of Croesus . . . . 68, 69

Dehum, Thespia, Eleon, Tanagra, river Thermodon, Coro-

naea, Lebadeia, Scolus, Acraephia, Orchomenus, Erythrae,

Plataea ..... 69

General description of the Plataean territory . . .70

View of the scene of the battle . . . ib

Plan of the battle : 1st position ; 2nd position . .71

3rd position ..... 72

Sepulchres of the slain . . . . .74

IV. Phocis, general description . . . ib
General description of Delphi : Castalian spring, temple of Athene

Pronaea, temple of ApoUo, the oracle . . 75

Herodotus's account of the temple and its ti-easui'es : throne of

Midas ; silver offerings and golden bowls of Gyges ; silver bowl

and iron saucer of Alyattes . . • .76

Gifts of Croesus : 117 golden demi-plinths, golden lion, gold and

silver mixing- vessels, and other offerings . . .77

Miscellaneous gifts from the Lacedaemonians, Euelthon, Phocians,

Pausanias, and from the Greeks after the battle of Salamis . 78
Herodotus's description of Mount Parnassus . • ih

Topography : route of the army of Xerxes . . .79

V. LocRis, general description ... 80
Eastern or Opuntian Locrians . . . . ib
Western, or Locri Ozolae .... ib
Herodotus's account of the Ozolae . . . ib

xxyiii

CONTENTS.

Amphissa .....

The Opuntian Locrians .....

Thermopylae as described by Herodotus and including MaHs

Enclosed by the Trachinian rocks ; Anticyra ; river Spercheius ;
river DjTas ; river Melas ; Trachis — the widest part ; ravine of
the river Asopus ; river Phoenix— narrowest part ; Thermopylae ;
Anthela ......

Temple of Demeter ; seats of Amphyctions ; hot springs ; Phocian
wall and gates ; stone Hon to Leonidas ; Alpenus ; the encamp-
ments .... • -

Pass of Anopaea ; inscriptions at Thermopylae

VI. Doris, mother country of the Dorians

Topography : Pindus, Erineus

YII. Aetolia; scattered notices ....

VIII. AcARNANlA ; river Achelous, Echinades islands, Anac-
torium, and Teleboa .....

IX. Thessaly, general description

Thessaly Proper, viz. Histiaeotis, Pelasgiotis, Phthiotis, and Thes-
saliotis ......

Two other districts. Magnesia and Malis

Herodotus's account : Thessaly anciently a lake enclosed by Pelion
and Ossa, Olympus, Pindus, and Othrys ; formed by the rivers
Peneus, Apidanus, Onochonus, Enipeus, Pamisus, and Lake
Boebeis .....

Outlet at Tempe formed by an earthquake

Tribes of Thessaly .....

Pass of Tempe .....

Pass of Gonnus .....

Topography: lolcus, Gonnus, Meliboea, Alos, Larissa, Castha-
naea, Gulf of Magnesia ....

X. Epiuus, scattered notices in Herodotus

Thesprotians, Molossians, Epidamnus, Ambraciots, and ApoUonia
Oracle at Dodona : Aegyptian tradition of its origin ; Greek tra-
dition ; opinion of Herodotus

Papre

81
ib
ib

82
83
ib
84
ib

ib
ib

85
ib

ib
ib

86
ib
87

87,88
88
ib

CHAPTER V.

THE ISLANDS,

Distribution of the Islands

Islands in the Ionian Sea .

Corcyra

Leucas

Cephallenia

Zacynthus

Islands in the Mediterranean

Cymus

Sardo

Sicily

90
ib
91
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
92
ib

CONTENTS. XXIX

Page

Topography of Sicily : Syi'acuse, . . . .92

Camarina, Gela, Megara, Zancle, Eryx country, Egestaea,

Selinus, Minoa, Mactorium, Inycus, . . .93

Callipolis, Nasos, Leontini, Himera, Agrigentum, Hj^bla,

Camicus, river Elorus, Cithera . . .94

Crete, its history . . . . .95

Topography of Crete : Cydonia, Cnossus, . . .lb

Itanus, Axus . . . . . 96

Carpathus . . , . . ■ . ib

Ehodes . . . . . . ib

Cyprus . . . . . . ib

Topography of Cyprus : Paphos, SoU, Curium, Amathus, Salamis ib

Key of Cyprus . . . . .9/

Islands of the Aegean, or Grecian Archipelago, general de-
scription . . . . . . ib

I. The Cyclades . . . . . ib
Delos, the centre ; its sacred character ; sanctuary of Artemis ;

banqueting-hall of the Ceians . . . ib

Grave of the two Hyperborean virgins, Hyperoche and Laodice ; ib

grave of two other Hyperborean virgins, Opis and Arge . 98
Islands round Delos, viz. Rhenea, Myconus, Tenos, Andi'os, Scy-

ros, Ceos, ..... ib

Cythnos, Seriphus, Siphnos, Melos, Paros, . . 99

Naxos ..... 100

II. The Sporades, viz. Thera, . . . . ib

Telos, Cos, Leros . . . . 101

III. Other islands of the Aegean . . . . ib

Samos . . . . . . ib

The aqueduct ; the mole ; the temple of Hera and its curiosities,

viz. the great brazen mixing-vessels, . . . ib
Two wooden statues of Amasis, picture of the Bosphorus bridge,

furniture of Polycrates, hnen corselet of Amasis . 102
Brazen vessel on a tripod : description of the city of Samos ; curious

festival observed by the Samians . . . 103
Flourishing condition of Samos under Polycrates; Samians in

Libya; artistic skill of the Samians; . . 104

Their dialect, etc. . . . . 105

Lade . . . . . .. ib

Chios . . . . . . ib

Topography of Chios : Chios, Caucasa, Coeli, Polichne : notices

of the Chians . . . , . . ib

Lesbos . . . . . . ib

Hecatonnesi . . . . . . . .106

Tenedos ...... ib

Lemnos, atrocities committed there . . . ib

Imbros ...... ib

Samothrace . . . • • .10/

Thasos, its valuable mines .... ib

XXX CONTENTS,

Page

Sciathus . . . . . .107

Euboea ...... 108

Topography of Euboea : Eretiia, Chalcis, Styi-a, Geraestus, . ib
Carystus, Histiaeotis ; description of the beach of Artemi-

sium ; Coela, Cape Cephareus, mountains, the Abantes . 109

Salamis ...... ib

Psyttalea . . . . . .110

Aegina, its trade and shipping . . . ib

Hydi-ea . . . . . .111

Belbina ...... ib

CHAPTER VI.

MACEDONIA, THKACE, AND ILLYRIA.

Countries north of the Cambunian and Ceraunian hills , 113
I. Macedonia : ditference between Macedonia Proper and the Ma-
cedonian empire . . . . . ib

General description of the Macedonian empire . . 114

Watered by four rivers : Haliacmon, Lydias, Axius, Echeidorus ib
Divided into five districts: Pieria, Macedonia Proper, Bottiaeis,

Mygdonia, Crestonica . . . . . ib

Peninsula of Chalcidice • . . . ib
Eastern frontier formed by Mount Dysorum . . .116

Herodotus's geography illustrative of Xerxes's progress . ib

Eoute of the Persian fleet : description of Mount Athos . ib

Canal through the isthmus . . . . 11/

Bay of Singus ; Cape Ampelus ; Sithonia : Cape Canastraeum ;

Pallene ; Crossaea . . . . Hg

Therma ; river Axius ; gulf of Therma ; Olynthus ; Scione ;

Potidaea . . . . .119

Koute of the Persian army : river Echeidorus ; camels attacked by

lions ; rivers Lydias and HaUacmon . . . 120
Pieria . . . . . .121

Additional topographical notices : Mount Dysorum ; Anthemus ;

Creston ; mythus of the Temenidae ; sacred river . . ib

Gardens of Midas ; Mount Bermion . . . 122
II. Thrace: its geography illustrative of the routes of Darius and

Xerxes . . . . . . ib

General description . . . . . ib

Northern Thrace . . . . .123

Southern Thrace . . . . . ib

Herodotus's idea of the magnitude of Thrace . . 124

Its frontier towards Scythia .... 125

Route taken by Darius : bridge over the Bosphorus ; two columns

of white marble ; 13yzantiurn . . . . ib

Cyanean isles ; river Tearus"; Heraeopolis ; Perinthus ; Apollonia ;
rivers Contadesdus, Agrianes, and Hebrus ; Aenus ; river Artis-
cus; the Odrysae . . . . .126

CONTENTS.

ScjTmiadae, Nipsaei, and Getae ; Mesambria ; bridge at the Ister

Route of Xerxes from the Hellespont to Acanthus : the Cher-

sonesus ; inhabited by the Thracian Dolonci ; wall across the

isthmus ; topography — Elaeus, sepulchre of Protesilaus, Sestos,

Page

127

Madytus

Xerxes leaves the Chersonesus

. 128

Apsinthians

Agora ....

Bay and river of Melas

Aenus ....

Lake Stentoris

Doriscus ....

, ib

Valley of the river Hebrus

Sala and Zona ....

Cape Serrhium

Mesambria ....

River Lissus

Stiyme

Briantica, anciently Galaica .

Maroneia ....

Dicaea ....

Abdera ....

Lakes Ismaris and Bistonis

129

Rivers Travus and Compsatus

River Nestus

PistyiTis ....

Paeti ....

Cicones ....

Bistones ....

Sapaei ....

Dersaei ....

Edoni ....

Satrae ....

Pierian forts ....

Mount Pangaeus

Pieres ....

,ib

Odomanti . . . .

Paeones ....

Doberes ....

Paeoplae ....

District of Phyllis .

River Augites . . . ,

.130

Paeonia: its extent .

Siro-paeones . . .

Scapte Hyle

Paeones on the Strymon

Paeones above Crestonica, and on Mount 0]

■belus and Lake

Prasias ....

xxxu

CONTENTS.

Page

Agrianes ...... 130

River Stiymon . . , . . ib

E'ion ...... ib

Strymon bridge . . . . . ib

"Nine Ways" . . . . • ib

Edonia . . . . • .131

Myrcinus . . . . . ib

Datus . . . . . . ib

Argilus . . . . . . ib

Bisaltia . . . . . . ib

Plain of Syleus . . . . . ib

Acanthus . . . • • . ib
Miscellaneous notices of southern Thrace : Bryges ; gold mine of
Scapte Hyle; Cape Sarpedon ; Perinthus; Selybria; Aegos-
potami ; Tyrodiza ; Leuce Acte ; Bisanthe; Hellespontines 132
Northern Thrace, but little known : its seven rivers ; Istria ; Pil-
lars of Sesostris ..... ib

Manners and customs of the Thracians . . . ib

Pecuhar tenets of the Getae . . . . . ib

Behef in the immortality of the soul . . . ib

Their deity Zalmoxis . . . . 133

Greek account of Zalmoxis . . . . ib

Effect of his teachings on the Thracians . . ib

His subterranean dwelling, and re-appearance . . ib

Herodotus's opinion . . . . • 134

Pecuhar custom of the Trausi : mournful births and happy funerals ib

Thracians above Crestonica, their polygamy . . ib

The favourite wik killed at her husband's death . . ib

Customs of the Thi-acians generally . . . ib

Sale of children . . . . . ib

Profligacy of the unm.arried women . . . ib

Tattooing . . - . . . ib

Fondness for war . . . ' • . ' ib

Worship of Ares, Dionysus, and Artemis . . .135

Worship of Hermes . . • . ib

Funerals . . . • • . ib

Sepulchral monuments . . . . ' ib

Garments of Scythian hemp . . . . ib

Paeonians on Lake Prasias : living in huts supported over the ib

lake by planks and piles . . . . ib

Polygamy . . . . . ib

Horses and cattle fed on fish . . . . ib

Satrae, the only independent Thracians . . . 136

Their oracle of Dionysus . . . . ib

ni. Illyuia ; scarcely noticed by Herodotus . . ib

Sale of maidens amongst the Eneti . . . ib

River Angrus ..... ib

TribalUc plain . . . . . ib

CONTENTS.

xxxni

River Brongus
The Enchelees

Page

136
ib

CHAPTER VII.

SCYTHIA.

Difficulties in Herodotus's description of Scythia . .138

Its identification with southern Russia, Moldavia, and "Wallachia ib

Face of the country . . . • . ib

Crimea or Taurica . . . • • 140

Rivers of southern Russia * . • . ib

Herodotus's description of Scythia . , . ib

Its form and measurement . . . . 'ib

Its boundaries ..... 141

Extent of our author's personal knowledge . . . ib

Olbia, the centre of his observations . . . ib

Explanation of his statements respecting the route along the coast 142

Explanation of his statements respecting the route into the interior 143

The four-sided shape of Scythia explained . . . ib

Scythian rivers . . • . • 144

The Ister or Danube, its five mouths and equal stream . . ib
Five tributaries flowing into it : the Porata, Arams, Naparis, Or-

dessus, and Tiarantus . . . . . ib

Difficulties in the theory of Niebuhr and Ideler . . ib
Identification of the five tributaries with the Pruth, Sireth, Jalom-

nitza, Argisch, and Aluta . . . .145

Seven independent rivers : theTyras, Hypanis, Borysthenes, ib
Panticapes, Hypacyris, Gerrhus, . . .146

and Tanais . . . . . 147

The Hyrgis . . . . . . ib

Modem names of the rivers .... ib

The Dneister ... . • . ib

The Bog . . . . . . ib

The Dnieper . . . • • . ib
Difficulty in identifying the Panticapes, Hypacyris, and Gerrhus :

probably the Samara, Kalantchak, and Tastchenik . . 148

The Don and Hyrgis • ... 149
Boundaries of Scythia on the modern map . . .150

Scythian nations : west of the Borysthenes or Dnieper . 151

I. Callipidae . . - . • . ib

II. Alazones . . . . .152

III. Aratores: Exampaeus, Hippoleon, and Hylaea . . ib

IV. Georgi ..... 153

V. Nomades , . ,. . . . ib

VI. Royal Scythians .... ib

VII. Tyritae . . . . . .154

VIII. Tauri . . . . • ib
Carcinitis . . . • . . ib

XXXIV

CONTENTS.

Com-se of Achilles ,

History of Scythia

Anciently occupied by Cimmerians

Scythian invasion

Sepulchre of the Cimmerian kings

Scythian pursuit of the Cimmerians

Cimmerians in Asia Minor

Scythians masters of Upper Asia .

Plunder the temple of Aphrodite at Askalon

Retm-n to Scythia ....

Proofs of the ancient occupation of Scythia by the Cimmerians

District of Cimmeria ....

Cimmerian Fort and Feny ....

Cimmerian Bosphorus ....

Massagetae and Sacae of Scythian origin

Climate of Scythia

Eight months of the year wifiter, during which the sea freezes

Four months of cold summer, constant rains and violent thunder-
storms ......

Effects of cold on the horses and cattle .

Scythian story of the air filled with feathers .

Tradition of the Hyperboreans

Foot-print of Heracles .....

Pillars of Sesostris .....

Natural productions of Scythia : grass, hemp, wheat, onions, garlic,
lentils, millet .....

Cranes ......

Swine ......

National mythus of Targitaus, and his three sons, Lipoxais, Ar-
poxais, and Colaxais . . . .

The Auchatae, Catiari, and Traspies

General name of Scoloti .....

Greek mythus of the three sons of Heracles, and the serpent maiden
Echidna .....

Ignorance of the nations on the Euxine

Wise device of the Scythians against invasion

Their houses carried with them ....

Scythian deities : Hestia, Zeus, Ge, Apollo, Aphrodite, Heracles,
and Ares

Poseidon

Mode of sacrifice

Enormous piles of faggots sacred to Ares

Human sacrifices

Enemies' heads presented to the king

Mode of preparing tlie skulls and other trophies

Soothsayers and manner of divining

Ceremonies at the illness of a king

Manner of making contracts

Page

154
ib
ib

155
ib
ib
ib

156
ib

157
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

158
ib
ib
ib

159
ib

ib
ib
ib

160

161

ib
ib
ib

162
ib
ib

163
ib

164
ib

165
ib

166

CONTENTS,

XXXV

Page

Sepulchres of the Scythian kings . . . 166

Funeral ceremonies . . . . . ib

Favourite concubine, servants, and goods buried with the king ib
Fifty attendants killed and placed on horseback round the tuntaulus ib

Burial of private citizens . . . . .167

Manner of pm-ification .... ib

Hatred of foreign customs . . . .168

Costume ...... ib

Blinding of slaves . . . . . ib

Mode of milking cattle .... ib

Habit of taking unmixed wine, and drinking very hard . ib

Contempt of trade . . . . • 169

Difficulty in ascertaining the population of Scythia . . ib
Cauldi-on made from arrow heads, one being furnished by every

Scythian ..... ib

Meagre remains of the Scythian language . . . ib

Barbarous customs of the Tauri . . . ib

CHAPTER VIII.

REMAINDEK OF EUROPE.

Character of Herodotus's knowledge of the remainder of Europe
Divisions ....

I. Western Europe
Region beyond the Pillars of Heracles
Tartessus . . . .
Erytheia ....
Gadeira ....
Celtae ...
Cynetae . . . • -
Account of the river Ister or Danube
Causes of its equal stream
Explanation of Herodotus's description of the Ister, i

the Cynetae and Celtae
The Iberi, Ligyes, and Elisyci
Italy, singular omission of Rome
Northern Italy, occupied by the Ombrici and Tyrseni
Southern Italy, occupied by Greek colonies, viz. Rhegium, Taras,
Agylla, Hyela in Oenotria, Croton, Metapontium,

Sybaris, Siris, lapygia, Brundusium, Hjria, and Epizephjaian
Locrians .....

II. Northern Europe .....
Region impenetrable from bees or frost .

The Sigynnes, a Medic colony, fond of chariot-driving .
Nations bordering on Scythia ....

1. Agathyrsi, occupying Transylvania

2. Neuri, occupying Poland and Lithuania

c 2

der of Europe

171

173

174

and account of

175

176

2ni .

177

178

ib
179

180

XXXVl

CONTENTS.

Page

3. Androphagi, occupying Smolensk . . .180

4. Melanclilaeni, occupying Oiioft' . " . 181

5. Sauromatae, occupying the country of the Don Cossacks and

part of Astracan ..... ib

6. Budini and Geloni, occupying Samtoff . . .182
III. Eastern Europe .... 183

Great caravan route . . . • . ib

Character of the commerce . . . . 184

Olbia the emporium . . . . . . ib

Trade in corn . . . . . . ib

Slaves . . . . . . ib

Furs . . . . . . ib

Gold from the Ural and Altai mountains . . . 185

Boute northward from the Budini . . . ib

Desert of seven days' journey, occupying Simbirsk and Kasan ib

Route towards the east . . . . . ib

Thyssagetae, occupying Perm .... ib

Jyrcae on the Ural mountains . . . .186

Scythian exiles occupying Tobolsk . . . ib

Argippaei, at the foot of the Altai mountains . . . ib

Identification of the Argippaei with the Calmucks . 187
Unknown region north of the Argippaei, occupied by men with

goats' feet, and people who slept for six months at a time . 188

Identification of the Altai . . . . ,ib

Eastern route continued . . . . . ib

The Issedones . . ' . . . ib
Arimaspi ...... 189

Gold-guarding griffins .... ib

Nations on the frontier towards Asia . . .190

General description of Mount Caucasus . . . ib

Herodotus's account of the mountain and people . . ib
The Massagetae . . . . .191

Herodotus's description of the river Araxes . . . ib

Explanation of the apparent contradictions . . 192

Manners and customs of the Massagetae . . . ib

ASIA.
CHAPTER I.

GENERAL SURVEY.

Two great mountain ranges of Asia : the Altai

The Taurus or plateau of Iran

Rivers of Asia ....

195

196

CONTENTS. XXXVll

Page
Separation of the continent into three divisions . . 197
Extent of the Asia of Herodotus . . . . ib
Discoveries of Scylax of Caryanda . . . 198
Herodotus's own map of Asia . . . .199
The four central nations .... ib
The two western Actae, viz. Asia Minor ; Syria and Libya . 200
Ancient division of Asia between the Lydians, Babylonians, and Medes 201
Establishment of the Persian empire of Cyrus . . 202
Division into twenty satrapies by Darius Hystaspes . ib
Extent of Herodotus's travels in Asia . . . 203
His general acquaintance with Phoenicia and Asia Minor . ib
Visit to Babylon . . . . . ib
Travelled along the great highway between Sardis and Susa ib
Visit to Ecbatana very doubtful . . . . ib
Examination of the list of twenty satrapies . . 204
Reasons for including distant tribes in the same satrapy . ib
General want of geographical order arising from Herodotus's ig-
norance of the more distant satrapies . . . 205
Catalogue of nations in the army and navy of Xerxes . 208
Value of a comparison of the catalogue with the list of satrapies . 209
Catalogue to be further digested in a future chapter . ib
Topography of the languages of Asia . , . ib
Languages of Asia Minor, from the Aegean to the Halys . 210
Semitic dialects between the Halys and Tigris . . ib
Persian dialects between the Tigris and Indus . . 211
Conclusion . . . . . . ib

CHAPTER II.

ASIA MINOR.

Physical geography of the peninsula . . . 213

Different pohtical divisions . . . . ib

Natural separation into an eastern and western division by the

river Halys ...... 214

Divided into four satrapies by Darius Hystaspes . . ib

Difficulty in dividing the towns . . . .216

I. Aeolis, Ionia, Doris, Caria, Lycia, and Pamphylia . ib

Aeolians, their eleven cities on the continent, and seven on the

islands .....

lonians, their twelve cities ....
United in the Panionian confederacy
Mixtm-e of the lonians with other races .
Worship of the Heliconian Poseidon in the Panionium .
Miscellaneous notices ....

Asiatic Magnetes ....

Dorians, their five cities of the Triopian confederacy
Worship of Apollo at Triopium

ib
217
218

ib
219

ib
220

XXXVlll

CONTENTS.

Exclusion of Halicarnassus ....

Carians, originally expelled from the islands by the lonians and
Dorians ......

Their inventions .....

Believed themselves to be autochthones

United with the Lydians and Mysians in the worship of the Carian
Zeus ......

Topography of the interior : Labranda, Termera, Cnidus, Pedasus
C ami us, its inhabitants really autochthones
Topogi-aphy of the coast : Priene, Myus, Miletus,

Limeneion Assesus, Sanctuary of the Branchidae, river
Maeander, Caryanda, Hahcarnassus, Cnidus,

The Isthmus, Calydna the Carian town, and Calydna the
Dorian town
Lycians sprung from Crete
Anciently named Termilae
Their customs .

Heroic resistance to the Persians
Oracle at Patara
Phaselis ....

Lycian costume

Milyans ....

Pamphyhans ....

II. Mysia and Lydia

Mysians, also named Ol3mipieni

Extent of the Mysia of Herodotus

Topography of Mysia : River Caicus, Mount Canae, Atarneus,

Malene, Carina, Adramyttium, Thebes, Antandrus, Lampo-

nium, Cape Lectos, river Scamander, Cape Segeium

Ilium, inhabited by the Aeolians and Gergithes, Rhoetium, Ophry-

neium, Dardanus, Abydos, Percote, Lampsacus, Paesus, Parium,

Placia, Scylace, Dascyleium, Cius, islands of Cyzicus and Pro-

connesus ......

Lydians, their ancient empire ....

Sardis the capital .....

Rivers Hyllus and Hermus ....

Gold-dust brought from Mount Tmolus by the river Pactolus
Tumulus of Alyattes ....

Roads from Caria and Lydia to Phrygia
Beautiful plane tree on the Lydian road
Depraved manners of the Lydians ....

Invented the art of coining money, retail dealing, and games of
dice, knuckle-bones, and ball ....

Topography of the coast ....

Phocaea, its maritime enterprise and heroic resistance to Cyrus .
Magnesia .....

Smyrna, Clazomenae,Erythrae, Teos, Lebcdos, Colophon, Ephcsus,
Coressus, Mycale .....

220

ib
221

222

223

224

. 225

226

227

228
ib

229
ib

230
ib
ib

231
ib

232

233

CONTENTS.

Sculptures of Sesostris found in Ionia

Identification of the monument between Sardis and Smyi-na by
modern ti-avellers . . . • •

Its Aegyptian origin doubted ....
Lasonians, Cabalians, and Hygennians

III. Hellespont, Phrygia, BiTHYNiA,PAPHLAGONiA,andCAPPADCciA
Hellespontines ...•••
Phrygians, more ancient than the Aegyptians

Called Bryges when dwelling in Macedonia .

Topography of Phrygia : tract occupied by the Paeonians .

Gordium, Celaenae, sources of the Maeander and Catarrhactes,

river Marsyas, white columns ....
Course of Xerxes from Celaenae to Lydia
Anana, salt lake, Colossae, river Lycus, Cydrara, boundary pillar

between Phrygia and Lydia,
Conium, Alabanda
Thracians from the Strymon, called Bithynians
Mariandynians ....

Paphlagonians ....
White Syrians, or Cappadocians
River Halys ....
Extent and limits of the Cappadocia of Herodotus
Canal of Thales . • .

Pteria .....
Critalla

IV. CiLICIA ....
CiUcians, anciently named Hypachaeans
Extent and limits of the Cilicia of Herodotus
Conclusion ....

Page

233

234
ib

235
ib
ib

236
ib

237

ib
ib

238
ib
ib
ib
ib

239
ib
ib

240
ib
ib
ib
ib

241

CHAPTER III.

UPPER ASIA, OR SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

Plateau of Iran

Traversed east and south by two ranges

Zagros, or mountains of Km'distan

Elburz and Ghur mountains

Countries watered by the Euphrates and Tigris

Assyria ....

Babylonia ....

Mesopotamia

Syria ....

Media ....

Cissia and Persis

Three satrapies known to Herodotus

V. Syria Proper, or Phoenicia and Palaestine

Distinction between the Syrians of Palaestine and the White

243
ib

244
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

245
ib
ib
ib

CONTENTS.

Syi-ians of Cappadocia, and the Assyrians of Babylonia and

Mesopotamia
Face of the country
Libanus and Anti-Libanus
Valley of the Jordan
Desert of Syiia

Phoenicians, their migrations from the Erythr
Commercial enterprise
Naval superiority
Equipment

Practice of circumcision
P-igure-heads on their ships
Palm wine

Tyrian camp settlement in Aegypt
Tyre : ancient temple of Heracles .
Sidon ....
Aradus

Syrians of Palaestine, or Hebrews, scarcely known to Herodotus
Importance of Palaestine as a key to Aegypt
Ascalon : temple of Aphrodite or Astarte
Magdolus, or Megiddo
Cadytis ....
Identified by Prideaux with Jerusalem
By Mr. Ewing with Kedesh in Gahlee
By Col. Rawlinson with Gaza
Correctness of the latter view
Sea-ports of Palaestine

Arid tract between Jenysus and Lake Serbonis
Practice of circumcision
PUlars of Sesostris .
Cyprus .....

IX. Assyria, or Babylonia and Mesopotamia, answering to Irak

Arabi, and Algezirah ....
Inhabitants called Syrians by the Greeks, and Assyrians by the

Barbarians ....

Great importance of this satrapy
Want of rain suppUed by the Euphrates
Numerous canals ....

Extraordinary growth of corn

Palm trees .....
Babylon, the only city described
Site of the ruins of Babylon near Hillah
Three mounds on the eastern bank of the Euphrates
Mujehbe, or "the overturned"

Erroneously supposed by Rennell to be the' temple of Belus
El Kasr, or " the palace "...
Amram hill ....

Remains of ancient ramparts . . .

Page

CONTENTS.

xli

Biver embankment ....

"Western bank of the Euphrates ; .

Small scattered mounds ....

Birs Nimroud, the tower of Babel and temple of Belus

Its extreme antiquity ....

Herodotus's description of Babylon : a vast square, protected by a
moat and wall .....

Towers on the waU ....

One hundred brass gates ....

The city cut in two by the Euphrates

Walls along the river-banks with brazen gates

Inner wall . . • • •

The royal palace .....

Temple of Belus — ^its eight towers and spiral ascent

Statements of the Chaldaean priests

Bridge over the Euphrates

Sepulchre of Nitocris

Names of the city gates

Destruction of the fortifications ^by Darius

Town of Is .

Account of the Euphrates ....

Anciently overflowed the country .

Dams raised by Semu-amis and Nitocris .

Course of the river rendered winding by Nitocris

Immense artificial lake ....

Towns of Opis and Ampe

Dress of the Babylonians . . * .

Manners and customs ....

Annual sale of maidens ....

No physicians ; sick persons carried into the market for advice
Embalming . . . . ■ •

Funeral lamentations like those of the Aegyptians

Burning of incense after sexual intercourse

Disgraceful practices connected with the worship of Aphrodite

Three tribes of Babylonian Ichthyophagi

Chaldaeans . . . . •

Babylonian sun-dial

Gnomon .....

Talent ......

VIII. CissiA and Peksis, answering to Khuzistan and Farsistan
General description of the country
Sandy plains along the coast . . .

Rising of the land in terraces ....

Mountains in the north the father-land of the Persians

Great city of Susa on the Choaspes

The Memnonium ....

Stone figure of Darius on horseback

Identification of Susa with Sus on the river Kerkhah

Page

256

257
ib

258
ib

259

260
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

261

262
ib
ib

263
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

264
ib
ib
ib

265
ib
ib
ib
ib

266
ib
ib

267
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

268
ib
ib
ib

xlii

CONTENTS.

Ardericca, seat of the transplanted Eretrians

Well producing asphalt, salt, and oil . . ,

Persians divided into ten tribes, viz. the Pasargadae, Maraphii,
Maspii, Panthialaei, Derusiaei, Germanii, Dahi, Mardi, Dropici,
and Sagartii .....

Religion of the Persians

No statues, temples, or altars ....

Name of Zeus applied to the vault of heaven

Sacrifices on high places ....

Ancient worship of the sun, moon, earth, fire, water, and winds

Later worship of Aphrodite or Mitra

Mode of sacrifice ....

Prayer of the sacrificer ....

Ode sung by the Magi . .

Social customs .....

Celebration of birthdays ....

Moderation at meals, but profusion of after-dishes

Addiction to wine ....

Debate when drunk and again when sober

Modes of salutation according to rank

Respect for neighbouring nations according to their proximity to
Persia .....

Attachment to foreign customs

Polygamy, concubinage, and paederasty

Respect for fathers of large families

Education of sons ....

Trial of criminals . .

Parricide considered impossible

Lying and getting into debt especially abhorred .

Lepers and white pigeons expelled from cities

Veneration for rivers ....

Ceremonies practised on dead bodies . ' . ,

Weakness of the Persian skull

Magi a peculiar race : unlike the Aegyptian priests

Persian ignorance of navigation

Contempt for markets and traders .

Equipment .....

Special honours paid to valour

Homble custom of burying alive in honour of Ahriman

Persian system of post ....

Matters pertaining to the king

Celebration of his birthday

Those who obliged him called Orosangae, or benefactors

Drank only the water of the river Choaspes .

Regarded as the master of Asia

General veneration for him

Conduct of the harem ....

Persian language ....

Page

269
ib

CONTENTS. xliii

CHAPTER IV.

UNEXPLORED ASIA : YVL. EUXINE TRIBES ; ARMENIA ; MATIENE AND THE
SASPEIRES ; MEDIA ; SOUTH CASPIAN TRIBES ; PARTHIA, CHORASMIA, SOGDIA,
AND ARIA; EAST CASPIAN TRIBES; BACTRIA ; GANDARA ; CARMANIA ;
ASIATIC AETHIOPIA; AND NORTHERN INDIA,

Page

Region bounded on the west by the frontiers of Asia Minor; north,
by the Phasis, the Caspian, and the Jaxartes ; east, by the Indus ;

south, by Syria, Assyria, Cissia, Persis, and the Erythraean . 278

Divided into twelve satrapies . . . . ib

XIX. Eastern Pontus, comprising the Moschi, Tibareni, Ma-
crones, Mosynoeci, and Mares, answering to Trebisonde . 279
Herodotus's account very meagi-e . . . . ib

Extent of the satrapy : probably included the Chalybes and
Ligyes . . . . . .280

Order of the nations according to Xenophon . . ib
Described by Xenophon as being half barbarous and almost inde-
pendent of Persia .... ib

XIII. Armenia and Pactyica, answering to Erzroum and part of
Kurdistan . . . . .281

Difficulty respecting Pactyica . . . . ib

Armenians descended from the Phrygians . . 282

Their country the highway between Sardis and Susa . . ib
Watered by four rivers, viz. the Tigris, Zabatus Major, Zabatus

Minor, and the Gyndes . . . . ib

Stream of the Gyndes weakened by the 180 canals of Cyrus ib

Commerce with Babylon .... 283

Pecuhar merchant-boats, chiefly freighted with palm wine . ib
Extent of the Armenia of Herodotus . . . 284
XVIII. Matiene with the Saspeires and Alarodii . ib
Eastern and western Matiene mentioned by Herodotus . ib
^Eastern Matiene identified with the mountains of Zagros or Kur-
distan . . . . . . ib

Matieni represented by the modern Kurds . . ib

Western Matiene in Asia Minor .... 285

Costume ...... ib

Country of the Saspeires and Alarodii, in the valley of the Aras . ib

X. Media, with the Paricanii, and the Orthocorybantii . ib

Difficulty respecting the Paricanii . . . . ib

Orthocorybantii unknown .... 286

General description . . . . . ib

Northern Media, or Atropatene, answering to Azerbijan . ib

Southern Media, or Media Magna, answering to Irak Ajemi . ib

Two capitals, each named Ecbatana . . . ib

Media of Herodotus . . . . . ib

Identified by Rennell with Irak Ajemi, and the Ecbatana with

Hamadan . . . . . . 287

xliv

CONTENTS.

Identified by Col. Rawlinson with Azerbijan, and the Ecbatana
with Takhti-Soleiman ....

Probably included a large portion of both provinces

Nisaean plain and horses ....

Ecbatana as described by Herodotus

Story of its walls considered to be a fable of Sabaean origin

Medes divided into six tribes, viz. Busae, Paretaceni, Struchates,
Arizanti, Budii, and Magi ....

Anciently called Arians . . . . .

Costume ......

Language ......

XI. South Caspian Provinces, comprising Caspii, Pausicae,
Pantimathi, and Dareitae . . . .

Costume of the Caspii . . . .

Identification of this satrapy with Ghilan, Mazanderan, and As-
ti'abad . .

XVI. Parthians, Chorasmlvns, Sogdians, and Arians, all wear-
ing Bactrian costume ....

Vast extent of the satrapy

Parthia identified with the mountains north of Khorassan

Chorasmia with Kharesm, or Khiva

Sogdia with Sogd, or Bokhara

Aria with Khorassan and western Afghanistan

Arians and Medes the same race

Caspian Gates ' .

Salt desert .....

Remarkable plain described by Herodotus

Contained the sources of the Aces

Turned into a lake by the king of Persia

Diflficulties in the geography : Herodotus's apparent confusion be
tween the Helmund and the Oxus

XV. East Caspian Provinces, comprising Sacae and Caspii

Sacae the Persian name for Scythians : their costume .

Amyrgian Sacae to be considered as a Scythian tribe, conquered
by Persia .....

Situated between the Oxus and Jaxartes

Caspii north of the ancient mouth of the Oxus

XII. Bactria .....
General description ....
Identified with Balkh between the Hindoo Koosh and the Oxus
Herodotus's account ....
Bactria, a penal settlement ....
Costume of the Bactrians

Aeglae, probably the Ghiljies ....
VII. Gandara, comprising the Sattagydae, Gandarii, Dadicae,
and Aparytae .....

Merely named by Herodotus ....
Probably answered to eastern Afghanistan

Page
287

ib
lb

288
ib
ib

289
ib
ib
ib

ib
290

ib
ib

291
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

292
ib
ib

293

294

295

296

CONTENTS.

xlv

Pafje

Gandarii identified with the people of Candahar . . 297

Dadicae with the Tadjiks . . . . ib

Sattagydae with the Zhats . . , . - ib
XIV. Cakmania, including Sagartii, Sarangees, Thamanaei, Utii,

and Myci, and the Isles of the Erythraean . . ib

Sarangees identified with the people of Zarang or Sehestan . ib

Herodotus's account .... 298

Costume of the Sagartii . . . . . ib

Mode of fighting with lassos .... ib

Thamanaei unknown . . . . . ib

Costume of the Sarangees, Utii, and Myci . . ib

XVII. Asiatic Aethiopia, with the Paricanii . . ib

Herodotus's account .... ib

Equipment of Paricanii . . . . . ib

Aethiopians of Asia contrasted with those of Libya . 299

Strange head-dress . . . . . ib
Identification of Asiatic Aethiopia with Gedrosia, or Beloochistan ib

XX. Northern India, or the Punjab . . . ib

Extent of the satrapy . . . . ib
Herodotus's account of the people .... 300

Enormous ants ..... ib

Ant-hills of sand and gold-dust . . . . ib

Mode of carrying off the gold . . . ib

Identification of the people with the Rajpoots of the Punjab . ib

Indian camels ..... 301

Costume of the people . . . . . ib

Revenue of the twenty satrapies . . . ib
Herodotus's error whilst reducing the Babylonian talent to the

Euboic standard ..... 302

Attempts to account for it . . . . . ib
Error in the sum total : perhaps included taxes paid in kind, tolls,

gifts, etc. . . . . . .303

The money and gold-dust melted down into ingots . 304

CHAPTER V.

independent ASIA : OR SOUTHERN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA.

Three Asiatic nations independent of the Persian empire, viz.

Southern Indians, Colchians, and Arabians
I. Southern India

General description of the India of Herodotus
Morning the hottest part of the day
Superior size of the birds and quadrupeds
Camels • .

Dogs ....

Gold .....
Cotton-trees

ail cmjjuc, VIZ,.

306

. 307

xlvi}

CONTENTS.

Two nations of Indians .....

Southern Indians of Northern Hindostan

The most easterly of all the Asiatic nations .

Divided into tribes who spoke different languages .

Four ti'ibes mentioned by Herodotus

Herodotus's superior and coiTect knowledge of India derived from

the report of Scylax ....

Great merit of Scylax ....
Indian fishermen on the marshes of the Indus
Identified with the pulla-fishers of Sinde
Singular coincidence between the report of Scylax and that of

Lieut. Wood ....

Nomade Indians or Padaei ....
Killed and feasted on their sick relations
Identified with the barbarous tribes of the deserts of Sinde .
Vegetarian Indians, who Hved chiefly on rice
Identified with the Hindoos ....
Calatians, who ate their parents
Probably the same as the Padaei

Shameless manners and black complexion of the Indians
Probably refeiTed to the Jauts of Rajpootana

II. Colchis. Description of the country
Political relations with Persia ....
Costume .....
Manufacture of linen ....
Gifts to Persia .....
Colchians believed by Herodotus to be of Aegyptian origin, from

their similarity of complexion and hair, their practice of circum-
cision, their manufacture of linen, and their life and language
Value to placed on his testimony

III. Akabia. General description of the country
Herodotus's description ....
African mountain range between the Nile valley and Arabian Gulf,

included in Arabia ....
Land of frankincense ....

His account of the Arabian Gulf .
Supposed it to be much narrower than it is in reality
Causes of his error

More correct as to its length ....
His real knowledge of Arabia confined to Arabia Petraea
Assigns the Philistine temtory to the Arabs
Nature of the soil ....

City of Patumos .....
River Corys . . . . .

Defile near Buto containing the bones of winged serpents
Fabulous story concerning the serpents
Rare productions of Arabia ....
Frankincense guarded by serpents .

Page

307
ib
ib
ib
ib

308

CONTENTS. xlvii

Page

Cassia guarded by fierce bats . . . . 318

Curious manner of obtaining cinnamon from the nests of large birds ib

Ledanum obtained from the beards of goats . . 319

Sheep with enormous tails . . . . ib

Political relations of the Arabians with Persia . . ib

Costume • • • • • . ib

Manner of making contracts .... ib
Worship of Dionysus, named Orotal, and of Urania, called Alilat

andAlitta . . • • • .320

CHAPTER VI.

PERSIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA.

Two Persian documents illustrative of the geography of Herodotus 322
I. Catalogue of the nations in the army of Xerxes, with descrip-
tion of their equipments • . . . ib
Hellenic costume : general description . . . 323
Heavy-armed warrior with the tunic, greaves, cuirass, sword, shield,
helmet, and spear . . . . . ib

Light-armed soldier with darts, stones, and bows and arrows, or

slings . . . . . . ib

Herodotus's account .... ib

Shield and helmet borrowed from Aegypt . . . ib

Crests, devices, and shield-handles invented by the Carians . 324
Hellenic costume prevalent amongst the Aeolians, lonians, Dorians,

Hellespontines, Pamphylians, and Lydians . . ib

7orn by Carians with falchions and daggers . . ib
Hellenic helmet, worn by Phoenicians and Syrians, with linen

breastplate, and shields without rims . . . ib
Barbarian costume in southern Asia Minor . . . ib
Lycians with caps encircled by feathers, goat-skin cloaks, cornel-
wood bows, and cane arrows without feathers . • ib
Cilicians with woollen tunics, and national helmets, and bucklers ib
Mylians with clasped garments and leathern helmets . . 325
^-^alians and Lasonians like the CiUcians . . ib
; ^ern Asia Minor . . . . . ib

ms in national helmets .... ib

/nians in variously coloured cloaks, fox-skin caps, etc. . ib

.oschi, Tibareni, Macrones, and Mosynoeci, in wooden helmets ib

lares in painted helmets . . . . ib

'halybes with brazen helmets, and brazen ears, and horns of an

ox, crests, purple cloth leggings, and hunting javehns . ib
Phrygian costume of peculiar boots, plaited helmets, etc., worn
by Phrygians, Mariandynians, Paphlagonians, Matienians, Syri-

Cappadocians, and Armenians .... 326

Assyrian costume of linen cuirasses, helmets of brazen net-work,
Aegyptian daggers, knotted clubs, etc., worn by Chaldeans and

Babylonians . . . . . . ib

xlviii CONTENTS.

Median costume of tiaras, variously-coloured cuirasses, breast-
plates of iron scales, loose trousers, osier bucklers, etc., worn by
Medes, Persians, and Cissians ....

Bactrian costume resembled the Medic, but included bamboo
bows, 'short spears, etc., worn by Bactrians, Sogdians, Choras-
mians, Arians, and Parthians ....

Wooden helmets, leathern bucklers, and short spears of the Saspeires
Goat-skin mantles and peculiar bows of the Caspii, Pactyes, Pari-
canii, Utii, and Myci . . . .

Peculiar lasso carried by the Sagartians
Beautifully dyed garments of the Sarangae

Loose trousers, pointed hats, peculiar bows, daggers, and battle-
axes of the Sacae, beyond the Oxus
Cotton garments and bamboo bows of the Indians
Crane- skin bucklers and horse-head helmets of the Asiatic Aethi-
opians . . ....

Costume of nations not included in Persian Asia

Cloaks and long bows of the Arabs

Wooden helmets and leathern bucklers of the Colchians

Plaited helmets, hollow shields with large rims, pikes, and hatchets

of the Aegyptians ..... ib

Hellenic armour and Persian head-dress of the Cyprians . ib

Libyan Aethiopians with bodies half white and half red, clothed
in lion and panther skins, and carrying long bows, cane arrows
tipped with stone, javelins tipped with horn, and knotted clubs ib

Leathern garments of the western Libyans . . . ib

Proposed comparison of Herodotus's description with the monu-
ments of Persepolis and Nineveh . . . 330
IL Royal highway from Sardis to Susa . . . ib
Stations and caravanserais all the way . . . ib
Lydia and Phrygia : 20 stations, 94|- parasangs . . ib
River Halys : gates and fort . . . . ib

Cappadocia : 28 stations, 104 parasangs . . . ib

Cilicia : 3 stations, 15J parasangs . . . . ib

Ferry over the Euphrates ... . 331

Armenia: 15 stations, 56 J parasangs . . . ib

Four rivers to be ferried; the Tigris, Zabatus Major, Zabatus
Minor, and Gjmdes . . . . . ib

Matiene : 4 stations . . . . . jb

Cissia : 1 1 stations, 42J parasangs . . . . ib

Mistake in the sum total . . . . jb

Hiatus in Matiene . . , . . ib

Probably never filled in by Herodotus . . . 332

Length of the whole journey from Ephesus to Susa . . ib

Position of the nations in the map of Aristagoras . . ib

Identification of the ancient road with the modern caravan route 333

CONTENTS, xlix

AFRICA.

CHAPTER I,

GENERAL SURVEY.

Page

Imperfect state of the geography of Africa . . . 335

Considered by Herodotus to be surrounded by water, excepting at

the Isthmus of Suez .... ib

Story of its circumnavigation by Phoenicians sent out by Neco ib

Evidently believed by Herodotus and his contemporaries . ib

Voyage of Sataspes ..... ib

Possibility of circumnavigating Africa, subsequently denied by
Plato, B. c 360 ; Ephorus, B. c. 340 ; Poly bins, B. c. 150 ; Strabo,
A. D. 1 ; and Ptolemy, A. D, 150 .... 336

Difficulty in deciding whether the Phoenicians did or did not ac-
complish the circumnavigation . . . 337

Herodotus's account of the voyage .

Examination into its possibility

Nature of the ships ....

Character of the voyage

Extent of coast to be traversed by circumnavigators

Mean rate of saiHng ....

Aggregate length of the voyage

Description of the supposed circumnavigation by the light of mo
dern geography ....

B. c. 613, August .....

Suez ......

Monsoon in the Arabian Gulf, blowing from the north

October . ■ ■ • •

Straits of Babel-mandeb .... ib

Cape Guardafui . . . • • 340

Land of frankincense . . . . ib

Monsoon of the Indian Ocean, blowing from the north-east . ib

Sun perpetually on the right hand . . . ib

Cun-ent of the Mozambique Channel running round the Cape of
Good Hope .....

B. c. Q^2, January ....

Tropic of Capricorn ....

April .....

Doubling of the Cape of Good Hope

Atlantic Ocean ....

Wind from the south blowing along the coast

July .....

St. Thomas's island ....

Unfavourable wind and current lasting till October

ib
ib
ib
338
ib
ib
ib

339
ib
ib
ib
ib

ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
341
ib
ib

1 CONTENTS. •

Page

General course of the cun-ents of the Atlantic . . 341

Octoher . • • • . . ib

Wind blowing fi-om the north-east : slow westward progress against

the current . • • • • . ib

B.C. 611,irarc7i ..... 342

River Senegal . . . • ■ . ib

Stay for the September harvest . . . ib

Slow progT-ess against the current to the limits of the north-east

ti-ade Avind . . • • • . ib

Favourable winds through the Pillars of Heracles to the mouths

of the Nile . . . . • . ib

Story of the Phoenicians obtaining suppHes on their voyage by

sowing corn and waiting for the harvest, not incredible . ib

Probably well victualled as far as Sofala, and again fresh supplied

at Angola ....-• 343
Bank of the Senegal river, the most likely spot for the Phoenicians

to have chosen for sowing corn . . . ib

Examination into the credibihty to be attached to Herodotus's re-
lation . . . . . .344

Story of having the sun on the right hand, no evidence of its truth ib
Failure of Sataspes, no evidence of its falsehood . . ib

Phoenicians assisted by monsoons and currents, which would have
•been adverse to Sataspes . . . . ib

Enterprising character of Neco in perfect keeping with his having

organized such an expedition .... 345
Convincing reasons for believing in the circumnavigation, and in

the truth of Herodotus's narrative . . . ib

Herodotus's general knowledge of the African continent ". 346

Considered it to be a great acte, spreading out fi-om Asia at the

Isthmus of Suez . . . • . ib

Extreme heat of the climate .... ib

Difficulty in discovering Herodotus's boundary line between Asia

and Africa ...... 347

Probably arose from a confusion between the country of Libya and

the continent of Libya . . . . ib

Division of the Libyan continent into three tracts, viz. Aegypt,

Aethiopia, and Libya Proper . . . ib

CHAPTER IL

AEGYPT.

General description of Aegypt — a fertile valley, bounded on the

east by the Arabian chain, and on the west by the Libyan . 350
Herodotus's account ..... 351

Situation and boundaries of the country . . . ib

Supposed to be a gift of the Nile, as in the reign of Menes, B. c.2200,
all Middle Aegypt was a morass, and all Lower Aegypt was

CONTENTS. ll

Page

under water, but in the time of Herodotus, B. c. 450, the whole

had been filled up by alluvial soil brought down by the Nile 352

Lower Aegypt said by the priests to have been anciently a bay,

corresponding to the Arabian Gulf . . . ib

Three facts in favour of the hypothesis . . . ib

1. Shells found on the mountains, and a saline humoui- on the
pyi'amids ...... 353

2. Conti-ast between the black soil of Aegypt and the rock and
clay of Arabia and Syria on the east, and the red sand of
Libya on the west . . . . • ib

3. Gradual rise of the land . . . . ib
Ionian theory, that Aegypt Proper was included in the Delta,

proved to be absm-d, as the Aegyptians were an ancient poople,
but the soil of the Delta of recent formation . . 354

Theory of Herodotus — that the Aegj^Dtians had advanced north-
ward as fast as fresh soil was formed, and that Aegypt properly
included all the country inhabited by Aegyptians— supported
by the oracle of Ammon .... ib

Voyage of Herodotus up the Nile, by Heliopolis and Thebes,

to Elephantine on the southern frontier of Aegypt . . 355

Aegypt, north of Heliopolis, (i. e. the Delta,) a broad flat . ib

Aegypt, south of HeliopoUs, a narrow valley between the Arabian

and Libyan mountains .... 356

Extent of the voyage . . - • . ib

Error in Herodotus's calculation of the number of stadia . ib

Herodotus's personal knowledge bounded on the south by Ele-
phantine . . • • ,357
Could learn but httle concerning the Nile . . . ib
Three different causes assigned by the Greeks for its periodical
overflow. 1st, That it was occasioned by the Etesian winds.
2nd, That it was caused by the river Ocean. 3rd, That it was
produced by the snows of Aethiopia . . . ib
Theory of Herodotus— the Nile di-ained during the winter by the
sun, which is driven southward by Boreas ; but overflowing in
summer, when the sun retm-ns to the centre of the heavens ib
Origin of the thi'ee previous theories . . • 358
That of the Etesian winds, taught by Thales . . ib
That of the river Ocean, by Hecataeus; though perhaps in part de-
rived fi-om the Aegyptian tradition of the revolution of the sun ib
That of the melted snows, taught by Anaxagoras, who is followed

by Euripides and Aeschylus .... 359

Real cause of the inundation first discovered by Democritus and

Callisthenes, viz. the very heavy rainy season in Aethiopia . ib
Period of the inundation . . . • ib

Singular theory of the philosophers of Memphis as described by

Diodorus . . • • • • ^^^

Sources of the Nile : Herodotus unable to obtain any information

concerning them . • • • .obi

d 2

lii CONTENTS.

Page

Hoaxing story told by the bursar of the Athene temple at Sais 361
Effects produced by the inundation . . . 362
Aegypt like a sea, and her cities like islands . . ib
Navigation carried on across the plain of the Delta . . ib
Cities protected by mounds . . . . ib
Seven mouths of the Nile, viz. Pelusiac, Canopic, Sebennytic, Bal-
tic, Mendesian, Bolbotine, and Bucolic . . 363
Their identification on the modern map . . . ib
Di\asions of Aegypt not distinctly laid down by Herodotus . 364
Supposed by him to have included Lower Aegypt, or the Delta,

and Upper Aegj^t, or Heptanomis and Thebais . . ib

CHAPTER III.

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA.

General description of the Aegyptian Delta . . , 367
Aegyptian architecture, its religious character contrasted with the

aesthetic character of the architecture of Greece . . ib

Plan of an Aegyptian temple .... 368

Approached by an avenue lined with sphinxes . . ib
Colossi and obelisks before the gi-and entrance, which consisted of

a lofty gateway between two oblong pyramidal moles . ib
Interior, consisting of an open court, a portico, an hypostile hall,

and a holy recess . . . . . ib
Frequent multiplication of the entrances, courts, porticoes, and

halls, both in front and on each side of the holy recess . ib
Names and descriptions of the several parts . . 369
The sacred enclosure, or ieron .... 370
The avenue, or dromos .... ib
The entrance, or propylaea, consisting of a gateway, or pylon, be-
tween two oblong flat-topped pyramids, or ptera . . ib
The open court behind the propylaea surrounded by colonnades ib
The portico, or pronaos, supported by columns . . ib
The second pronaos, or hypostile hall, with stone roof, also sup-
ported by columns .... ib
The proper temple, or naos, including the holy recess, or sekos,

and the side adyta . , . . .371

Chambers, galleries, and passages, for the use of the priests . ib

Topography of the Delta : Bubastis . . . ib

Magnificent temple of Bubastis, or Artemis . . ib

Entirely surrounded by water, excepting at the entrance • 372

Conspicuous site ..... ib
The enclosure, or tcmcnus, (ieron,) a square of 600 feet each way,

surrounded by a sculptured wall . . . . ib

Propylaea (ptera) 60 feet high, and adorned with sculptures 9 feet high ib

Grove of trees planted round the naos . . . ib

Paved avenue, or dromos, ? of a mile long, and 400 feet broad . ib

Ancient settlement of the lonians and Carians . . 373

CONTENTS.

liii

Modern site of Bubastis indicated by the mounds of Tel Basta
Busiris ...•••
Temple of Isis .....

Sais . . . .

Palace of Apries ....

Temple of Athene .....

Splendid propylaea built by Amasis

Colossi, obelisks, and andro-sphinxes

Huge rock-chamber, or monolith .

Tombs of the Saite kings, Apries, Amasis, etc.

Tomb of Osiris .....

Circular lake .....

Modern site of Sais identified with that of Sa

Heliopolis ......

Temple of Helios with two obelisks 150 feet high, and 12 feet

broad, dedicated by Pheron
Papremis ......

Temple of Ares ....

Buto ......

Temple of Apollo and Artemis

Temple and oracle of Leto ....

Floating island of Chemmis, with temple of Apollo
Naucratis ......

Anciently the only Aegyptian port for Greek ships

The Hellenium sanctuaiy ....

Sanctuaries built by the Aeginetans, Samians, and Milesians

Anthylla, given to the wife of the Persian satrap .

ArchandropoUs .

Marea

Apis .

Momemphis

Pelusium

Daphnae .

Magdolus

Buto

Taricheia of Pelusium

Tower of Perseus

Temple of Heracles at "Taricheia

Lake Serbonis

Mount Casius .

Marshes of the Delta

Island of Elbo .

Present state of the Delta marshes

Great canal from Bubastis to Suez, commenced by Neco and (in

ished by Darius ....

Survey of the course of the canal
Division of the route into four sections
1. Line from Suez to the Bitter Lakes

Page

373

374
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

375
ib
ib
ib

376

ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

377
ib
ib
ib
ib

378
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

379
ib

ib
380

ib
381

liv CONTENTS.

Page

2. Basin of the Bitter Lakes . . . . 381

3. Elbow round through the Wady of Tomlat . . ib

4. Channel from the Wady of Tomlat to Bubastis . . 382
Immense number of canals dug by Sesostris . . ib
Nomes of Lower Aegypt ..... 383

CHAPTER IV.

UPPER AEGYPT.

Upper Aegypt of Herodotus included Heptanomis and Thebais . 386

Memphis ..... ib

Built by Menes on a site recovered from the Nile . . ib

Lake excavated by Menes . . ... 387
Explanation of Herodotus's description of the ancient and modem

channels of the Nile . . . . ib

Description of the Canal of Joseph . . . ib

Site of Memphis identified with that of Mitranieh . 388

Celebrated temple of Hephaestus, or Pthah, built by Menes . ib

Northern propylaea built by Moeris . . . ib

Six colossal statues erected before it by Sesostris . . ib
Western propylaea, and two statues of Summer and Winter, erected

by Rhampsinitus . . . . . ib

Eastern propylaea built by Asychis . . . 389
Southern propylaea, and comt for Apis, constructed by Psam-

mitichus „ . . . . ib

Colossus, 75 feet high, dedicated by Amasis . . . ib

Stone statue of Sethon, with a mouse . , . ib

Temenus of Proteus, including the temple of Aphrodite the stranger ib

Phoenician settlement, called the Tyrian camp . . 390

Temple of Isis . . . . . ib

Walls . . . . . . ib

Suburb . . . . . . ib

White Fortress ..... ib

Temple of Demeter . . . . . ib

Pyramids described by Herodotus identified with those of Gizeh ib

General description of their site and relative position . . ib

Recent explorations of Col. Howard Vyse and Mr. Pening 391
Herodotus's description of the causeway, 3000 feet long, 60 feet

wide, and 48 feet high, laid down by Cheops . . ib

Explanation of the description . . . 392

Traces of the ancient causeway still existing . . ib

The three gi'eat pyramids .... 393

I. The GpvEat Pyramid op Cheops . . . ib

Herodotus's description .... ib

Time and labour employed . . . . ib

Dimensions ..... ib

Mode of construction . . . . . ib

CONTENTS. Iv

Page

Ascent by steps, or altars .... 394

Machines constructed of short pieces of wood . . ib

Summit first completed .... ib

Burial vault of Cheops surrounded by a channel conducted from

the Nile ... . ib

Inscription declaring the sums expended upon provisions for the

workmen . . . . • ib

Comparison of the account of Herodotus with modern investiga-
tions ...... ib

Ancient and modern measurements . • • 395

Three kinds of material employed . . • 396

1st, Blocks quarried from the Libyan rock used for the internal

masses ......

2nd, Compact limestone from the 'Arabian mountains used for

casing-stones . . . • . ib
3rd, Red granite from the cataracts of Syene, also used for lining

and casing-stones . . . . . ib

Character of the mechanical agencies employed . . 397
Internal blocks not so large as Herodotus describes . . ib
Holes for the insertion of the machines still visible . 398
Exterior coating of casing-stones of limestone or granite, care-
fully cemented, and beautifully polished . . . ib
Mr. Perring's observations on the mode of construction . 399
Interior of the Great Pyramid . . . . ib

Sloping passage descending towards the centre . . ib
Passage divides; one continuing the descent till it reaches the
Subterranean Chamber ; the other ascending, and then again
dividing, one branch running horizontally to the Queen's

Chamber, and the other inclining upward to the King's Chamber ib

Description of the Subterranean Chamber . . . 400

Burial vault of Cheops not to be found' . . . 401

Queen's Chamber ..... 402

King's Chamber, containing an empty sarcophagus . 403
Inscription mentioned by Herodotus not to be found, on account

of the removal of the casing-stones . . . 404

II. PYRAmD OF Chephken .... ib
Herodotus's description . . . . . ib
Site, and present dimensions .... ib
Herodotus's statement that there were no subterranean chambers

in it, confuted by the investigations of Belzoni . . 40.5

Entrance discovered by Belzoni . . . . ib

Sepulchral room called Belzoni's Chamber . . 406

Lower Chamber ..... 407
Aethiopian stone used for the first course found to be granite from

the cataracts ..... 40'^

Upper casing formed of limestone . . . ib

Mr. Perring's view of the construction of the interior . . ib

III. Pyramid of Mycerinus . * . • 409

Ivi CONTENTS.

Page

Herodotus's description ..... 409

Present dimensions irreconcilable with Herodotus's estimate ib
More elaborately finished than the pyramids of Cheops and

Chephren . . . . • .410

Entrance discovered by Caviglia and Col. Vyse . . ib

Upper Sepulchral Chamber . • • . ib

Lower Sepulchral Chamber .... ih
Sarcophagus in the Lower Chamber . . .411
Extraordinary discovery of the mummy-case and bones of Myceri-

nus in the Upper Chamber .... 412

Undoubted identity of the remains . . . ib
Mr. Birch's interpretation of the hieroglyphics on the hd of the

mummy-case . . . - • ib

Bones and mummy-case to be seen in the British Museum . 413

Mode of construction adopted in the pyramid . . ib
The Three Small Pyramids, including the pyramid of the daughter

of Cheops ..... 414

Herodotus's description . . . - . ib

Present state ..... ib

Brick pyramid of Asychis . . . . ib

Probably the same as the northern pyramid of Dashoor . 415
Character of Herodotus's description of the pyramids, and reasons

for his various omissions .... ib
State of the pjTamids at the time of his visit . . .416
His ignorance of the interiors of the Pyramids of Chephren and

Mycerinus . . . • • .417

Origin of the pyi-amids unknown . . . ib
Called by the Aegyptians after Phihtion, and therefore supposed

to have been built by the Hyksos . . . ib
Recently discovered to have been built prior to the Hyksos, by

the kings of the fourth dynasty of the Old Monarchy of Menes 418
Cheops identified with the Suphis and Souphis of Manetho,

through the shields discovered by Col. Vyse . . ib

Chephren not yet identified . . . . 419
Mycerinus, or Men-kah-re, identified with the Mencheres of

Manetho ..... ib
The pyramids undoubtedly erected as sepulchres, the inclined pas-
sages being intended for the conveyance of the sarcophagi into

the internal chambers . . . • . ib
Interesting discovery made by Dr. Lepsius relative to pyramidal

construction . . . . . 420

Effect produced by the pyramids upon the modern traveller ib

Other buildings, or mounds, similar to the pyi-amids . . 421

Birs Nimroud ..... ib

Tumulus of Alyattes . . . . . ib

Pyramids of Mexico and India ... ib

Silbury hill in Wiltshire . . . . . ib

The Labyrinth and Lake Moeris . . . 422

CONTENTS. Ivii

Page

Description of the oval basin of Fayoum . . . 422

Consists of three different levels . . . ib

Watered by a branch from the Canal of Joseph . . 423

Geological constitution of the soil . . . ib

First or eastern terrace, comprising the Labyrinth . . ib

Herodotus's description of the Labyrinth . . 424

Erected by the twelve kings . . . . ib
Cost more labom- and money than all the public buildings in

Greece ...... ib

Consisted of twelve courts, in two parallel ranges of six courts each,

and included 3000 chambers, half above^^ground, and half under ib
Upper chambers visited by Herodotus . , . ib
Lower chambers, tombs of .the twelve kings, and sacred crocodiles ib
Recent discovery of the remains of the Labyrinth by the Prus-
sian Expedition under Dr. Lepsius . . . 425
General confirmation of the truth of Herodotus's statements . ib
Doubt as to whether it really included 3000 chambers,'and whether

it was built by the twelve kings, and contained their tombs 426
The pyramid probably the place of sepulture, and the Labyrinth

the royal palace ..... ib

Pyramid at present known as the Pyi-amid of Howara . ib
Discovery of the name of Ammenemes IIL, the last king of the

Old Monarchy of Menes . . . . ib

Dimensions and construction of the pyramid . . 427

Lake Moeris . . . . . . ib

Herodotus's description .... ib

Attempt to find its site on the modern map . . . 428

Generally identified with Lake Ke'iroun . . . 429

Present aspect of Ke'iroun . . . . ib

Reasons brought forward by M. Lin ant for disbelieving in the

identification of Moeris with Ke'iroun . . ib
Linant's discovery of a dyke enclosing the second terrace of

Fayoum ..... 430

Identification of the enclosed site with that of Lake Moeris] . 431

Further explanation of Linant's identification . . 432

His identification of the two pyramids described by Herodotus ib

General remarks upon Linant's discovery . . . 433

Remaining topography of Middle Aegypt . . ib

Erythrebolus . . . • • . ib

Crocodilopolis , . . • . ib

Hermeopolis ...... 434

Docks in the Arabian Gulf . . . . ib

Upper Aegypt Proper, not described by Herodotus . . ib

Extreme paucity of his topogi-aphical notions . . ib

His account of Thebes and temple of Zeus, or Ammon . ib

Chemmis ....•• 435

Temple of Perseus . . . . . ib

Elephantine ..... ib

Iviii CONTENTS.

Page

Crophi and Mophi ..... 435

Southern boundary of Aegypt . . . ib

CHAPTER V.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AegjT;)tian mythology ; its effect upon Herodotus . . 438

His initiation in the mysteries .... ib

His religious reserve . . • ^ . ib

Traces the deities of Greece to an Aegyptian origin . ib

Effect produced on the modern student . . . ib

Eeligious conceptions of the Aegyptians thepselves, dependent

upon the spii-itual and mental state of the worshipper . 439

Modern ideas of Aegj^tian deities dependent upon the student's

own state of religious culture . • • it>

Identification of Aegyptian conceptions with revealed truths, con-
tradicted by the idolatry and conduct of the people . . ib
Valuable character of Herodotus's information, both as an intro-
duction to the study of Aegyptian antiquities, and a proof that
no religion framed by human invention can render man pure
and holy ..... 440
Herodotus's account . . . • . ib
Aegyptians the most pious of mankind, and the first who instituted

the forms and ceremonies of religious worship . . ib

Astrology ....

Prodigies .....
Omens . . .

Divination ....

Oracles held in the highest veneration

Aegj^ptian deities divided by Herodotus into three classes . 442
1st, The eight gi-eat gods . . . . ib
2nd, The twelve gods .... ib
3rd, The gods sprung from the twelve . . . ib
No heroes worshipped .... ib
Chronology of the gods . . . . . ib
Explanation of the triple division . . . 443
Primeval belief in one great God . . . . ib
1st Class of gods — deified attributes . . . ib
2nd Class — lower emanations . . . . ib
3rd Class — ])hysical objects, abstract ideas, etc. . . ib
Identification of the eight primary gods with Aegyptian deities . 444
The four gi-eat deified attributes : the spirit ; the intellect ; the cre-
ative power ; and the generative principle . . . ib
Aegyptian representation of Kneph, the divine spirit, and Amuii,

the divine intellect . . . . . ib

Identification of both Kneph and Amun with the Zeus of Herodotus 445

Zeus especially worshipped in the nome of Thebes . . 446

441

ib
ib
ib
ib

CONTENTS.

liX

No sheep sacrificed . . " .

Mythic story of Zeus and Heracles

Horned serpents sacred .

Temple and oracle of Zeus

Sacred women

Aegyptian representation of Pthah, the creative power

Identified with Hephaestus, and especially worshipped at Memph:

Aegyptian representation of Khem, the generative principle .

Identified with Pan, and especially worshipped at Mendes

No goats sacrificed ....

Herodotus's statements doubted

Four primary Aegyptian goddesses

Sate, or Hera, not mentioned

Maut, or Buto, identified with Leto

Her celebrated oracle and temple .

Pasht, or Bubastis, identified with Artemis

The festival at Bubastis ....

Shameless conduct of the people during the pilgrimage

Immense consumption of wine . ...

Neith identified with Athene .

The festival of burning lamps at Sais

Confusion between the second and third class deities, and conse-
quent necessity for an independent and arbitrary division .

I. Miscellaneous divinities mentioned by Herodotus

HeUos, or the Sun .

Identified with the Aegyptian Re, or Ra

Heracles cannot be identified ....

His oracle and temple .....

Greek story of the attempt to sacrifice him to Zeus, and his slaying
the whole crowd of worshippers ....

Disbelieved by Herodotus, because the Aegyptians would not offer
human sacrifices, and Heracles the hero could not single-handed
have slain thousands

Hermes, perhaps a mummy-formed god

Subsequently identified with Thoth

Ares, perhaps a form of Typhon, or the evil principle

His oracle ....

Festival at Papremis

Mock-fight between the priests and votaries

Popular legend to account for its origin

Perseus and Proteus .

Temple of Perseus at Chemmis

His enormous sandal

Gymnastic games celebrated at Chemmis in his honour

His legendary history according to the Chemmitans

Temenus at Memphis, sacred to Proteus

Aphi-odite identified with Athor

Represented with cow's horns, and confounded by Herodotus with Isis

Page

446
lb

447
ib
ib
ib

448
ib

449
ib
ib

450
ib
ib
ib

451
ib
ib

452
ib
ib

453

454

455

456
ib

457
ib
ib
ib
ib

458
ib
ib
ib
ib

459
ib
ib

CONTENTS.

Page

Wooden cow at Sais probably connected with her worship and with

that of Osiris ..... 459

Annual festival connected with it . . . 460

The Foreign Aphrodite, or Helen the stranger . . ib

Hera, Hestia, and Themis also to be identified with Aegyptian

deities, though not known as such to Herodotus . . ib

II. Osiris, Isis, Horus, and the calf Apis . . 461

Dualistic character of Osiris as mortal King of Aegypt and divine

Ruler of Hades . . . . . ib

Herodotiis's hesitation and reserve in alluding to Osiris . ib

General division of the subject .... 462

Mythic historj^ of the earthly adventures of Osiris . . ib

Rhea delivered of five children on the five intercalary days obtained
by Hermes, viz. Osiris, and the elder Horus, begotten by the
Sun ; Typhon, by Cronos ; Isis, by Hermes ; Nephthj^s, by
Cronos . . . . . . ib

Typhon mames Nephthys .... 463

Osiris marries Isis, and begets the younger Horus . . ib

Osiris king of Aegypt .... ib

Instructs his subjects and mankind generally in the arts of civiliz-
ation . . . • . . . ib
Typhon, the evil principle, conspires against him, encloses him in

a chest, and casts it into the Nile . . . ib

Isis hears of the disaster, and discovers Anubis, the son of Osiris

by her sister Nephthys .... 464

Obtains the chest, which had been stranded at Byblos : Typhon
subsequently recovers it, tears the body into fourteen pieces, and
scatters them about Aegypt . . . . ib

Isis in a boat of papyi'us regains all the pieces excepting one, and

consecrates the phallus as a memorial of her loss . ib

Osiris returns from Hades, and assists in the final overthrov>^ of
Typhon . . . . . .465

Traces in the myth of a reference to astronomy . . ib

Physical interpretation of the myth as given by Plutarch . 466

Herodotus's account of Osiris, Isis, and Horus . . 467

Osiris, or Dionysus, and Isis, or Demeter, the two national deities

ofAegj'pt . . . . . . ib

Isis represented like lo, and perhaps regarded as the moon . ib

Horus the son, and Bubastis the daughter, of Osiris and Isis, con-
cealed by Leto in the floating island of Chemmis from Typhon 468
Osiris, his tomb at Sais . . . . . ib

Annual representation of his allegorical adventures on the circular

lake . . . . . . ib

Isis the greatest Aegyptian goddess . ' . . ib

Represented like the Greek lo . . . . ib

Her temple and festival at Busiris . . . ib

Bullocks sacrificed to her, whilst the votaries beat themselves and
lament for Osiris ..... 469

CONTENTS. 1X1

Page

Cows sacred to her ..... 469
Osiris and Isis considered by the Aegyptians to be the rulers of

Hades . . . . . . ib

Immortality of the soul propounded in the dogma of metempsy-
chosis ...... 4/0

Cycle of 3000 years ..... ib

Illustration of the Aegyptian ideas of Hades in the story of Rhamp-

sinitus . . . . . . ib

Worship of Osiris and Isis universal . . . ib

Its peculiarities . . . • . ib
Swine, though considered an impure animal, sacrificed at the full

moon to both deities .... ib
At the festival of Isis the tail, spleen, and caul of the pig was burnt,

but the rest eaten : pigs of baked dough offered by the poor . 471
At the festival of Osiris a pig slain at every door, and Dionysiac

orgies celebrated . . . • . ib

Herodotus's account of Apis . . . . ib

Begotten on a cow by a flash of lightning . . . 472
Known by his black hair, white square mark on his forehead, eagle

on his back, beetle on his tongue, and double hairs in his tail ib

Public rejoicings on his appearance . . . ib

Sacrilegious conduct of Cambyses . . . ib

Court for Apis built at Memphis by Psammitichus . . ib

Further notices of Apis from Phny, Sti-abo, and Diodorus . ib

Aegyptian conceptions of Osiris .... 473
Represented on the monuments as Judge of the Dead and Ruler

of Amenti, or Hades . . . . . ib
Actions of deceased persons recorded by Thoth, and weighed by

Anubis in the scales of Truth .... 474
If found wanting, the soul is sent back to earth in the form of an

animal : if justified by its works, the soul is introduced by Horus

into the presence of Osiris . . • . ib

Osiris to be regarded as the " divine goodness " . . 475

Manner of his manifestation upon earth involved in mystery . ib

Speculative and allegorical character of the theory - ib

Symbolical figure of Osiris . . . • 476
Isis variously represented on the monuments, and often confounded

with Athor and other deities . - ■ . ib

Aegyptian ideas of Apis . . . • 477

Conclusion ...-•• 478

CHAPTER VI.

MANNEKS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

Exclusiveness of the Aegyptians prior to the Persian conquest . 480

Their manners and customs ancient and peculiar • 481

Aegyptian castes . . . • ' !

Two castes omitted by Diodorus . • • ^"

Ixii CONTENTS.

Seven castes in India, according to Megasthenes
The seven Aegyptian castes, according to Herodotus

I. The Priests, or Piromis

Colleges at Memphis, Thebes, Heliopolis, and Sais
Estates for their maintenance
Daily allowance of beef, geese, and wine
Fish and beans denied .
Shaved their bodies eveiy third day
Wore garments of Hnen, and shoes of byblus
Washed four times in 24 hom-s

II. The Soldiers, a military race, divided into the Hermotybies
and the Calasires ....

Chiefly quartered in Lower Aegypt

Not allowed to trade ....

Each man in possession of twelve acres of land
Royal body-guard composed of 2000 men, changed annually
Daily rations of 5 lbs. of bread, 2 lbs. of beef, and a quart of wine
Garrisons on the fi'ontiers ....
Five inferior castes, including the masses, very imperfectly distin-
guished by ancient writers .... 485
Every man obliged to show once a year that he lived by honest

means ...... ib

III. The Herdsmen probably included husbandmen, nomades,

and the marshmen of the Delta . . . ib

IV. The Swineherds, a Pariah caste . . ' , 486

V. The Traders, probably included several subdivisions, which

were all hereditary . . . . . ib

VI. The Interpreters, first originated in the reign of Psam-
mitichus . , . . . , ib

VII. The Steersmen, or navigators of the Nile , . 487
Great extent of the river navigation . . . ib
Physical characteristics of the Aegyptians . . ib
Described by Herodotus as being swarthy and curly-headed . ib
Represented in the paintings as being of a red-brown colour ib
Probably brown like the modern Copts . . ib
Different complexions of the people . . . ib
Hair of the mummies either crisp or flowing . . 488
Average height . . . . . ib
Fulness of the lips, and elongation of the eye . . ib
Intermediate between the Syro- Arabian and the Aethiopian type ib
Good health of the Aegyptian people . . . ib
Thickness of their skulls . . . . ib
Population of Aegyjit .... 489
Manners and customs of the Aegyptians . . . ib
Singularly contrary to those of other nations . . ib
Herodotus's memoranda of the several contrasts . . ib
Markets attended by the women ... ib
The woof pushed downwards in weaving . . . ib

CONTENTS.

Ixiii

Burdens earned on men's heads and women's shoulders

Meals taken outside the house; . • •

No piiestesses

Daughters, and not sons, obhged to support their parents

Priests shave their heads . . . •

Laity leave their hair to grow whilst mourning for near relations

Live with animals . . . • •

Make their bread of spelt . . • ■

Knead with their feet . • . •

Circumcision practised . . . •

Rings and sail sheets fastened inside their boats .

Writing and ciphering from left to right

Dress of the Aegyptians, a Unen tunic, and white woollen mantle

Equipment of the marines in the navy of Xerxes

Social customs ....

Married only one wife . . . •

Mode of salutation ....

Reverence for the aged ....

Especial cleanliness

Scoured brazen cups, and wore clean linen

Circumcision ....

Regarded the Greeks as impure

Food of the Aegyptians

Beef . . . . •

Geese .....

All fish and birds not accounted sacred

Bread made of spelt, and called zea

"Wine from the grape, probably imported from Greece .

Phoenician palm wine, and wine made from barley

Radishes, onions, and garlic

Marshmen of the Delta lived on the lotus, the stalk of the byblui
and di'ied fish ....

Extracted an oil from the sUlicyprion, called kiki .

Strange custom of carrying round the image of a corpse at drink-
ing parties .....

Extraordinary preservation of a very ancient dirge, called Maneros,
which resembled the Greek Linus

Question as to whether it may not have originated in the death
of the first-born at the exode of the Israelites

Aegyptian manner of mourning for the dead

Embalming, a regular profession in Aegj^t .

Models kept by the embalmers of the three ditferent modes

Description of the most expensive style

Middle way of embalming

Cheapest method ....

Recovered bodies of persons killed by crocodiles, or di'owned in the
Nile, regarded as sacred, and embalmed in the best manner at
the pubhc expense . . . . •

Page

489
ib
490
ib
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ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
491
ib
ib
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ib
ib
ib
ib
492
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
493

ib
494

495
ib

496
ib
ib

498
ib

Ixiv CONTENTS.

Page

Art of medicine subdivided into numerous branches . 498

Purging generally practised .... 499
Science of geometry originated in the yearly re-measuring of the

land after the inundations . . . . ib

Character of the Aegyptian writing . . . ib
Two kinds of letters noticed by Herodotu?, the sacred, or hieratic,

and the common, or demotic . . . ib

General sketch of the three modes of Aegyptian writing . ib

I. The Hieroglyphic, including pictures representing objects,
pictures representing ideas, and pictures representing sounds . ib

II. The Hieratic, or sacred writing, a species of short-hand hiero-
glyphics . . . . . .501

III. The Enchorial, or common writing . . ib
Aegyptian mode of building the merchant barge, called a bans . ib
Hull formed of short planks, joined together like bricks . ib
Generally towed up stream . . . . 502
Down stream were tugged by a hurdle at the prow, and steadied

by a stone at the stern . . . . ib

Feticism of the Aegyptians .... ib

Animals did not abound in Aegypt, but were all considered sacred,

whether wild or domesticated . . . ib

Curators appointed over each species . . . ib

Maintained by the vows of parents . . . 503
The murder of an animal, if wilful, punished by death ; if acci-
dental, by a fine ; but the murderer of the Ibis, or hawk, always

executed . . . . . . ib

Cats sacred to Bubastis, or Pasht . . . ib
Number diminished by the males killing the kittens, and the cats

rushing into fires .... ib

Embalmed and buried at Bubastis .... 504

Dogs ...... ib

Ichneumons . . . . . . ib

Field-mice ..... ib

Hawks ... . . . .505

Bears ...... ib

The bird Ibis . . . . . . ib

Two species, the black and the white Ibis . . ib

Bulls sacred to Apis ..... 506

Cows sacred to Isis . . . . . ib

Burial of kine . . . . . . ib

No cattle killed by the Aegyptians . . . 507

Established mode of sacrifice . . . . ib

Crocodiles, Herodotus's description of their nature and habits 508

Singular affection for the trochihis . . . 509

AVorshipped in the neighbourhood of Thebes and Lake Moeris ib
Killed and eaten at Elephantine . . . .510

Caught by means of a hook baited with a chine of pork . ib

Hippopotamus . . . . . ib

CONTENTS. Ixv

} Page

Otters ....... 510

Lepidotus . . . ... . ib

Eel . . . . . . ib

Fox-goose . . . . . . ib

Phoenix, its picture as seen by Herodotus . . 511

Story told of it by the Heliopol'tans . . . ib

Horned serpents . . . . . 512

Fish, strange account of their generation . . . ib

Musquitoes infesting the marshes . . . ib

CHAPTER VII.

AETinOPIA.

Nile boat of Herodotus stopped at Elephantine . . 515

Further information collected from hearsay . . ib
General view of the courses of the rivers . . .516
The White Nile from the south-Avest, and the Blue Nile from the

south-east, unite at Khartoum, and subsequently receive the

waters of the Tacazze, from whence the single Nile proceeds

alone to Syene . . . . . ib
Lower Nubia, between Aegypt and the junction of the Nile with

the Tacazze . . . • • . ib
Upper Nubia — including Shendy, Halfay, and Sennaar — the

triangular tract formed by the Nile and the Tacazze . 517

Abyssinia, or Habesch, the base of the triangle . . ib

Surrounding country . ■ . • • . ib
Arabian chain on the east, Abyssinian mountains on the south,

and desert of Sahara, including Kordofan and Darfour, on

the west . . . • • . ib
Herodotus's description of the course of the Nile southwards of

Elephantine . . . . • . ib

Difficult navigation up the first cataract . . ih
Four days' voyage to the island of Tachompso . .518

Tast lake ...... ib

Forty (iays' journey along the banks . . . ib

Twelve days' voyage farther to Meroe . . . ib

Country of the Automoli . . • . ib

Macrobians on the South Sea . . . ib
Upper course of the Nile supposed to be from west to east, like

the Ister . . . . . . ib

River flowing in that direction discovered by the Nasamones 519

Comparison of Herodotus's account with modern geography , ib

Difficulty in identifying Tachompso and the lake . ib
City and kingdom of Meroe within the triangle of Shendy, formed

by the Tacazze and Blue Nile . . • . ib

Ixvi CONTENTS,

Pa ere

Autoraoli within the triangle of Sennaar, formed by the White

and Blue Niles . . . • .520

Macrobians . . . . • ib

River seen by the Nasamones, either that of Bomou or the Niger 521

Aethiopia of Herodotus, its wide signification . • ib

His description of the land and people . . . ib

Arab races in Aethiopia ..... 522

Three Aethiopian nations mentioned by Herodotus . ib

I. Aethiopians above Aegypt . . . . ib

Worship of Dionysus, and sacred city of Nysa . . ib

Nomades . . . . . . ib

Ichthyophagi ..... 523

Troglodytae . . . . . . ib

Conquests of Cambyses .... ib

Costume and equipment of the Aethiopians in the army of Xerxes ib

City of Meroe : worship of Zeus and Dionysus . . 524

II. The Automoli, distant a four months' journey from Elephan-
tine, and a two months' from Meroe . . . ib

Consisted of 240,000 deserters from the Aegyptian wanior caste ib

Question as to whether settled on the White or the Blue Nile ib

Blue Nile, the true Nile of the ancients . . . ib

III. Macrobian Aethiopians, the tallest and handsomest of man-
kind . . . . . .526

Ichthyophagi envoys sent by Cambyses . . ib

Reply of the king . . . . . ib

His remarks upon the different presents sent by Cambyses . ib

Longevity of the Macrobians . . . . ib

Fountain of exquisite water, like oil . . . ib

Prison fetters of gold ..... 527

Sepulchres of crystal .... ib

Table of the sun . . . . . ib
Macrobians identified by Heeren with the Galla and Somauli

tribes, but by Cooley with the Automoli . . . ib

Proofs in favour of the latter theory . . . 528

Table of the sun, an old Aegyptian festival . . . ib
Resemblance between the modern iniiabitants of Sennaar and the

ancient Aegyptians .... 529

CHAPTER VIII.

LIBYA PROPER.

Extent of the Libya Proper of Herodotus . . . 532

Face of the countiy . . . . ib
The Kong Mountains, basin of the Niger, and Mountains of the

Moon . . . . . . . ib

CONTENTS.

Ixvii

Great plain spreading from the Kong Mountains northward to the
Mediterranean

Supposed by Herodotus to consist of three belts, viz. 1st, Inhabited
country along the coast ; '2nd, Wild Beast country of the Atlas
and 3rd, Sandy Waste, or desert

Corresponding to the modern names of Barbary, Beled-el-Jered
and Sahara . .

FmsT Belt, or Inhabited country

General description

Occupied, according to Herodotus, by three races, viz. Greeks,
Phoenicians, and Libyan nomades

Four divisions of country occupied by four races, viz. Gyrene by
the Greeks ; Carthage by the Phoenicians ; Tripoli and Tunis
by the Libyan nomades ; and Morocco and Algiers by the Li-
byan husbandmen

Necessity for placing the Libyan husbandmen in the Second Belt,
or Wild Beast region ....

I. Cyrene .
General description of the country .
Herodotus's account of the colonization of Cyrene .
Theraeans under Corobius reach the Libyan Platea
Pass over to the continent, and settle in Aziris
Remove to Cyrene ....
Increase in numbers . . ...
Divided into three tribes by Demonax
Lands and the office of priesthood assigned to the king
Connexion between the Cyrenaeans, Libyans, and Aegyptians
Three harvests of Cyrene
The Cyrenaean lotus
Topographical notices
Cyrene, containing the statue of Aphrodite sent by Ladice, and

that of Athene sent by Amasis
Fountain of Thestes in Irasa
Leucon ....
Hill of the Lycaean Zeus
Barca founded by emigrants from Cyrene
Inhabitants transplanted to Barca in Bactria

II. Libyan Noivlvdes
Extended fi'om Aegypt westward to Lake Tritonis, or the Lesser

Syrtis ......

The Lake Tritonis of later writers identified with the salt lake of

El Sibkah in Southern Tunis ....
Character of the country of the nomades
Its zoolog}^, according to Herodotus
Attempted identifications by modern naturalists
Division of the nomades into twelve nations .
Their general manners and customs

e 2

Page

533

534

536
ib
ib

537
ib
ib
ib

53^
ib
ib

539
ib

540
ib

ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib
541

ib
542

ib
543

Ixviii CONTENTS.

Page

Abstained from the flesh of cows and swine . . . 543
Cauterized the heads of childi-en four years old, either on the crown

or the temples . . . . . ib

Extraordinary good health .... ib

"Worship of the Sun and Moon, and of Athene, Triton, and Po-
seidon . . . . . . ib

Greeks derived from them the aegis of Athene, the festival ex-
clamations in the temples, and practice of four -horse chariot

driving . . . . . . 544

Libyan mode of interment .... ib

The Twelve Nations . . . . . ib

1. Adyrmachidae, who followed Aegyptian customs, but were
otherwise filthy and slavish . . . . ib

2. Giligammae, opposite the Libyan Platea, the first region of

the silphium plant ..... 545

3. Asbystae, inland of Cyrene, who drove four-horse chariots, and
followed CjTenaean customs . . , . . 546

4. Auschisae, including the Cabales, dwelt near the Hesperides,

and followed Cyrenaean customs . . . ib

5. Nasamones, a powerful nation on the Syrtis, who during sum-
mer removed to Augila . . . . ib

Fed on locusts, and had their women in common . 54/

In swearing, laid their hands on tombs . . . ib
In divining, slept on the sepulchres, and accepted their dreams as

oracles . . . . . . ib

Pledged their faith by drinking out of each other's hands . ib

Buried their dead in a sitting posture . . . ib

Lived in portable huts, made of basket-work . . ib

6. Psylli, who made war on the south wind, and were biuied in
sands blown from the Sahara . . . 548

7. Garamantes, who properly belonged to the oasis of Fezzan . ib

8. Macae, who occupied the banks of the Cinyps, which was

the best corn land in the world . . - , ib

9. Gindanes, whose women wore an ancle ring for every lover 549

10. Lotophagi, who hved on cakes made from the farinaceous

part of the fruit of the Rhamnus Lotus . . 550

11. Machlyes, who dwelt on the right bank of the river Triton ib
Argonautic legend connected with this locality . . 551

12. Auses, who lived on the left bank of the river Triton . ib
Worshipped a native goddess corresponding to the Athene of the

Greeks . . . . . . ib

Lived apart from their women, whom they had in common . 552

III. Carthage . . • • . ib

General description of the country . . . ib

City situated on a peninsula at the bottom of the Gulf of Tunis ib

Boundaries of the Carthaginian empire . . ■ 553
Jealousy of the people an effectual bar to the progress of gco-

gi'aphical science .... ib

CONTENTS. Ixix

Page

Herodotus's ignorance of Carthage - • . 554

Second Belt, or Wild Beast region, or Beled-el-Jered . il>

General description . . • • . ib

According to Herodotus, included the Libyan husbandmen . 555

Three nations of husbandmen . . . . ib

1. Maxyes, who wore a tuft on the right side of then- heads, and
daubed themselves red . . » . ib

2. Zaveces, whose women di'ove the war chariots . ib

3. Gyzantes, who subsisted on honey and monkeys . . ib
Island of Cyraunis, now called Karkenah and Gherba . 556
Lake from which gold-dust was obtained by dipping in feathers

smeared with pitch .... ib
Geography of Western Africa further illustrated by two stories

told by Herodotus .... ib
Carthaginian story of the dumb barter carried on with the natives

of the gold coast . ... . 557

Persian story of the voyage of Sataspes . . . ib

Third Belt, of Sandy Waste, or the Sahara . . 558

General description . . . . . ib
Basin of the Niger and the Kong Mountains to the south of the

Sahara ...... ib

Herodotus's account .... 559

Sandy ridge stretching from the Aegyptian Thebes to the Pillars

of Heracles, and containing a chain of inhabited salt hills,

at intervals of ten days' journey between each . . ib

Five nations of salt hills mentioned by Herodotus . ib

1. Ammonians, who possessed a temple to Zeus, the ram-headed

god of Thebes, and a hot spring sacred to Helios . ib
Neighbom-ing city of Oasis in the Island of the Blessed, in-
habited by Samians .... 560

2. Augilae, whose date country was visited by the Nasamones ib

3. Garamantes, who covered the earth with salt before culti-
vating it, and possessed kine walking backwards . . ib

Hunted the Aethiopian Troglodytae . . . ib
Included a timid tribe, who shunned all other men, and had

neither weapons nor knew how to fight ■ . 561

4. Atarantes, who had no names, and cursed the sun . . ib

5. Atlantes, who ate no meat and dreamed no dreams . ib
Description of Mount Atlas . . . . ib
The salt mine where the houses were built of blocks of white and

purjile salt . . . . . . ib

Actual extent of Herodotus's personal knowledge in Libya, and

sources of his information . . . . ib

Visited Cyrene, and the neighbouring Libyan nomades . 562

Collected information from the nomades . . . ib

Could not have reached Carthage . . . ib

Obtained information however from Carthaginian travellers . ib

IxX CONTEjSTS.

Page

General ignorance of Western Africa . . . 563
His description of the chain of salt hills in the Sahara derived
from doubtful information, collected at Thebes from a variety

of sources . . . . . . ib

Attempt to identify the people and places on the modern map ib
Narrative of Herodotus probably refers to the caravan route to-
wards the interior .... ib

1st station — Ammonium . . . . . 564

Identified with Siwah .... ib

Twenty days' journey from Thebes . . . ib
Intermediate station at El Wah, supposed to be omitted by He-
rodotus . . . . . . ib

2nd station — Augila .... 565

The great mart for dates . . . . ib

3rd station — Garamantes .... ib

Identified \vith Fezzan . . . . . ib

Station at Zuila twenty days' journey from Augila . . ib
Intermediate station at Zala, supposed to be omitted by Hero-
dotus . . . . . .566

Explanation of the people's placing salt upon the soil . ib

Horns of kine perhaps bent forwards by artificial means . ib
Hunting of the Troglodyte black men in the mountains of Tibesti
explained by the modern razzias for the kidnapping of the

villagers into slavery . . . . . ib

Timid race of Garamantes perhaps identical with the inhabitants
ofTerboo . . . . .567

4th station — Atavantes ..... 568

Route probably took a southerly direction towards Soudan and

Nigritia . . . . . . ib

Station perhaps to be identified with that at Tegerry . ib

5th station — Atlantes . . . . . ib

Position unknown ..... 569

Sources of Herodotus "s information mere caravan gossip . ib

Confusion respecting Mount Atlas . . . ib

Salt mine identified with the mines of Tegazah . . ib

Desert countr}' southward of the chain of salt hills . ib
Story told by Herodotus of an expedition of five Nasamones to a
large river flowing from west to east, and containing crocodiles,

and to a city inhabited by short black men . . ib

General credibility of the story . . . 571
Identification of the river with the Niger, and of the city with old

Timbuctoo . . . . • . ib

Conclusion ... . . • 572

CONTENTS. J XXI

Page

Appendix I. Travels of Herodotus ' . . . 573

II. Table of Herodotean weights, money, dry and liquid

measures, and measurements of length . . 577

III. General Jochmus's identification of the route taken

by Darius from the Bosphorus to the Danube . 578

IV. Voyage of Hanno, commander of the Carthaginians,

round the parts of Libya which lie beyond the
Pillars of Heracles, which he deposited in the tem-
ple of Cronos .... 579

Index . . . . , .583

ERRATA.

Page 27, line 33, for east read west.
45, 1, insert Helice.

103, 17, for former read agora.

109, 32, for of read to.
130, 1, for Augites read Angites.

132, 10, for Hellespont read Propontis.

233, 23, for natural read national.

244, 27, for south read north.

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

Map of The Ancient World to illustrate Herodotus, to face title-page.
Map of Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, etc., to illustrate Herodotus, to

be inserted between pages 26, 27-
Plan of The Battle of Plataea, to face page 70.
Plan of Thermopylae, to face page 81.
Plan of The Battle of Salamis, to face page 109.

GENERAL IKTRODUCTIOE

CHAPTER L

LIFE AND EDUCATION OF HERODOTUS.

Birth of Herodotus (b. c. 484). — Contemporary state of Greece. —
Period of his ti-avels. — Halicarnassus, its histoiy. — Herodotus removes to
Thurium. — Extent of his travels. — His general information, — Previous
state of geographical science. — Homer, his notions of the universe (b. c.
900). — Extent of his geographical knowledge. — Hesiod (b. c. 750). —
Aeschylus (b. c. 500). — Pindar. — Scylax of Caryanda.— Hecataeus of
Miletus. — ^Conjectures of philosophers passed over by Herodotws. — Re-
view of his old age.

Herodotus was born b. c. 484, at Halicarnassus, introd.
a Dorian colony on the south-western coast of Asia ^hap. i.

Minor. Biithof

The half century prior to his birth had been the Herodotus,
era of vast changes, political and social. The con-
quests of the early Persian kings had brought the raiy stTe°of
whole world of civilization, with the solitary excep- ^^reece.
tion of European Greece, under the unity of a single
sceptre. Hitherto the nations of the earth had been
as jealous as China, as inhospitable as Japan. But
now the feet of merchants were unfettered ; and 23hi-
losophic travellers obeyed their exploring instincts,
and carried the light of truth into the regions of
fable. Next came the invasions of Greece. Six
years before the birth of Herodotus the generals of
Darius were beaten back from Marathon. In the
fifth year of his infancy, the river-draining millions
of Xerxes entered Em-ope with sword and brand to
massacre and to destroy. Then came the fearful con-
flict, the struggle for lives and homes, lands and dei-
ties; but disciplined heroism and desperate valour
scattered the overwhelming armaments of Asia,

2 LIFE OF HERODOTUS. B. C. 484—408.

iNTROD. and Thermopylae and Salamis became immortal
CHAP. 1. nanies.

Peiiodofhis The swell from that great storm was yet angry,
travels. Hellas was yet smarting fr-om her scars, but exulting
in her victories, when Herodotus wandered forth to
see, to touch, and to explore. The story of the great
contest was still ringing in his ears, still rife in men's
mouths ; but the exact date is uncertain.^ The cir-
cumstances of his father and the character of his
mother are totally unknown ; and such faint glim-
merings of light as can be thrown upon his life and
education must be derived ft-om general history and
doubtful tradition.^
Haiicaruas- Halicamassus was a small Asiatic state, originally
sus^its IS- ]3giQ^gij;^g ^Q Q^Q Hexapolis, or confederacy of six
Dorian colonies, on the coast of Caria and the
neighbouring islands.^ It never attained historical
eminence, and shortly before the birth of Herodotus
had forfeited its privilege as a member of the Hexa-
polis, for having set the common laws of the con-
federacy at defiance.* Subsequently the govern-
ment of Halicamassus was united with that of the
neighboming islands of Cos, Calydna, and Nysi-
rus, under the dependent sceptre of the celebrated
Artemisia, who so faithfully served the cause of
Xerxes, and attracted the open admiration of the
historian.^ Wliilst the Greeks were following up
their brilliant successes by admitting the islands of
the Aegean into their confederacy, the little Carian

1 One fact has been brought forward by Dr. Dahlmann, to throw some
light upon the period of Herodotus's travels. Herodotus saw in Aegypt
the skulls of those who were slain by Inarus the Libyan (iii. 12). The
war in which Inarus was engaged lasted six years, viz. from B. c. 462 to
456. Now Herodotus was not likely to have entered Aegypt during this
bloody period, and especially could not have reached Memphis, where
the war raged for a considerable time. At the conclusion of the con-
test he must have been about twenty-eight, and we may therefore sup-
pose him to be in Aegypt in his thirtieth year. Life of Herod, ch. ii. § 2.

2 For a more detailed account of the times of Herodotus, see Dahl-
mann, life of Jferod. chap. i. § 3; also an excellent article on the
Philosophy of Herodotus, in Blackwood's Mag. Jan. 1842.

^ The Halicarnassians were colonists from the city of Troezene in
Argolis (vii. 99).
* i. 144. « vii. 99.

B. C. 484—408. LIFE OF HEEODOTUS. 3"

kingdom still adhered to Artemisia and her family, introd.
and would not desert her son and successor, chap. i.
Pisindelis, even when Cimon the Athenian was
frightening the whole coast of Asia Minor by his
exploits.

Under this iDcacefal dependence on existing" insti- Herodotus

X O I'GlllOVGS to

tutions, the boy grew into a young man ; but having Tiiurium
some time afterwards attracted the angry suspicions ^^ ^*^^^'
of Lygdamis, the son and successor of Pisindelis, he
escaped to the island of Samos. Here, according to
Suidas, he became acquainted with the Ionic dialect
and wrote his history, but the latter fact has been
ably disproved by Dahlmann. '' Subsequently,"
says Suidas, " he returned to Halicarnassus and
drove out the tyrant Lygdamis ; but afterwards,
seeing that he was disliked by his fellow-citizens, he
accompanied the Athenians, who were going out as
settlers to Thurium, as a volunteer. Here also he
died, and lies buried in the market-place." '

Herodotus was born about b. c. 484, as already Extent of
mentioned. yHe sailed to Thurium about b. c. 443,
when about forty years of age ; and he must have
lived some time after b. c. 408,^ and perhaps have
died about the age of eighty. His travels therefore

1 Suidas also adds, that some say Herodotus died at Pella in Macedo-
nia. A disquisition on this point however would be quite oat of place
in the present work. With respect to Lucian's statement, that Herodotus
when a young man recited his nine books before the assembled multi-
tude at Olympia, the whole has been so triumphantly refuted by Dahl-
mann that we may consider the matter as finally settled. The state-
ment indeed would probably never have been received as authentic,
were it not so gi'aceful and attractive, and above all so grateful to the
feelings of every writer whether of poetry or prose. Few authors would
not glow at the thought of being heard and appreciated by so vast an
audience.

^ These three dates are thus obtained. First, Pamphila, a female
writer, who in the time of the emperor Nero composed an historical work
abounding in valuable information, mentions that Herodotus was ex-
actly fifty- three years old at the commencement of the Peloponnesian
war (b. c. 431) : hence the date of his birth, B. c. 484. Secondly, the
colony sailed to Thurium twelve years before this war, i. e. B. c. 443.
Thirdly, Herodotus himself says, (i. 130,) " The Medes, whom Cyrus
made subject to the Persians, subsequently engaged in a rebellion, and
withdrew themselves fi-om allegiance to Darius, but were conquered and
again brought into subjection." This Darius was Darius Nothus, and
this re-subjugation occurred, according to Xenophon, in the four and
twentieth year of the Peloponnesian M^ar : that is, in b. c. 408.

B 2

4 LIFE OF HERODOTUS. B. C. 484—408.

iNTROD. were most probably undertaken in the first half of
CHAP. I. i^jg i{fQ^ r^j^d l^jg history written in his old age. The
places which he visited may be nearly all distin-
guished from those which he merely knew by hear-
say. Greece, her cities and her islands, and espe-
cially the scenes of her glorious victories over the
Persian, were all explored by the ardent geographer.
Xerxes' line of march ft'om the Hellespont to Athens,
together with the maritime regions of Thrace and
Scythia as far as the mouth of the Dnieper, (or Bo-
rysthenes,) were all duly noted. He passed through
Asia Minor, Phoenicia, and Syria, and reached the
cities of Babylon and Susa ; he also spent consider-
able time in Aegypt, and travelled southwards to
Elephantine, and probably as far to the west as
Cyrene. But no personal adventures are mentioned.
His presence at this or that place is only incidentally
alluded to by way of testimony, and though we may
catalogue the places he visited,' yet it is impossible
to follow in the order of his movements.
His general It is difficult to asccrtaiu the extent of geogra-
inormaion. ^j^^^^j^ knowlcdgc posscsscd by the Greeks when
Herodotus commenced his researches, but it is evi-
dent that he himself was but little acquainted with
the discoveries of others. His knowledge of the
universe was the result not of extensive reading, but
of personal experience ; and indeed the scarcity of
books prevented contemporary authors generally
from taking advantage of each other's labours. Ac-
cording to the standard of the age, however, He-
rodotus was a highly educated man. Pie was
thoroughly acquainted with the poems of Homer,^
and also cites the works of Hesiod,^ Aristeas,^ Ar-
chilochus,^ Alcaeus," Sappho,^ Solon,* Aesop, '^ Simo-
nides,'" Pindar,'^ Phrynicus,'^ and Aeschylus.'^ But
Hccataeus '* is the only prose writer whom he quotes
by name, and the most searching investigation can

1 See Appendix I., on the Travels of Herodotus.

2 Cf. Mure, Lang, cmd Lit. of Greece, Book iv. ch. iv, § 7-

3 ii. 53, 117; iv. 32. ^ iv. 14. « i. 12. « v. 95. ^ ii. 135.
8 v. 113. 3 ii. 134. '" v. 102; vii. 228. " iii. 38. '^ vi. 21.
" ii. 1.56. " ii. 143; vi. 137.

B. C. 484—408. LIFE OF HERODOTUS; 0

iind but few traces of a familiarity with the works of inthod.
other logog-raphers.' Especially it may be noticed '^"''''- '•
that the voyages of Hanno and Hamilcar along the
western coasts of Africa and Em^ope, were totally
unknown to him, although apparently performed
long before his time.

It will be necessary to glance at the previous state Previous
of geographical science. The greatest maritime ge^o|raphi-
people of antiquity were the Phoenicians, but com- <=*! science.
mercial jealousy induced them to conceal their dis-
coveries.^ On the other hand, the Greeks, whose
active curiosity and intellectual energy well fitted
them to open all the recesses of unexplored nature,
were as communicative as they were curious, and
preferred literary fame to the profits of a sordid
policy. The Homeric poems exhibit all the learning
of the time. To use the weighty testimony of Strabo,
Homer was the first who was well versed in geogra-
phy. A short sketch of his notions of the universe
and the extent of his knowledge may therefore be
desirable and interesting.

In the Homeric cosmography the earth is repre- Homer, his

, T i;TP ^^.^•' ,. . ^ ■, notions of

sented under the lorm oi an immense disc or circular the uni-
plain, SLUTOunded on all sides by the river '' Ocean." ^b^c. 900.
The solid vault of the firmament was composed of
metal, and rested upon the circumference of this
disc ; and beneath the disc was the corresponding
vault of Tartarus ; whilst at the extremity of the
ocean lay the Elysian plain, " where, under a serene

^ Dahlman, ch. vi.

^ An important question relative to the geographical knowledge pos-
sessed by the Phoenicians has been mooted by the late Dr. Brehmer of
Lubeck. That able scholar maintained that the geographical work of
Ptolemy, together with the accompanying charts usually attributed to
a certain Agathodaemon, who is said to have lived at Alexandria in the
fifth century, were in reality derived from Phoenician or Tyrian sources.
In other words, that Ptolemy, or, more properly speaking, his predecessor,
Marinus of Tyre, who lived but a short time before him, and whose
work he only coiTCcted, must have founded his geographical descriptions
and maps on an ancient Tynan atlas, representing in several plates or
tables the whole world as known to the Tyrians. The chief arguments
of Dr. Brehmer may be found in Appendix XII., "On the sources of
Ptolemy's Geogi-aphy," in Heeren's Asiat. Nations, vol. ii. Professor
Heeren has to some extent replied to them, though not always con-
clusively.

LIFE OF HEEODOTUS.

B. C. 484—408.

INTROD.

CHAP. I.

Extent of
his geogi-a-
phieal
knowledge.

sky, the favourites of Jove, exempt from tlie common
lot of mortals, enjoyed eternal felicity." Under the
vault of the firmament rolled the sun and stars in
chariots borne by the clouds : down in the vault of
Tartarus were the abodes of the dead or caverns of
Hades, and the residence of the Titans, the enemies
of the gods, all alike impenetrable to the breath of
the gale or the light of heaven. One great difficulty
had to be overcome by an extravagant invention.
The sun appeared to rise from the eastern ocean, and
after performing his journey through the firmament
seemed to sink in the western waves. Accordingly
it was supposed that, on descending in the west, he
was received in a vessel of gold, fabricated by He-
phaestus, which conveyed him rapidly by the north
towards the east in time to re-commence his daily
jom-ney. The sea divided the terrestrial disc into
two portions. The northern continent was after-
wards named Europe ; the southern was called Asia,
but subsequently divided into Asia and Libya. The
Greeks probably considered Greece as sitiiated near
the centre of the disc ; but Homer has not disclosed
to us whether he himself believed this theory.

The real geographical knowledge of the Greeks
in the time of Homer may be fairly stated as not ex-
tending beyond Greece, Aegypt, Asia Minor, and
the islands.^ The regions east and south of these
limits were clouded by legend ; those on the north
and west were the pm-e creations of fancy. We may
regard those regions as legendary which were known
by the dim light of old traditions, handed down

1 In Greece the poet knew the names of all the various states, and of
Crete, Cyprus, and the isles of the Aegean. He was partiallyacquainted
with Macedonia, and had some knowledge of Thrace, including the na-
tions of the Mysi and Cicones. We even read of a Scythian nation, the
Hippomolgi, who Hvcd on milk and were the most just of mankind. In
Asia Minor he knew the Trojans, Maeones, and Carians, on the western
coast ; the I^ycians and Solymi on the south ; the Phrygians in the in-
terior ; the Caucones, Knetae, and Paphlagonians, on the north ; and
the Halizonians, Amazones, aiul Arimi or Arimaei on the cast. He also
knew Phoenicia, with the Sidonians and their chief town Sidon, and
Aegy]>t as far as Tliebcs. Tlic Nile he calls the river Aegyptus, and
makes Pharos one day's sail from its mouth ; but he neitherknew that
the Mediterranean and Red Seas were separated by the isthmus of
Suez, nor that the Nile fell into the sea through seven channels.

B. C. 484—408. LIFE OF HERODOTUS. 7

from father to son, of the ancient migrations of the introd.
Hellenic race from the lands of the rising smi. *^"^^- ^•
Wliether the Hellenes really came from the Punjab
and Himalayas to the shores of the Red Sea, and
thence through Aethiopia and Aegypt to the territo-
ries of the Pelasgi, is a question which cannot be
discussed here. Homer however was certainly aware
of the existence of black men, at the eastern ex-
tremity of the earth, for he says, Neptune visited
the Aethiopians, ''the farthest of men, who are di-
vided into two, some under the rising and some un-
der the setting sun." He also mentions the Erembi,
or Arabs, and the Lotophagi, or lotus-eaters, and
Pygmaei, or dwarfs, of Libya. The regions to the
westward stood in a very different relation. Greece
was nearly on the western verge of the world as it
was known to Homer, and the stream of mankind
was constantly flowing in a westerly direction.
Therefore the weak reflux of positive information
from that quarter exhibited little more than the
impulses of hope and superstition, and the straits
which separate Italy and Sicily are the portals
which conducted Homer to the realms of fancy. ^

Hesiod, lilce Homer, represents the river Ocean as Hesiod.
surrounding the earth. He describes Atlas as sup-
porting the vault of heaven, and alludes to the Ely-
sian plain as the islands of the blessed. His ac-

' Of Sicily, or Thrinacia, as he calls it, Homer had some faint know-
ledge; the names of the Sicani and Siculi had reached him, and the
account of the Cyclops is too true a picture of savage hfe to allow us to
suppose it a mere sketch of fancy. From Sicily, Ulysses pi-oceeded to the
isles of Aeolus, where he obtained a bag containing the winds, but on
the tenth day afterwards, when Ithaca was aheady in sight, his com-
panions cut the bag, and a hurricane drove the ship back to the isles of
Aeolus. Ulysses next reached the country of the Laestrygones, a race of
cannibals ; and it is historically important to observe that Homer places
these fairly in the region of the miraculous. He next arrives at Aeaea,
the island of Circe, from which he appears to lose sight altogether of the
land of certainty. The hero, receiving the instructions of Circe, crosses
the ocean to the shores of Proserpine. Sailing the whole day, he comes
at last to the ends of the ocean, where the Cimmerians dwell, wrapped
in profound gloom. Having here visited the infernal regions, he re-em-
barks, quits the ocean, and reaches the isle of Circe ; and in his voyage
homewards, he passes the Planetae or wandering rocks, escapes the
Sirens with the dangers of Scylla and Charybdis, and thus returns once
more within the circle of probability.

LIFE OF HERODOTUS.

B. C. 484—408,

INTROD.

CHAP. I.

Aeschylus.
B. c. 500.

Pindar.

Scylax of
Caryanda.

Hecatacus
of Miletus.

quaintance with the west was more extended ; and
in particular he mentions the Ligurians, who at that
time probably occupied the whole southern coasts of
Em^ope beyond Italy and as far as Spain. He no-
tices the island Erytheia at the influx of the ocean
into the Mediterranean, and gives to the Nile, which
Homer calls the Aegyptus, its proper designation.

In the succeeding age are to be found the same
general views. The circumfluent ocean appears in
Aeschylus. In the south we find a black nation, and
a river called the Aethiops, which may perhaps
answer to the Niger. Northward we get as far as
the Cimmerians of the Crimea ; and far above them,
the Arimaspi, the Griffins, and the Gorgons fill up
the back-ground of the pictm^e. Pindar about the
same time shows us that Sicily and the neighbour-
ing coasts of Italy were known and civilized. He
represents Aetna as a volcano, and names the Pillars
of Heracles at the entrance to the Mediterranean,,
and the Hyperboreans in the distant north.

The works of these authors, as we have already
seen, were known to Herodotus. He was also ac-
quainted with the survey of the river Indus conduct-
ed by Scylax of Caryanda at the command of Da-
rius ; ^ together with the works of a few minor
writers, of which nothing has been preserved beyond
a few fragments.

The most celebrated geographer, however, who
preceded Herodotus was Hecataeus of Miletus. Our
author frequently corrects his statements, and by so
doing recognises him as the most important of his
predecessors. Hecataeus wrote '' Travels round the
Earth," by which a description of the Mediterranean
Sea, and of southern Asia as far as India, was under-
stood. He also improved and completed the map of
the earth sketclied by Anaximander ; ^ and it was

^ iv. 44. See also the account of the river Indus in the body of the
present vohame.

^ Anaximander was also a native of Miletus, and wrote his little work,
" upon nature," in B. c. .547, when he was (54 years old, which may be
said to be the earliest philosophical work in the Greek language. He
possessed a gnomon, or sun dial, which he had doubtless obtained from

B. C. 481—408. LIFE OF HERODOTUS. 9

probably this map which Aristagoras carried to introd.
Sparta before the Ionian revolt, and upon which he ^hap^
showed king Cleonaenes the countries, rivers, and
royal stations along the great highway between
Sardis and Susa.^ The various points in which the
geography of Hecataeus ^ conies in contact with that
of Herodotus will be found further discussed in the
body of the work.^

Such then was the state of geograj^hical know- orphnJ^o-^
ledge prior to the time of Herodotus. The theories pherspassed
and conjectures of philosophers were but scarcely rodotus.
noticed by a traveller who based all his notions and
opinions upon personal experience and observation.
Herodotus wrote for the great body of the people,
and not for the schools, and it is this fact, probably,

Babylon, and made observations at Sparta, by which he determined ex-
actly the solstices and equinoxes, and calculated the obliquity of the
ecliptic. According to Eratosthenes, he was the first who attempted to
draw a map, in which his object probably was rather to make a mathe-
matical division of the whole earth, than to lay down the forms of the
different countries composing it. Miiller, Lit. of Greece.

1 V. 49.

2 A map of the extent of the geographical knowledge possessed by
Hecataeus is inserted by Klausen in his edition of the fragments of He-
cataeus, and copied with some modifications by Mure in the 4th vol. of
his Lan. and Lit. of Ancient Greece. It however contains exceedingly few
historical names, and scarcely anything that will illustrate the geogi-aphy
of Herodotus.

3 Herodotus frequently shows himself inclined to quarrel with Heca-
taeus. He sneers at his genealogy of sixteen ancestors, of which the
sixteenth was a god (ii. 143) ; at his describing the earth " round as if
from a turner's lathe " (iv. 36) ; at his making the Nile to flow from the
river Ocean (ii. 23), and the latter to flow round the earth (iv. 36) ; and
also quaintly jests with his predecessor's account of the Hyperboreans
(Ibid.), and of the man who carried an arrow round the earth, without
eating. On the other hand, Herodotus represents the political character
of Hecataeus in a very favourable light, as a sagacious councillor, an honest
patriot, and a man of action, especially free ft'om the superstitions of the
age. In the council convened by Aristagoras to concert measures for
the Ionian revolt, Hecataeus alone discountenanced the project on the
very simple ground of the overwhelming power of the Persian empire
(v. 36). Finding his remonstrances useless, he proposed to seize the trea-
sures in the temple of Apollo at Branchidae as the best means of replen-
ishing the military chest. This proposal was also rejected. Subse-
quently he advised Aristagoras to fortify the isle of Leros as a central
military and naval station, but this also was overi-uled. An inscription
however has been recently discovered in the island, by which Hecataeus,
whether the historian or some of his descendants, is specially honoured
as a founder or benefactor by the Lerians. Cf. Mure, Lan. and Lit. of
Anc. Greece, Book iv. ch. iii. § 2.

LIFE OF HERODOTUS.

B. C. 484-408.

INTROD.

Review of
his old ase.

which gave rise to the story of his reciting his his-
tory at Olympia. Unlike Thales and his successors,
he made no effort to discover the origin and princi-
ple of the universe, and even his inquiries respect-
ing the causes and varieties of climate are charac-
terized by the most childlike simplicity, which must
even have appeared ridiculous in the eyes of his more
scientific contemporaries. In short, he evidently
indulged in no such experiments or laborious
investigations into the inner secrets of nature, as
we may suppose to have been carried out by the
Chaldees of Babylon, or Rabbinical sages of the
Jewish schools, but contented himself with the most
superficial glances at the external world around him.
These however belong to the next chapter.

At last we contemplate Herodotus in falness of
years and all his labours completed, settled in calm
retirement in Thurium on the Gulf of Tarentum.
He was doubtless held in the highest respect by all
the citizens, as one of the fathers of the colony.
Here he had worked up his collected materials, and
some of the illustrations of his descriptions are bor-
rowed from the neighbouring localities.^ His life
extended considerably into the Peloponnesian war,
and the old man must have seen his father-land ex-
hausting itself in internal quarrels. But the records
of these find no place in his history. The glorious
events of his early youth, and the marvellous results
of his travels, filled his capacious memory, and alone
occupied his attention. His eye could follow the
sun in its daily course from the far east to the le-
gendary west, and even in its supposed winter pro-
gress over the arid sands of Aethiopia. At the same
time the mysterious and distant nations upon which
it shone, — the steppes of Scythia, the table-lands of
Asia, the oases of Africa, the Caspian and Euxine
Seas, and all the vast territories between the Nile
and the Tanais, the Indus and the Pillars of Hera-
cles,— all passed before his mental vision like a map
of wonders, a map of old memories and youthful

' iv. 15, 99.

B.C. 484-408. LIFE OF HERODOTUS. 11

enterprise. Here then we might pause for a mo- introd.
ment, and imagine ourselves sitting at the feet of •^«^^- ^•
the lively traveller and impressive moralist ; and in
this happy mood will we endeavour to appreciate, as
far as in us lies, the immortal encyclopaedia of the
wise old Thurian.

CHAPTER II.

THE WOELD AND ITS DIVISIONS.

INTE,OD.

CHA.P. II.

The winds
considered
as funda-
mental
powers of
nature.

The winds considered as fundamental powers of nature. — Regarded
as peculiar properties of the soil. — Heat and cold at different periods of
the day referred to the sun. — General simplicity of Herodotus's ideas. —
Early attempts to describe the earth's circumference. — Opinions of He-
rodotus upon the subject. — Extent of his knowledge. — Divisions of the
earth. — Separation of Europe and Asia. — Separation of Asia and Libya.
— Seas bounding the earth's extremities. — Mediterranean. — Atlantic. —
Erythraean. — Voyages of Sesostris and Sataspes.

Heeodotus considered the fandamental powers of
nature to lie in tlie winds, wliicli blew from different
quarters. The earth and the heaven above it fall
into two divisions, which are ruled by two great
counter-forces, heat and cold, the fierce Boreas and the
voluptuous Notes. ^ It was not any distance from the
sun, but the north and easterly winds, which radi-
ated cold and frost. On the other hand, it was the
south wind from Aethiopia, and not at all the sun,
which radiated heat. The north winds were the
most important and powerfal. In the winter they
were called the Borean, in the summer the Etesian.^
They decided the ecliptic. During the summer the
sun stood in the centre of the heavens. As winter
approached it was driven into the south by the blasts
of Boreas ; and there it remained until the mild
Etesian winds of returning summer again permitted
it to resume its central position. The southern half
of the world was thus especially favoured, for the
sun was never driven into the northern or uj)per
division. During the mild season of summer, and
whilst the sun occupied the centre of the heavens, it
drew uj) the water from the various rivers, and bore
it away in its wintry journey into the south. Here

' ii. 26. Cf. 24, 25.

2 vi. 140; vii. 16S.

THE WOELD AND ITS DIVISIONS. 18

the winds caught up the water and scattered it in introd.
mist ; hence the south and south-west winds brought '^"^^- ^-
the most rain. Herodotus brings forward this attrac-
tive power of the sun, as an explanation of the phe-
nomenon of the swelling of the Nile ; and he thinks
that the Ister (or Danube) would overflow its banks
in a similar manner if the sun ever ascended into the
northern division.^

It must be here remarked, that whilst Herodo- Regarded as
tus considered severity or mildness of climate to be properties
dependent upon the winds, he also regarded them of^^^^^t^es.
as peculiar properties of countries, in the same way
as fertility or barrenness of soil. He had observed
the very different temperatures of countries under
the same latitude, and therefore said that Scythia
was cold, because cold winds prevailed there which
engendered frost and snow, and this because the
northern blasts of Boreas invariably brought frost
into Greece, wdiilst the south wind dissolved it.^ He
also says that Greece was supremely blessed because
of the happy temperature of her climate, a fortunate
mingling of the cold blasts of Boreas with the warm
breath of the too voluptuous Notes. ^

But notwithstanding this theory, Herodotus was Heat and
shrewd enough to ascribe the warmth or coldness of ferent peri-
different times of the day to the direct heat of the "^^y referred
sun. Amongst the Indians in the far east the morn- to the sun.
ing was the hottest, because they dwelt the nearest
to the place where the sun rose. Accordingly at
sunrise they were obliged to stand in water on ac-
count of the excessive heat, but as the orb of day
moved towards the west, the heat gradually dimin-
ished, until at length the night approached with a
corresponding coldness."^ It is here curious to ob-
serve how our author has evidently built his no-
tions upon some vague accounts which may have
reached him of the manners and habits of the na-
tions beyond the Indus, ^ the morning lustrations in

^ ii. 24 — 27. Comp. chapter on Aegypt.

2 iv. 28. 3 iii. 106. Cf. Bobrik, Geoyraphie des Herodot. * iii. 104.
* These accounts were probably the result of the expedition to survey
the Indus undertaken by Scylax of Caryanda (iv. 44).

14 THE WOKLD AND ITS DIVISIONS.

iNTROD. the rivers, and the custom of travelling by night,
CHAP. II. mingled possibly with some genuine information re-
ceived from the inhabitants of the coast, where the
heat is most intense fr'om sunrise in the morning
until the forenoon, when the sea-breezes set in.
General Indccd tlio Origin of om- author's scientific opin-

He£dotus°I ions would generally be sooner discovered and un-
ideas. derstood by a child, for they lie on the very surface

of things. They were the results of the first popular
efibrt to trace the simple operations of nature to a
natm^al cause, rather than to the direct interposition
of diflferent deities.^ And we may close these re-
marks by observing, that whilst Herodotus mentions
solar eclipses,^ he carefrilly avoids attempting any
explanation, partly perhaps from a total want of
scientific data, and partly from a disinclination to
follow the vulgar and superstitious ideas which
must have been generally prevalent down to a much
later period.^
Early at- With rcspcct to tlic circumfercnce and figure of

deTcnbe the the cartli, we have already seen that long before the
cumference. '^^6 of Horodotus many Greeks had endeavoured to
determine both within a very moderate compass.
As knowledge advanced these limits gave way, and
Herodotus amuses himself at the folly of those who
still professed to assign a definite circmnference,
vrithout any knowledge whatever of the frontiers.
''I must laugh," he says, "when I see how many
persons have drawn the entire circle of the earth,
without either sense or understanding. They de-
scribe the Ocean as flowing round the earth, which
is made circular as if by a turner's lathe, and they
represent Asia as equal with Em^ope."^ . . . . " The
Greeks on the Pontus say that the river Ocean be-
gins at the place where the sun rises, and that it
flows round the whole earth, but they do not prove
it."^ . . . . " The person (Hccataeus) who speaks

I vii. 129, 191. 2 vii. 37; ix. 10.

' It is almost unnecessary to draw the reader's attention to the lunar
eclipse which frightened Nicias in Sicily. Thucyd. vii. 50.
< iv, 36. 5 iv. 8. Comp. ii. 21.

THE WORLD AND ITS DIVISIONS. 15

about tlie Ocean, since he has referred his account introd.
to some obscure fable, produces no conviction. I '^"^'•- "•
know of no such river at alL Homer, perhaps, or
some of the earlier poets, finding the name, intro-
duced it into poetry." ^

Herodotus doubtless considered the earth as a ^Sotuf
plane, and we shall find as we proceed to develope on the sub-
his stock of geographical knowledge, that he knew •'*''^*'
enough of the form of the south at least to under-
stand that its outline presented no segment of a
circle towards the vast continent of waters which he
calls the Erythraean Sea. But though he rails at
the ignorance of those who endeavoured to describe
the earth's external boundaries, yet we may regard
his objections merely as so many sarcasms against
his predecessor Hecataeus ; and probably also at
the popular notion of drawing the earth as round as
a chariot-wheel, and in no other way. Niebuhr, how-
ever, deduces from his railing, and from his ignor-
ance of any sea towards the north, ^ that he con-
sidered the earth as a boundless plain. But it must
be remembered that, in another place, ^ Herodotus
relates, without any remark whatever, that when
Aristogoras proceeded to Sparta for assistance in
carrying out the Ionian revolt, he took with him a
brazen tablet upon which was engraved a map of
the "entire circuit of the world," with all its seas and
rivers. Herodotus also adopted the obscure popular
belief that the earth was bounded by the ether of
Zeus ; * though this last remark may be understood
as a mere expression of the Persian ideas upon the
subject.

The limits of the world of Herodotus may be thus §f ^^o,"!
briefly stated. The Erythraean^ formed the southern ledge.
boundary, and the Atlantic the western.^ Of north
and north-western Europe, beginning at the Pillars
of Heracles, (or Gibraltar,) he knew nothing : he did
not admit that a river called Eridanus discharged

^ ii. 23. ^ iv. 45. Niebuhr, Diss, on the Geog. of Herod.

3 V. 49. * vii. 8.

5 The Erythraean included the Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, Arabian
Gulf or Red Sea, and probably the Atlantic. ^ i. 202.

16 THE WOELD AND ITS DIVISIONS.

iNTROD. itself into a northern sea/ thougli he may have sup-
CHAP. II. posed a northern shore to be washed by the mysteri-
ous billows of an unknown ocean, for he says on the
authority of Aristeas, that the Hyperboreans reached
•to the sea ; ^ subsequently, however, he almost denies
their existence.^ On the north-east the impassable
mountains of the Altai range,* and the gold-guard-
ing griffins, prevented his obtaining more than
fabled accounts of the cold and dreary regions of
Siberia ; and lower down along the eastern frontier,
the great sandy desert^ of Gobi or Shamo, in Chinese
Tartary, and the desert east of the Indus, stretch-
ing from Moultan to Gruzerat, bafEed all further in-
vestigation. Thus the world of Herodotus was
bounded on three sides by sea and on the foiu-th by
desert.
S^JtS °^ '^^^ divisions of the earth seem also to have at-
tracted the attention of philosophers at a very early
period. The Persians, in the true oriental spirit of
uninquiring indolence,'' looked upon Africa as a
part of the body of Asia which belonged to them,
and upon Euroj)e as a portion intended for them,
but in which the Greeks were pleased to play the
master.^ The Greeks, on the other hand, divided the
earth into three portions, called after the names of
three females, viz. 1. Eueope, from Europa of Tyre.
2. Asia, from Asia the wife of Prometheus. 3.
Libya, from a native woman of that name. This
division appears very capricious to Herodotus. " He
cannot reconcile it with the natural oneness of the
earth ; he cannot see why some should have assigned
the Aegyptian river Nile as a line of separation be-
tween Asia and Libya, and the Colchian river
Phasis, (or Rhion,) or, as some said,^ the Tanais, (or
Don,) and the Cimmerian Bosphorus, as a line of
separation between Europe and Asia. He also

1 iii. 115. 2 iv. 13. 3 iv, 32. 4 j^. 25. « iii. 98, 102.

" Dahlmann, Life of Herod, ch. v. § 1. '' i. 4; vii. 8.

* Asia is divided from Europe hy the Tanais, says Strabo, Pliny, and
Diodorus. Africa is contained between the Nile and the Pillars of He-
racles ; Asia between the Nile and Tanais, says Polybius. See Pliny,
lib. iv. c. 12; Diod. lib. i. c. 4 ; Polyb. lib. iii. c. 4, quoted by Rennell.

THE WORLD AND ITS DIVISIONS. 17

cavils at the arbitrary names of these three conti- introd
nents. He says that, according to the Lydians, Asia chap. h.
was called after Asins ; hence a tribe in Sardis was ^

called the Asian tribe. Also that Europa of Tyre
never entered Europe at all, but only passed from
Phoenicia to Crete and Lycia. He would indeed
have been better pleased with the twofold division,
after the Persian fashion, into Europe and Asia ;
but he contented himself with bringing forward
these objections, and then following the common
usage of the Greeks by adopting the three names of
Europe, Asia, and Libya.*

The line of separation, however, between the separation
three continents occasioned another d.ifficulty. The anf A^iaf
Grreeks, as we have already mentioned, were divided
in opinion as to whether the Phasis, (or Rhion,) or
the Tanais, (or Don,) was the proper separation be-
tween Europe and Asia. Herodotus extended
Europe eastward to the utmost bounds of his know-
ledge, and therefore made the river Phasis, (or
Rhion,)^ which runs between the Euxine and the
Caspian, the line of division, and probably con-
tinued it by an imaginary line, eastward of the
Caspian, along the river Araxes,^ thus placing Asia
on the south instead of on the east of Europe. In
the geographical arrangement of the present day, the
boundary line between the two continents is formed
by the range of Mount Caucasus, which may be re-
garded as almost the same as the course of the
Phasis, but then, instead of going eastward, the line
runs towards the north along the Ural mountains
and course of the river Ural.* The Europe of Hero-

1 iv.45 ; Dahlmann, Life of Herod, v. 1. ^ iv. 37, 3S.

^ iv. 40. This was the eastern Araxes, or the Jaxartes, the modern
Sirr-deria. The difficulty respecting this river is explained in another
place. See Index, Araxes.

* Believing themselves to be permanently separated by the sea, the
European naturally included in his Europe, and the Asiatic in his Asia,
the discoveries made by each along the northern and southern shore of
the Euxine ; till in their progress, they met on the banks of the Phasis
and Araxes, which thence became the first arbitrarily assumed line of
demarcation. Even in the time of Herodotus, however, this division was
growing uncertain, and a line formed by the Cimmerian Bosphorus, the
Palus Maeotis, and the Tanais was superseding it. This line was sub-

THE WORLD AND ITS DIVISIONS.

INTROD.

CHAP. II.

Separation
of Asia and
Libya.

dotus therefore included the whole of Russia in Asia
and a large portion of Independent Tartary or
Turkestan.

In dividing Asia from the continent of Libya/ the
great difficulty lay in the fact that the Greeks were
ignorant of the real size and extent of the Arabian
Gulf, which we call the E-ed Sea. Herodotus himself
was apparently only acquainted with the western
arm, which we call the Gulf of Suez, and therefore
supposed that the whole sea was equally narrow,
and only half a day's sail across. Of the outlet into
the Persian Gulf through the Straits of Babel-mandeb
he could have had but the vaguest notion, and he
regarded the eastern coast of Africa, between the
Nile valley and the Red Sea, as belonging to Arabia.
Accordingly the Greeks took the river Nile as the
line of separation, and generally agreed in divid-
ing Aegypt into two j)arts, of which the eastern be-
longed to the Asiatic continent, and the western to
the Libyan. The Ionian geographers however en-
tertained the opinion that the Delta alone comprised
Aegypt Proper, and that all south, of Cercasorus
where the Nile divides, belonged partly to Arabia
and partly to Libya. But Herodotus rejected this
division, and considered that the frontier of Aegypt
formed the boundary between the two continents,
though he does not say whether he meant that on
the eastern or that on the western side.^ At the
same time he jested at the theory of the lonians, who
assigned to a people as ancient as the Aegyptians, a
country with an alluvial soil, which could only have

sequently universally adopted as the eastern limit of Europe. Little or
nothing was known of this region during the middle ages, and when the
arms of Russia laid it open to observation, the winding course of the
Don, (or Tanais,) with which the ancients were imperfectly acquainted,
betrayed the geographers of the last century into an inextricable laby-
rinth of contradictions and absurdities. At length the academy of St,
Petersburg fixed the present boundary. Comp. MacCulloch, Geog.
Dictionary.

' Libya was a name sometimes applied by Herodotus to western
Africa, and sometimes to the entire continent. See Libya.

'^ See also the introduction to the geogi-aphy of Libya.

THE WORLD AND ITS DIVISIONS. 19

been brought into existence within a comparatively introd.
recent 23erio(i.' ^"-'^^- "•

Herodotus thus, after many demurs, adopted the "
threefold division of the earth, viz. 1. Europe,
divided from Asia by the river Phasis (or Rhion).
2. Asia, separated from Libya by the frontier of
Aegypt. 3. Libya. He thus makes Em-ope as large,
if not larger, than all that was known to him of Asia
and Libya put together.^

The various seas navigated by the Greeks Hero- seasbound-
dotus describes as far as he is able ; ^ but of those vast "afth's ex-
waters which washed the west and southern coasts of tremities.
the ancient world, he could know nothing beyond
wild traditions, which he cared not to repeat. He
passes over with a dignified silence worthy of the
historic muse, the fabled isles of Aeolus or of Circe,
the Elysian plain, or ever-receding Hesperides, and
he contents himself with the barest possible mention
of names. The Mediterranean he frequently men- Meditena-
tions as 'Hhis sea " — v^^ y edXacxcra^^ but gives no fur- '^^'''^'
ther account of it whatever ; for the ancient Phoeni-
cian merchants, and others, who must have explored
the whole length of the sea in their voyages to
Gades and Tartessus, were induced by commercial
jealousy to conceal their discoveries. The Atlantic Atlantic.
he also mentions as being the same sea as the Eryth-
raean, or at any rate connected with it. Under
the name of the Erythraean or Red Sea, he com- Erythraean
prises the whole expanse of waters between Arabia
and Africa on the west, and India on the east, in-
cluding the two great gulfs of Arabia and Persia.^
The rocks of porphyry on the Aegyptian side of the
Arabian Gulf supplied a natm-al cause for this appel-
lation, throwing out their red colour far into the
sea ; and the Persians to this day retain the anti-
thesis by calling the Mediterranean the White Sea.
There may also be some connexion between the name
of Erythraean and that of Edom, which signifies

1 ii. 17; iv. 41. 2 Comp. iv. 42. ^ See Europe, chap. i.

* iv. 41. 5 i. 202.

c 2

20 THE WORLD AND ITS DIVISIONS.

iNTROD. " red," and was applied by tlie Jews to the coim-
CHAP. II. try bordering on the north of the Arabian Gulf. " And
Solomon made a navy of ships ... on the shore of
the Red Sea, in the land of Edom." ^
Voyages of In conclusion we may just mention, that, accord-
iatasper'^'^ iug to the Aogyj^tian priests, Sesostris was the first
who set out with a naval armament from the Arabian
Gulf, and conquered the nations on the coast of the
Erythraean ; but he is said to have been subsequently
stopped by shallows and obliged to retm-n.^ The
Carthaginians also relate that Sataspes, being order-
ed by Xerxes, as a punishment, to circumnavigate
Libya, sailed through the Pillars of Heracles, and
doubled the Libyan cape Soloeis, but his ship was
also stopped and he was compelled to return.^

1 1 Kings ix. 26, quoted by Major Rennell. ^ [{ io2.

3 iv. 43.

EUROPE.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL SURVEY.

Extent of Herodotus's knowledge. — Western Europe. — Region north
of the upper course of the Ister. — -Region north of the lower course of
the Ister. — Caravan route over the Ural. — Nations on the frontier to-
wards Asia. — Nations south of the lower course of the Ister. — Seas of
Europe. — Pontus Euxinus. — Palus Maeotis (Maeetis). — Propontis, — Cas-
pian.— Adriatic. — Ionian.

The geography of tliat vast territory which He- Europe.
rodotus included under the name of Europe, is only chap. i.
partially described or briefly noticed in his history. ^^^^7of~
The Alpine mountains, which encompass Italy and Herodotus's
the Adriaticin a semicircular bulwark, were unknown ^°''^ ^^'°'^'
to him, as were also the Apennines, which run off
through the entire length of the Italian peninsula.
At the eastern extremity of the Alps, however, com-
mences the Balkan chain, which extends eastward
from the head of the Adriatic to the shore of the
Euxine, and is clearly alluded to under the names
of Haemus and Rhodope.^ Towards the south the
Balkan fills part of Thrace, and also Macedonia
and Greece, with its numerous ramifications. North-
wards of the Balkan Herodotus describes the Ister
or Danube, as traversing nearly all Europe from
west to east, and separating Thrace from Scythia ;
whilst still farther to the north and east are the
rivers of Scythia and mountains of the Ural and
Altai, which all find a place in the geography of
our author.

1 iv.49.

GENEEAL SURVEY.

EUROPE.

CHAP. I.

"Western
Europe.

The mapping out of tliis continent into tracts or
countries is a task which properly belongs to the fol-
lowing chapters, but for the sake of clearness it will
be advisable to take here a general survey of the
whole.

Of western Europe it is apparent that our author's
knowledge was exceedingly limited, and the region
is only mentioned in one or two passing observa-
tions. In the extreme west, on the coasts of Portu-
gal, were the Cynetae. Along the northern coasts
of Spain and France were the Celtae ; ^ and along
the southern coasts were the Iberians.^ The rocks
of Gibraltar and Ceuta were called the Pillars of
Heracles. Westward of them was the rich port of
Tartessus at the mouth of the Guadalquiver, and
also the islands of Erytheia and Gadeira.^ Along
the southern coasts of France and Sardinia were the
Elisyci^ and the Ligyes,^ and the Italian peninsula
was occupied by the Ombrici and Messapians.

From the Celtae rose the river Ister or Danube,
which flowed along in an easterly course to the Eux-
ister^°^*^^ ine,^ and thus cut Europe into two divisions. North-
ward of its upper course, the country was unknown,
and a single nation only is mentioned, namely, the
chariot-driving Sigynnes, who declared themselves
to be a Medic colony.^ From the river Eridanus
Herodotus had heard that amber was imported, but
he says that the very name of this river is Greek,
and not barbarian, and it must therefore be the in-
vention of some poet.^ Of the sea-coast beyond
he could learn nothing from eye-witnesses, but only
from poetry and hearsay.^ Of the islands called
Cassiterides,^'' (British Isles,) from whence the Greeks

Ilegion
north of the
upper

163,

iv. 8, 152.

1 ii. 33.

« vii. 165. 6 ii. 33. ^ v. 9.

** The name of Eridanus was subsequently applied by the Greeks to
the river Po, but Herodotus had evidently heard of some river of North-
ern Europe. It is idle to attempt to identify this Eridanus of our author.
Amber is now found in the greatest quantity at the mouths of the Oder
and Vistula.

'■> iv. 1.3.

'" The tin country here alluded to was evidently Cornwall. Had the
Phoenicians, who carried on the trade, been more communicative, we

GENERAL SURVEY. 23

obtained their tin, he candidly assures us he knew Europe.
nothing at all." chap. i.

Northward of the lower course of the Ister was ~.
Scythia, and the bordering nations of the Agathyrsi, north of the
Neuri, Androphagi, Melanchlaeni, Sauromatae, Bu- ofXeTster!
dini, and Greloni, all of which together occupied the
region eastward of the Theiss, and stretched beyond
the Tanais or Don. In the centre of the Scythian
sea-coast, at the mouth of the river Borysthenes, or
Dnieper, was the Greek port of Olbia, near the site of
the modern Cherson.^ From Olbia a caravan route Caravan
led northward into the interior, and then eastward, the urar
over the Ural chain to the feet of the Altai moun-
tains. The nations traversed by this route are de-
scribed by Herodotus, who apparently obtained his
information from travellers who had performed the
journey. Beyond these regions were the gold-find-
ing griffins, the one-eyed Arimaspi, the men with
goat's feet, and those who slept for six months at a
time, of whom Herodotus had heard some traditions,
or rather caravan stories, which seem to the modern
geographer to refer to Tartary and Siberia.

The frontiers of Europe in this direction were Nations on
formed by the river Araxes or Jaxartes, (now named JowSi?'^'
the Sirr-deria,) the Caspian Sea, the river Phasis '^*'^-
or Rhion, and the Euxine ; accordingly the continent
included the Massagetae of the Khirgis steppe and
the nations of Mount Caucasus.

Returning to the Ister and crossing to the south- Nations.
ern bank, we find the nations of Thrace, Illyria, lowercom-se
Macedonia, and Greece. This is the most important °^ ^'^ ^^*"'
region in the historical geography of Europe. Thrace
is cut in two by the Haemus, or Balkan range, which
runs from east to west. From the centre of this
range a large branch runs towards the south under
the name of Pindus, and throws out arms on every
side, until at length it loses itself among the ramifi-

should doubtless have had some peculiarly interesting account of the
ancient inhabitants of our island.

I iii. 115.

^ For further account with references, see Europe, chap. viii.

GENERAL SURVEY.

Seas of
Europe.

EUROPE, cations of Greece. The stem of Pindus thus cut off
CHAP. I. the Illyrian tribes on the west from Thrace and
" Macedonia on the east, whilst the two latter nations
were separated from each other by an arm which
Herodotus calls Moimt Dysorum. Lower down
a second arm of Pindus, kno^ai as the Cambunian
range, but called Mount Olympus by Herodotus,
formed the northern barrier of Greece ; and beyond
this point minor arms spread through the Greek
peninsula, sej)arating it into the various nations,
which we shall find necessary to survey at consider-
able length in a separate chapter.

Of the seas which Herodotus considered as be-
longing to Europe, he describes the Pontus Euxinus,
the Palus Maeotis, the Propontis, (with the Bospho-
rus and Hellespont,) the Caspian, the Adriatic, and
the Ionian ; and of these he himself measured the
extent of the Pontus, the Propontis, the Bosphorus,
and the Hellespont.

The Pontus Euxinus (or Black Sea) is a sea worthy
to behold, and of all seas the most wonderfully
formed. Its extreme length, from its mouth at the
Bosphorus to the river Phasis, (or Phion,) is 11,100
stadia ; and its breadth, in the widest part, from Sin-
dica to Themiscyra on the river Thermodon, is 3300
stadia. The former is a sail of nine days and eight
nights ; and the latter a sail of three days and two
nights. A day's sail is reckoned at 70,000 orgyae,
and the night's sail at 60,000 orgyae.^

The Palus Maeotis (or Sea of Azoff) flows into
the Euxine, and is sometimes called the mother of
the Pontus Euxinus. Herodotus names it Maeetis,
and erroneously supposed it to be not much smaller
than the Pontus,^ but he does not aj)pear to have
explored its waters, nor does he give any measure-
ments of its extent.
Tiopontis. The Propontis (or Sea of Marmora) is joined to
the Pontus Euxinus by the Bosphorus, and flows into
the Aegean through the Hellespont (or modern Dar-

^ iv. 85, 86. Comp, Appendix II. on the Measurements of Length used
bv Herodotus. - iv. 86.

Pontus
Euxinus.

Palus
Maeotis.

GENERAL SURVEY. 25

danelles). Herodotus calculated the Bospliorus to Europe.
be 120 stadia long and 4 stadia wide ; the Propon- chap, i.
tis to be 1400 stadia long and 500 stadia wide ; and
the Hellespont to be 400 stadia long and 7 stadia
wide.^

The Caspian is unconnected with any other sea, Caspian.
and lies to the east of Mount Caucasus. Herodotus
calculated its length to be a 15 days' voyage in a
boat with oars, and its breadth to be an 8 days'
voyage.^ Niebuhr reckons the one day's voyage
with oars as equal to the one day's journey by land,
or 200 stadia.^ According to this calculation, the
Casjoian would be 3000 stadia long and 1600 stadia
broad.*

The Gulf of Adiia (or Adriatic Sea) is mentioned Adriatic.
several times by Herodotus,^ and evidently referred
to the long narrow arm of the Mediterranean, which
runs up to the eastward of the Italian peninsula.
Also the Ionian Sea or Gulf,^ by which was intended Ionian,
the sea between Grreece and Sicily.

1 iv. 85, 86. _ 2 I 202, 203. 3 iv. 101.

* Reducing these stadia to English miles, the result would be that
Herodotus supposed the Caspian to be 375 miles long and 200 miles
broad. Herodotus was not much mistaken in its average breadth, but
the length of the Caspian from north to south is upwards of 650 miles.
See Appendix II., on Measurements used by Herodotus.

' i. 163; iv. 33. « vi. 127; vii. 20.

CHAPTER II.

GREECE, OR HELLAS.

Hellas of Herodotus, its wide signification. — European Greece, general
description. — Pindus range running southward from the Balkan. —
Eastern arms, Olympus and Othrys. — Western arm to the Ceraunian
mountains. — Ossa and Pelion. — Northern limits. — Mount Oeta. — Ther-
mopylae. — Parnassus. — Cithaeron. ■ — -Parnes. — ■ Oenean mountains. —
Mountains of the Peloponnesus. — General face of the country. — Hero-
dotus's account of Hellas : its central position. — Fertilized by rain. — ■
Subject to storms and earthquakes. — Lions. — Sillikyprion. — Character
of the people. — Temples. — Markets. — Trade. — Miscellaneous notices. —
Art of writing. — Obscurities in the history of the people. — Herodotus's
account. — Hellas anciently called Pelasgia, and peopled by Pelasgians
and other tribes. — Character of the Pelasgians. — Mythical origin of the
Hellenes. — Dorian wanderings. — Invasion of the Peloponnesus by the
Heracleids. — Achaeans unknown : Aeolians and lonians considered as
Pelasgians. — In historical times inhabitants all called Hellenes.

EUROPE. The name of Hellas in the history of Herodotus,

CHAP. II. bears a very different signification from the Grreece

i of later times. It included every territory or dis-

HeTOdo°us, trict inhabited by Hellenes, or containing an Hellenic

Sficafion!^' ^^^^y? whether in Em^ope, Asia, or Libya, or on the

islands of the Mediterranean or Aegean. Thus Ama-

sis is said to have dedicated offerings in Hellas, for

he sent presents to Cyrene on the coast of Libya, to

Lindus in Rhodes, and to the island of Samos.'

Again, Herodotus tells us that the physicians of Cro-

tona in Italy were the best in all Hellas, and those

of Cyrene were the second.^ In the present division

of our work, however, we purpose confining ourselves

to a consideration of Greece proper, or that part of

the Hellas of Herodotus whicli was included in the

European continent ; and we shall treat of all the

islands in a separate chapter, and leave the Greek

1 ii. 182.

- iii. 131. Compare also vii. 1.57, where Gelon is said to possess no
small part of Hellas, since he was master of Syracuse.

'MeTvdvVjs. p. 27

EEC

MACEDON I A .TH RACE ,

loiuli,,, I^namm <£■ Co.lSS4.

GREECE, OR HELLAS. 27

colonies to fall into the more natural continental europe.
arrangement. ^ ^"^^- ^^-

European Greece is surrounded on three sides by European
the sea — west by the Ionian, south by the Mediter- ^l^^^^^^^ ^^
ranean, and east by the Aegean. On the north its scription.
limits were never precisely defined, but an imaginary
boundary line may be drawn after a glance at the
mountains which form the skeleton of the country.

Far beyond the Grreek territory, from the head of Pindus
the Adriatic to the coast of the Euxine, runs a vast nin| south-
mountain belt, alluded to by Herodotus as Mount ^""J^Baikan.
Haemus,^ but bearing the modern name of the
Balkan. From this belt a branch under the name
of Pindus descends in a southerly direction, and after
separating Thessaly fi-om Epirus, terminates at the
rugged pile of Mount Oeta. From Pindus two Eastern
huge arms stretch towards the eastern sea, and en- puTand'^^
close the vale of Thessaly. On the north the Cam- otbrys.
bunian hills terminate in the loftier heights of
Olympus ; whilst on the south the chain of Othrys
sinks gently towards the coast. A western arm of western
smaller elevation connects Pindus and the Cam- ceraunian
bunian chain with the Ceraunian mountains, and mo^^itanis.
runs out into the Ionian Sea at the Acroceraunian
promontory. On the eastern coast of Thessaly runs ossa and
a fourth range, parallel to Pindus, and including the
celebrated heights of Ossa and Pelion.

The two northern arms of Pindus, namely, the Northern

limits

eastern or Cambunian range, and the western, or
range connected with the Ceraunian mountains,
would therefore form the natural boundaries of
European Greece on the north. But the country
east of Mount Pindus, bearing the general name of
Epirus, or "the main-land," cannot be regarded as
being strictly Grecian in the time of Herodotus.
The Thesprotians, Molossians, and other barbarous
half-brethren of the Greeks who dwelt there, had
become thoroughly incorporated with the rude II-
l}7Tian tribes who forced a way amongst them, and
they collectively appear as rough sons of the moun-

1 iv. 49.

GREECE, OK HELLAS.

EUROPE.

CHAP. II.

MoimtOeta.

Thermo-
pylae.

Parnassus.

Cithaeron.

Parnes.

Oenean
mountains.

Mountains
of the Pelo-
ponnesus.

General
face of the
country.

tains, whose disposition presented features little more
attractive than their own rugged rocks and precipices.

Contenting ourselves with this protest, we have
thought it advisable to include Epirus in the geo-
graphy of Greece ; Herodotus himself mentions
Thesprotia as part of Hellas,^ and Dodona must be
regarded as one of the principal seats of the oldest
national worship:).

To return to the mountain survey. The rugged
mass of Oeta, which forms the continuation of Pin-
dus, separates into two branches. One stretches
eastward to the sea at ThermoiDylae, and runs along
the coast till it sinks into the vale of the Boeotian
Asoj^us. The other takes a more southerly direc-
tion through Phocis, and includes the lofty summits
of Parnassus ; and then, after skirting the Corinthian
Gulf, it forms a huge knot at Cithaeron on the fron-
tiers of Attica. Two ridges run off from Cithaeron,
viz. Mount Parnes, which stretches eastward to the
sea ; and the Oenean mountains, which take a south-
westerly direction through Megaris, and at length
terminate at the isthmus.

From this point the peninsula of the Peloponnesus
spreads out into the Mediterranean like an out-
stretched palm.^ Its centre consists of an elevated
table-land, encircled by mountains, and intersected
by some lower secondary chains of hills. From the
outer circle all the ridges diverge which form the
many headlands and points on the coast ; and on the
south two ranges detach themselves from the central
highlands, and j)roject into the sea at the two pro-
montories of Malea and Taenarum.

Such is the general configuration of Greece. The
rivers arc very small, and only important from their
place in history. The mountains, like those of the

1 ii. .56. Thirlwall remarks, that it must have been the recollection of
the ancient fame of Thesprotia as the primitive abode of the Hellenes,
rather than the condition of its tribes after the Persian war, that induced
Herodotus to speak of it as included in Hellas.

2 The ancients compared its shape to the leaf of the plane tree, and it
derives its modern name of Morea from its similar resemblance to the
leaf of the mulberry.

GREECE, OR HELLAS. 29

Balkan, are torn by transverse fractures, and divide Europe.
the whole territory into a multitude of small secluded chap. n.
and isolated regions, favouring the production of
numerous and separate states. The valleys are
mostly caldron-shaped hollows, and seem to be the
basins of ancient lakes, which have been emptied by
some upheaving of the general surface. The volcanic
belt passes through Greece, and often occasions earth-
quakes ; and the valle3^s contain many large masses
of stone, which are different from that of the sur-
rounding mountains. The northern half of the
country appears broad and unbroken, whilst the
southern is narrow, irregular, and perforated by
bays and inlets ; and here the mountains not only
stretch far out into the sea in projecting headlands,
but also reappear in the numerous islands and rocks
which stud the deeply indented coast.

Greece was considered by Herodotus to be situ- Herodotus's
ated near the centre of the earth, for he describes HXs-its
Hellas as enjoying the most happy mixture of sea- central posi-
sons.^ According to him, it was not fertilized by Fertilized
the inundation of the rivers, but by the refreshing ^y ^'^i"-
showers of Zeus ; upon which the Aegyptians
affirmed, that if it ever ceased to rain the land would
miserably suffer.^ Notwithstanding, however, its subject to
beautiful climate, Greece was subject to violent farth-"'"'^
storms and earthquakes. Thus a heavy rain fell quakes.
throughout the night which succeeded the first day's
conflict at Artemisium, hail-storms descended from
Mount Pelion, and mighty floods rushed into the
sea ; ^ and at sunrise on the morning of the battle at
Salamis an earthquake was felt on sea and land.*
When also a division of the Persian army was sent
out to plunder Delphi, the sacrilegists were over-
taken by a storm of thunder and lightning, and two
crags, which had probably been broken from Par-
nassus by the violence of the tempest, fell upon them
with a murderous crash.'' Of wild beasts Herodotus Lions.
tells us that lions were to be found, but only be-
tween the rivers Archelous and the Macedonian

1 iii. 106. 2 ii. 13. 3 viii. 12. * viii. 64. * viii. 37-

J55

30 GREECE, OR HELLAS.

EUROPE. Nestus.^ He also specially mentions that the Silli-
CHAP. II. kjprion, which was cultivated in Aegypt in order

~ r~ to extract the oil, grew spontaneously and in a wild
ypnon ^^^^^ ^^^ ^j^^ bauks of tlio lakcs and rivers of Plellas.^

ciiaracter The inhabitants of Hellas seem to have attracted

on\ie peo- ^]jQ admiration of the Persians, though the very ex-
istence of the nation exasperated their Asiatic pride
and aroused their fiercest enmity. Atossa expressed
to Darius a wish to engage Lacedaemonian, Argive,
Corinthian, and Athenian women as attendant maid-
ens ; ^ and when Tritantaechmes heard that the
Hellenes contended at the Olympic games for a sim-
ple crown of olive, he exclaimed, " Heavens, Mar-
donius, against what kind of men have you brought
us to fight, who contend not for wealth, but for
glory ?"^ "Hellas," says Demaratus to Xerxes,
"has always had poverty as foster-sister, but has
acquired virtue by the aid of wisdom and firm laws
and with it she restrains poverty and tyranny "

Temples. The Hellenes were the only people except the
Aegyptians who abstained from all intercourse with
women in sacred precincts, and who never entered
the temples without a previous purification.^ They

Markets, posscssod markct-j^laccs in their several cities, for
which Cyrus taunted them as having set apart a
place for the purpose of cheating each other. ^ They

Trade. carried on a considerable trade by sea, especially
with Aegypt,^ and the expression of Herodotus that
Samos had appeared to them to be as far off as the
Pillars of Heracles,'' is either only a pettish remark
at the delay and hesitation of the Greek fleet in
crossing the Aegean to Asia Minor, or else a figure
of speech to illustrate the complete cessation of all
communication between European and Asiatic
Greece during the Persian war.

Misceiiane- The Hellenes in their calculation of time inserted
an intercalary month every third year.^" Religion
and science they appear to have imported from
foreign countries. Many of their customs had been

1 vii. 126. 2 ii. 94. ^ iii. 134. ^ viii. 26. ' vii. 102.
« ii. 64. ^ i. 1.5.3. ** ii. 5. '•' viii. 1.32. '" ii.4.

ous cus-
toms.

GREECE, OE HELLAS. 31

borrowed from Aegypt, together with the names of europe.
the twelve gods, the oracle of Dodona, and art of chap. n.
divination by victims.^ The dress and aegis of the
statues of Athene were imitated from those of the
Libyan women ; and the custom of harnessing four
chariot-horses abreast was borrowed from the Libyan
men.^ Geometry was brought from Aegypt, where
Herodotus believes it originated at the division of
the land by Sesostris.^ The sun-dial and division of
the day into twelve parts was learnt from the Baby-
lonians.^ The shield and helmet again were brought
from Aegypt.*

The Hellenes wrote from left to right, which dis- Art of
tinguished them from the Aegyptians.^ The art of ^^'''*"'^'
writing was brought to Hellas by Cadmus and the
Phoenicians, and was first learnt by the lonians,
who adopted the letters with some slight alterations,
and called them Phoenician or Cadmean. The
lonians also called their books, parchments, because
in ancient times, when papyrus was scarce, they
wrote on the skins of goats and sheep.''

These then are all the facts that can be found in
Herodotus bearing upon the general geography of
Hellas ; it now only remains for us to develope his
views respecting the origin of the people who in-
habited it.

The general history of the races who occupied obscurities
Hellas in the time of Herodotus is involved in a tory^of'the
cloud of legend, and will but little illustrate or ex- Sdotus-s
plain the apparently contradictory statements which account.
are to be found in our author.

Hellas, he says, was anciently called Pelasffia,^ and ^*^"f ^"r,

... ' -1 ,,1,1 •i''i,i -r»i^.' ciently call-

it IS evident that he considered the Pelasgians to edPeiasgia,

have formed its principal inhabitants in primeval by'peiasg?

times. In addition to these, we find mention of the ot^grlribes

Leleges, afterwards called Carians,^ the Caucones,^^ o er n

the Minyans of the Boeotian Orchomenus,'^ the

Minyans of Elis,^^ the Dry opes, ^^ and some foreign

1 ii. 4, 54—57. 2 iv. 189, 190. ^ ii. 109. * lb.

5 iv. 180. « ii.36. 7 V. 58,59. « ii. 56. ^ i 171.

^" iv. 148. " i. 146. 12 iv. 145—148.
1=5 viii. 73; i. 146; i. 5S; viii. 31.

32 GREECE, OR HELLAS.

EUROPE, settlers, under Cadmus the Phoenician,^ Danaus
CHAP. ir. the Aegyptiau,^ and Pelops the Phrygian.^

The settlements of these smaller races will be
mentioned in the geography of the several states ; ■*
the Pelasgians require more immediate attention.
Character of Tlicso pcoplc WQYQ Considered by Herodotus to
gians.^''* have originally been a race who never migrated.
Their language was barbarous,^ their deities name-
less.^ Subsequently they appear to have been wan-
dering hordes. Some came from the island of
Samothrace to Athens, where they constructed the
Pelasgic citadel, and taught several mysteries ; but
being expelled from thence, they went to Lemnos.'^
Such are the few particulars we can collect.
Mythical A ucw and conquering class next appears upon

HeUenes.*^^ tlic stago of Greek history, namely, the warlike Do-
rians. According to the myth frequently alluded to
by Herodotus, Hellen,the son ofDeucalion, had three
sons — Aeolus, Dorus, and Xuthus. He was the an-
cestor of the Hellenic race. From Aeolus and
Dorus descended the Aeolians and Dorians, and
from Achaeus and Ion, the sons of Xuthus, and
therefore grandsons of Hellen, descended the Achae-
Dorian aus and lonians.^ The original seats of the Hellenes
(or at any rate of the Dorians) were in Thessaly.

1 V. 57—62. 3 vii. 94. ^ vii. 8, 11.

* The Carians or Leleges occupied the islands off the western coast of
Asia Minor, but were expelled by the Dorians. The Caucones were
in southern Elis, but subsequently were driven out by the Minyans from
Lemnos. The Minyans of Orchomenus accompanied the great Ionian
migi-ation from Attica. The Minyans of Lemnos were driven out by
some Pelasgians, and after a sojourn in Laconica, migrated to southern
Elis and drove out the Caucones. The references to these particulars
are already given above.

' i. e. distinct from the Hellenic, i. 57. " ii- 51, 52.

7 vi. 137—140.

^ Modern scholars have indulged in some ingenious speculations on
the origin of these names. According to them, the Hellenes means " the
waiTiors " (compare the name of their god, 'AttoKXwv) ; the Dorians,
(AwpitTc) are " Highlanders," from da and opoQ ; the Aeolians (AioXtTc)
are "the' mixed men," a name which arose when the Dorians first de-
scended from their mountains in the north of Thessaly, and incorporated
themselves with the Pelasgi of the Thessalian plains. So, again, the
lonians {'Jojviq) are the "men of the coast," {Htovla,) called, also,
j\iy(aX«Te, "Beach-men," and the ',A;;^;«tioi are "Sea-men." Compare Ken-
rick, Phil. Mas. ii. 'M)7; Midler, iJoi: ii. G, G; Donaldson, G. G. p. 2.

wanderings.

GKEECE, OR HELLAS. 33

from thence the Dorians removed to the southern Europe.
territory of Doris, and at length passed over to the chap. n.
Peloponnesus under the guidance of the Heracleids, invasion of
or descendants of Heracles.' This celebrated inva- thePeio-
sion forms the great epoch in the early history of th^uera- ^
Greece ; the settlements they effected will be de- *'^"*^'-
scribed in the chapter on the Peloponnesus.

The history of the three other Hellenic races, the Achaeans
Aeolians, Achaeans, and lonians, is more intricate leoUans""
and contradictory. Herodotus describes the Aeo- conskierid'^
Hans and lonians as Pelasgians ; ^ and the Achae- as Peias-
ans are not described at all excepting as con- ^'^"^'
querors of the Ionian Pelasgians.^ It is impossible
to reconcile these statements with the mythical ac-
count of the relationship of the four races.

In the time of Herodotus nearly all the inhabit- in historical
ants of Hellas were called Hellenes, and all were bitente au^'
considered to be bound together by the ties of blood, ^^'^^^ Hei-
of language, and of religion.* Whilst the Pelasgians,
who spoke a different language, were fast disappear-
ing jfrom the scene, ^ the Hellenes from a small be-
ginning increased to a multitude of nations, chiefly
by a union with other tribes ; and they appear to
have retained the language they used when they
first became a people.''

Thus then, having briefly reviewed the general
geography of Greece, and history of its inhabitants,
we shall proceed to treat of the various states under
the two great divisions of Southern Greece, or the
Peloponnesus, and Northern Greece up to the Cam-
bunian range.

1 i. 56, 57. ^ vii. 95. Comp. also the sect, in chap. iv. on Attica.
3 vii. 94. * viii. 144; ix. 7. ^ i. 57. 6 i 53.

CHAPTER III.

SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

Division of the Peloponnesus into nine districts. — Herodotus's account
of the Peloponnesian races. — Settlements of the races prior to the Dorian
invasion. — Settlements in the time of Herodotus. — I. Arcadia, general
description. — Herodotus's account. — Topography: Tegea, Mantinea, Or-
chomenus, Phigalea, Trapezus, Paeos, Dipaea, Nonacris, Mount Par-
thenion, Stymphalian lake. — II. Argolis, general description. — Herodo-
tus's account. — ^Topography : Argos, Epidaurus, Hermione, Troezene,
Pogon, Mycenae, Tiryns, Nauplia, Orneae, River Erasinus, Grove of
Argos. — III. CoRiNTHiA, general description. — Origin of its commercial
importance. — Herodotus's account. — City of Corinth. — Petra. — The isth-
mus.— IV. SiCYONiA, general description.- — Herodotus's account : her
enmity against Argos. — Expulsion of the Argive hero Adrastus. —
- Changes in the name of the Sicyonian tribes. — V. Phliasia. — Phlius.
— VI. AcHAiA, general description. — Herodotus's account. — Topogra-
phy: Pellene, Aegira, Aegae, Crathis, Bura, Aegium, Rhypes, Patrae,
Pharae, Olenus, Dyma, Tritaea. — VII. Elis, general description. — He-
rodotus's account. — Aetolians, Caucones, Minyae. — Elean seers. — No
mules bred in Elis. — Topogi-aphy : Elis, Pisa, Olympia. — Minyan cities :
Phrixae, Nudium, Epium, Macistus, Lepreum, Pyrgus. — VIII. Messenia,
general description. — History. — Herodotus's account. — Topogi'aphy :
Pylus, Asine, Stenyclerus, Ithome. — ^IX. Laconica, general description.
— History. — Herodotus's account. — Description of the Laconians. —
Rights and privileges of their kings, in war ; in peace ; at public sacri-
fices, feasts, and games ; right of appointing the proxeni and pythii ;
daily allowance of food ; keepers of the oracles ; commissioners of the
highways ; entitled to a seat in the council of twenty-eight. — Manners
and customs of the people : burial of kings ; hereditary professions ;
miscellaneous. — Topography : Sparta, Therapne, Pitane, Cardamyle,
the Aegeidae, Mount Thornax, Mount Taygetus, Cape Taenarum, Cape
Male a.

EUROPE. The Peloponnesus is usually divided into nine

^^^^- "^- districts, viz. Arcadia in the centre ; Argolis, Cor-

Division of inthia, Sicyonia, and Phliasia on the east ; Achaia

pranesus ^^ ^^^® north ; Elis on the west ; and Messenia and

into nine Laconica on the soutli ; but the Messenians having

been conquered by the Laconians, the two latter

districts were generally considered to be included

in the same territory. The relative position of

these nine districts on the map was as follows :

SOUTHEEN GREECE, OE PELOPONNESUS. 35

EUROPE.

CHAP. III.

According to our author, /' the country of Pelops Herodotus's
the Phrygian," as he calls it, was in his time occu- thePeio-
pied by seven different races, namely, Arcadians, 11^^^^^^"^^
Cynurians, Achaeans, Dorians, Aetolians, Dryopes,
and Lemnians. Of these the Arcadians and Cynu-
rians were aborigines who still occupied their an-
cient territory ; the Achaeans had also never re-
moved from the Peloponnesus, but had passed from
one territory to another. The remaining four were
foreigners.^

The history of these races appears to have been as
follows.

Prior to the Dorian invasion, the centre was occu- Settlement
pied by the Arcadians, and the south-eastern pro- pnoAoThe
montory by the Cynurians, and both these nations ^^Ton"! ''^'
were Pelasgians. The east and south were held by
the Achaeans. The west and north were originally
peopled by races not mentioned here because subse-
quently driven out ; viz. the lonians, called also

1 viii. 73.
D 2

SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

EUROPE. Aegialeis, or " coast-men," on the north,^ and the
CHAP. III. Caucones on the west.^ The Dryopes from Doris
' had also formed settlements in Messenia and Argolis.^
These races seem therefore to have anciently occu-
pied the following positions.

Ionian Aegialeis,

or coast-men.

Acliacans

Arcadian

Caucones.

Pelasgians.

\ 1

Achae
/ \

ms.

/
Dryopes. /

\ 1

Urj'opes.

Settlements Subscqucntly the Dorians and Aetolians invaded
of HerodT thc Pcloponncsus. The Aetolians seized the west-
tus. gj,^ territory, whilst the Dorians turned out the

Achaeans and occupied the south and east. The
Achaeans mostly proceeded to the north, and drove
out the Ionian Aegialeis and occupied their terri-
tory,* but a few remained behind. The lonians
proceeded to Athens. Subsequently the Minyans
from Lemnos, called also Lemnians,^ drove out the
Caucones and obtained their country. The inhabit-
ants of the Peloponnesus therefore in the time of He-
rodotus seem to have been situated as follows :

' i. 145; vii. 94.
» vii. 94.

2 iv. 148.

^ viii. 73.
5 iv. 148.

SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS. 37

EUROPE.

CHAP. III.

Aetolians.

Acliaeans,
who had driven out lonians

Arcadian
Pelasgians,

Minyans '^^'^o retained their

from ancient seats.

Lemnos.

Dorians,

with Achaean helots and

perioeci.

Diyopes.

TheiDorians possessed many considerable cities;
the Aetolians only Elis ; the Dryopes had Hermione,
(in the south-east of Argolis,) and Asine, (in the
southern promontory of Messenia,) near the Laco-
nian Cardamyle ; the Lemnians had all the Paro-
reatae, and were descended from the Minyans. The
Cynurians, though aborigines, were thought by some
to be lonians, (Pelasgians,) but became Dorians like
the Orneatae and their neighbours from the lapse of
time, and from living under the dominion of the
Ar gives. ^

We now turn to the geography of the nine dis-
tricts.

I. Arcadia was the central, and next to Laconica i. Arcadia.
the largest, country in the Peloponnesus. It was description.
surrounded on all sides by a ring of mountains,
forming a kind of natural wall, and may be regarded

1 viii. 73.

38 SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

EUROPE, as the Switzerland of Grreece, tliougli its mountains

CHAP. in. are of a much less elevation.^

Herodotus's Arcadia was inhabited by the Pelasgians, who

account. fi'om tlio beginning, and likewise during the Dorian
invasion of the Peloponnesus, remained in this coun-
try, and alone preserved the sacred rites of the
Thesmophoria.^ Some, however, joined the great
Ionian migration to Asia Minor, ^ and others perhaps
migrated to Cyprus, where at least an Arcadian race
is named.^ In an oracle the Pythia says, " There are
many acorn-eating men in Arcadia ; " ^ by which we
may conclude that they were a rude, uncultivated
people, simple in their habits, and moderate in their
desires.

Topography Of tlio Arcadiau towns several are mentioned,

Tegea. but witliout any detailed description. Tegea was
situated in a fair plain, and contained the coffin,
seven cubits long, enclosing the bones of Orestes,
which Liches the Laconian discovered, and car-
ried to Sparta.*' In the temple of Athena Alea, in
the same city, were suspended the fetters which the
Laconians, in their arrogance, carried with them in
their expedition against the Tegeans. There also
was the brazen manger which was taken from the
tent of Mardonius, after the battle of Plataea.^ The
Tegeans sent 500 men to Thermopylae,^ and at the
battle of Plataea furnished 1500 hoplites, who dis-
puted the post of honour with the Athenians.^

Mantinea. The city of Mautinoa was anciently celebrated for
the wisdom of its political institutions. The wise
Demonax was fetched from thence to remodel the
government of Gyrene. ^° The Mantineans sent 500
men to Thermopylae," who arrived too late to fight
at Plataea, and on their return home banished their

^ The Arcadians, like the Swiss, frequently served as mercenaries. With
the exception of the Mantineans and Tegeans, they took no decided
part in the Persian or Peloponnesian wars. The poverty and populous-
ness of their country had made them mere soldiers of fortune, and Thu-
cydides affirms, (vii. 57,) that in the expedition against Sicily, Arcadians
were to be found in the ranks of both armies.

Mi. 171. '^ i. 146. * vii. 90, « i. 66.

<■■ i. 66—68. 7 ix. 70. « vii. 202. » ix. 26, 61.

'" iv. 161. '1 vii. 202.

SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS. 39

commanders.^ Orchomenus sent 120 men to Tlier- europe.
mopylae,^ and 600 hoplites to Plataea.^ Phigalea is chap. m.
barely alluded to as the birth-place of the prophet orchome-
Cleander.* From Trapezus came Amiantus, one of ^^^s. ^^^^
the suitors for the daughter of Cleisthenes, tyrant of Trapezus.
Sicyon.^ Paeos, or Pagos, was situated in the district Paeos.
of the Azanes," whence came Laphanes, who was
also a suitor.^ At or near Dipaea, all the Arcadians, Dipaea.
except the Mantineans, were defeated by the Laco-
nians.^ At Nonacris, near Pheneum, a small quan- Nonacris.
tity of water, said by the Arcadians to be the water
of the Styx, dropped from a rock into a hollow sur-
rounded by a fence of masonry.^

Above Tegea was Mount Parthenion, where a Mount Par-
little before the battle of Marathon the deity Pan *^'"^°''-
appeared to the messenger sent from Athens to
Sparta.^" The Stymphalian lake is also noticed as stympha-
an unimportant piece of water, which was said to ^'^^i^®-
disappear through an unseen chasm, and to reappear
in Argos, where it became the river Erasinus.^^

II. Argolis lay on the east of the Peloponne- ii. argo-
sus, and included the whole acte or peninsula be- description.
tween the Saronic and Argolic Grulfs. Prior to
the Dorian invasion, the Argives were Achaeans,
who had supplanted the original Pelasgian population,
and many of the Achaeans remained after the Do-
rian conquest. Argos then became the great seat of
Dorian power in the Peloponnesus, whilst Sparta
was her inferior. At an early period war broke out
between the two powers for the border district of
Thyrea. Here the celebrated battle was fought be-
tween 300 Argives and 300 Spartans.^^ The war was
terminated in the reign of Cleomenes, by the total
defeat of the Argives. ^^

Argolis properly embraced all the country west- Herodotus's
ward, as far as the southern promontory of Malea, ^^^°""*-

1 ix. 11. 2 vii^ 102. 3 ix. 28, * vi. 83. » yi. 127.

^ According to Steph. Byzantinus, the Arcadians were distributed into
three geographical divisions, viz. Azanes, Parrhasii, and Trapezuntii.
Steph. B. s. V. 'k^iivtQ.

7 vi. 127. 8 ix. 35. 9 yi_ 74. 10 yi_ 105. ■ 11 vi. 7Q.

'•' i. 82. 13 yj_ 7§_

40 SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

EUROPE, and included Cytliera, and ''the other islands;"^
CHAP. III. by which last expression we may perhaps under-
stand, the small islands near Cythera, or the islands
in the Argolic Gulf. In the time of Darius, the
Argives ranked as the first musicians amongst the
Hellenes.^ Their women wore the Dorian costume,
and very large clasps, from the following circum-
stance.^ An Athenian force having been cut to
pieces in the island of Aegina, by the Argives and
Aeginetans, one survivor only escaped to Athens,
upon which the Athenian, women killed him with
their clasps. Henceforth the Athenians obliged their
women to leave off the Dorian costume, and adopt
the linen dress without clasps ; whilst the women of
Aegina and Argos ever afterwards wore their clasps
half as large again as before, and consecrated them
in their temples.^ The Argives were mostly Do-
rians : the Hermionians in the south-east were Dry-
opes, and the Orneates in the north were Ionian
Cynurians.^
Topography Of the towus of ArgoHs the most celebrated was
Argos. Argos, which at the time when the Phoenicians car-
ried off lo, was also the most important in all
Hellas.^ It is, however, scarcely noticed by Herodo-
tus, probably because it took no part in the Persian
war,'' whilst other towns of Argolis were actively en-
Epiciaurus. gagod in the contest. Epidaurus was situated on the
Saronic Gulf, and contributed to the foundation of
several Dorian cities in Asia Minor, ^ sent eight ships
to Artemisium,*' ten ships to Salamis,'" and 800 hop-
Hcrmione. lites to Plataoa." Hermione sent three ships to Sala-
mis,'^ and 300 hoplites to Plataea.'^ This city was
founded by the Dry opes, a Pelasgian tribe, whom
Heracles and the Melians had expelled from the
banks of the river Spercheius and the valleys of

1 i. 82; vi. 92. ^ iii. 131. » Comp. Geog. of Attica.

* V. 87,88. 5 viii. 43, 73. « i. 1.

' It was generally reported that the Argives had been bribed by Xerxes.
Their non-interference was probably occasioned by the rebellion of their
slaves, (vi. 83,) and their jealousy of Lacedaemon.

'' i. 146; vii.99. » viii. 1. i« viii. 43. " ix. 102.

'■' viii. 43. ' " ix. 28.

SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS. 41

Oeta.^ It was tlie birth-place of Lasus the poet and europe.
musician.^ The city of Troezene colonized Hali- ^^^^- ^"-
carnassus in Asia Minor. ^ Before the battle of Sala- Troezene.
mis, the Troezenians received most of the Athenian
families who were forced to abandon their city.*
They also sent five ships to Artemisimn and Sala-
mis,^ and 1000 hoplites to Plataea ; '^ and are named
amongst the confederates at Mycale.'' At its port Pogon.
called Pogon, the Hellenic fleet assembled previous
to the battle of Salamis.^ Mycenae sent 80 men to Mycenae.
Thermopylae.'' It contained a celebrated temple to
Hera.^" Beside these were the city of Tiryns, which Thyns.
included the place called Sepia, where Cleomenes
defeated the Argives ; ^^ Nauplia, which was the port Naupiia.
of Argos ; ^^ and Orneae, whose inhabitants, named Omeae.
the Orneatae, were originally independent of Argos ;
but in process of time, having been conquered by
their more powerful neighbours, from lonians they
became Dorians. ^^

Our author also mentions the river Erasinus, which River Era-
flowed from the Stymphalian lake, and after dis- ^^°^^'
charging itself through a subterranean hollow, re-
appeared in Argos. ^* Also the grove of Argos, where Grove of
the Argives fled for refage, and which was burnt ^^'^°^'
down by Cleomenes. ^^

III. CoRiNTHTA embraced most of the isthmus iii. con-
which joined the Peloponnesus to the main-land. Genial de-
and included the adjacent region on the Pelo- scription.
ponnesian side. It was not fertile, and the only
arable land it possessed to any extent, was a plain
along the coast between Corinth and Sicyon. The
barrenness of the soil, and the mountain barriers on
the north and south, naturally led the inhabitants to
try their fortune on the sea ; and Corinth, its capital,
at length became an emporium of trade. This city origin of its
was seated on the isthmus between the Saronic and im^ortancl
Corinthian Grulfs. It had two harbours ; Cenchreae
towards Asia Minor, and Lechaeum towards Italy.

1 viii. 43. 2 y{i 0, 3 vii, 99 i ^^^^ 41 5 yin j . jx. 43.
6 ix. 28. T ix. 102. 8 y[ii 42. 9 yji. 202. " vh 81.

" vi. 77. '^ vii. 137. " viii. 73. 14 vi. 76. 15 yj. gO.

42 SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

EUROPE. In those early times when all navigation was per-
CHAP. III. formed in coasting vessels, Corinth stood in the
most direct line between Europe and Asia ; as mer-
chants greatly preferred carrying their goods over
the narrow isthnms by land, to undertaldng the dif-
iicidt and dangerous voyage roimd the Peloponne-
sian coast. ^
Herodotiis's Tlic Corinthians held artisans in more esteem
account. ^-|^^^^ ^^^ ^£ ^l^^ otlicr Grccks, who indeed deemed

those to be the most noble who were devoted to
City of the profession of arms.^ Corinth, the capital, sent
400 men to Thermopylae,^ 40 ships to Artemisium,*
and the same number to Salamis ; ^ 5000 hoplites
were also present at Plataea," and it is especially
noticed that the Corinthians distinguished them-
selves at Mycale, next to the Athenians/ The city
contained Stoae, or Porticoes, where Periander found
his son Lycophron, filthy and starved ; ^ also a tem-
ple of Hera, where Periander obliged all the Corinth-
ian women to undress, and then burnt their clothes
Petra. on accouut of liis deceased wife, Melissa.^ The
demos Petra, in the neighbourhood of Corinth, was
celebrated as the birth-place of Cypselus.
The isth- At the isthmus stood an altar to Poseidon, where
^^^' the Greek generals met, after the battle of Salamis,

to award the prize of valour. ^° Here also the Greeks
dedicated a brazen statue of Poseidon, seven cubits
high, from a tithe of the booty taken at Plataea,''
and a Phoenician trireme captured at the victory
of Salamis. ^^ A wall was built across the isthmus,
after the fall of Leonidas at Thermopylae, to which
breastworks were added previous to the battle of
Plataea.^^
IV. sicYo- ly. SiCYONiA was a small territory lying between
rauiescr^- Coriuth and Achaia, along the coast of the Corinth-

^ The Corinthians before the Dorian invasion may be regarded as
lonians, though Thucydides cahs (hem Aeohans (Thucy. iv. 42); for
lonians were in possession of the coasts on both sides of the isthmus,
which indeed was itself the most revered seat of Poseidon, the chief deity
of the Ionian race.

2 ii. lf)7. 3 vii. 202. " viii. 1. « viii. 43. " ix. 2S.

•^ ix. 105. 8 iii. 52. " v. iJ2. '" Ibid. " viii. 123.

'2 ix. 81. " viii. 121. i» viii. 71 ; ix. 7.

tiou.

SOUTHEEN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS. 4:6

ian Grulf. Sicyon was originally included among europe.
the towns of the Argive confederacy. Cleisthenes, chap. m.
tyrant of Sicyon, and his predecessors, appear to '
have endeavoured to weaken the coherence of this
confederacy ; and the Argives, in trying to revive
it, placed themselves in a state of war with Cleis-
thenes, and induced him to violently break the con-
nexion between Sicyon and Argos. His measures
are described by our author.

Cleisthenes was engaged in a war with Argos, Herodotus's
against whom he entertained the utmost enmity. her°enmity
He stopped the contests of the rhapsodists, or re- against
citers of Homer's poetry, because Homer celebrates
Argos and the Argives in almost every part. He Expulsion
wished to remove the shrine of the Argive hero, giveLro^
Adrastus, from the Agora or market-place of Sicyon, ^^lastus.
but was reproved by the Pythia. He then sent for
the shrine of Melanippus, the greatest enemy of
Adrastus, from the city of Thebes in Boeotia, and
placed it in the very prytaneum, or town hall, and
transferred to Melanippus the honours which had
been previously paid to Adrastus. Moreover all the
dances and tragic choruses, (i. e. dithyrambs of a
sad and plaintive character,) which had been previ-
ously performed in honour of Adrastus, he transfer-
red to the worship of Dionysus, and the remainder of
the Adrastean ceremonies, he gave to Melanippus.

Above all, he changed the names of the Dorian change m
tribes ^ in Sicyon, which were the same as those in the sii^*^-^
Argos. The citizens of Sicyon were divided into o^iiantii^es.
four tribes, namely, the three Dorian tribes of Hyl-
leans, Dymanes, and Pamphylians, and a fourth or
non-Doric tribe, to which Cleisthenes himself belong-
ed. He now called his own tribe by the name of
Archelai or rulers ; and the three Dorian tribes by
the insulting names of Hyatae, Oneatae, and Choe-
reatae, from the three Grreek words signifying a boar,
an ass, and a little pig. Sixty years after the death

^ All the Dorian communities were usually divided into three tribes,
viz. the Hylleans, Dymanes, and Pamphylians, who were so called from
Hyllus the son of Heracles, and Dymas and Pamphylus the two sons of
the Dorian king Aegimius.

44 SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

EUROPE, of Cleistlienes, the names of the Dorian tribes were
CHAP. III. restored, and the fourth tribe was called Aegialeans,
after Aegialeus the son of Adrastus,^ but more pro-
bably after the Ionian Aegialeis, or coast-men, who
originally occupied the district.^

The inhabitants of Sicyon sent twelve ships to
Artemisium,^ and fifteen to Salamis.'^ The river
Asopus flows tlu-ough the district, and is called the
father of Thebe, and Aegina.'^
V. phlia- V. Phliasia was a small territory in the north-east
^'"^' of Peloponnesus, enclosed between Sicyonia, Cor-

PhUus. inthia, Arcadia, and Argolis. Phlius was the chief
town. Herodotus merely mentions that Phlius sent
200 men to Thermopylae,^ and 1000 hoplites to
Plataea.''
vi.AcHAiA YI. AcHAiA was a narrow tract of land along the
sen^tion. ^' coast of tlic Corintliian Grulf, lying upon the slope of
the northern mountain range of Arcadia. It was
originally called Aegialus, either from a hero of that
name, or, more probably, from the maritime situation
of the district.
Herodotus's Tlic Original inhabitants of Achaia were Pelasgi-
ans, and were called Aegialeis, or ''coast-men."^
Subsequently the lonians settled in the territory,
and it was called Ionia, and the inhabitants Aegia-
lian lonians. These lonians remained in possession
of the country till the invasion of the Peloponnesus
by the Dorians, when the Achaeans (who had been
driven out of Argos and Lacedaemon by the invad-
ers) expelled them from the district and settled in
it themselves. The Achaeans thus became masters,
and the country was henceforth called Achaia, after
them ; but they still retained the ancient division of
twelve cities which had been followed by their pre-
decessors the Aegialian lonians.^''
Topography Hcrodotus givcs a list of the twelve Achaean cities
PeUene. in the following order. Pcllenc, which is the first
A^lac!' city from Sicyon. Aegira, Aegae, where flows the
i^ver cra- rivcr Cratliis, which is never dry, and from which

' V. 68. 2 vii, 94; i. 145. 3 y\\i 1. 4 yjij. 45. 5 v_ go.

» vii. 202. ^ ix. 28. » vii. 94. '■> Strabo, viii. p. 383. ^" i. 145.

SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS. 45

the river in Italy derived its name. Bura. To Europe.
these two last places the lonians fled when defeated chap, m.
by the Achaeans. Aegium, Ehypes, Patrae, Pharae, ^^
Olenus, by which flows the great river Peirus. ^^^'"™-
Dyma, Tritaea. These two last towns are the only Patrae.'
ones which lie in the interior.^ oienus.'

VII. Elis in the time of Herodotus applied to THuea.
the whole western portion of the Peloponnesus vii. elis.
between Arcadia and the sea, and having Achaia ^ri^tion. ^"
on the north and Messenia on the south. This
western side is the lowest slope of the Pelopon-
nesus, and has the most gradual inclination to the
sea. It includes the largest extent of champaign
country in the peninsula. It is divided into three
districts. (1.) Northern or hollow Elis, anciently
peopled by the Epeans, who were probably Pelasgi-
ans, and were mingled with some Aetolian tribes.
(2.) Central Elis, or Pisatis, the ancient seat of the
kingdom of Pelops the Phrygian, who gave his
name to the entire peninsula. (3.) Southern Elis,
or Triphylia, which seems to have included the an-
cient kingdom of the Neleid princes of Pylos.^
Some of the Aetolians migrated to Northern Greece,
and from thence accompanied the Dorians in the in-
vasion of the Peloponnesus, and received Elis as
their share of the conquest. The Eleans were pre-
sent in all the engagements fought against the Per-
sians.

The northern district of Elis round the capital Herodotus's
was inhabited by the Aetolians.^ The southern dis- Aetoiiaiis.
trict (or Triphylia) was peopled originally by the
Pelasgian Caucones.* The Minyae, also called Lem- ^1^^^°^^^'
nians, who migrated from Laconia, drove out the
Caucones and retained their name of Paroreatae, or
'' dwellers on the side of a mountain." ^

1 i. 145.

^ Three towns of this name disputed the title of being the capital of
Nestor's dominions ; viz. Pylos of Messenia ; Pylos close by the town of
Elis ; and the above-mentioned Pylos in Triphylia.

3 viii. 73.

■• Strabo says that, according to some authoi-s, the whole of Elis once
bore the name of Cauconia. Strabo, viii. p. 345.

* iv. 148.

46 SOUTHERN GEEECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

EUROPE. Numerous seers were to be found amongst tlie
CHAP. ni. Eleans, and some from the families of the lamidae/
Eiean seers. Telliaclae,^ and Clytiadae ^ are especially men-
tioned.
No mules Horodotus was surprised that no mules could be
eS. '"^ bred in the whole territory of Elis, for the climate
was not cold, nor could he discover any other cause.
The Eleans themselves maintained that it was in
consequence of a curse, and therefore bred their
mules in a neighbouring country.*
Topogiaphiy Tlic following towiis in Elis are mentioned by
Elis. Herodotus. Elis, the only city in the Peloponnesus

Pisa. occupied by the Aetolians.^^ Pisa, which appears to

lie near Olympia, for Herodotus says : From Athens
to Pisa and the temple of the Olympian Zeus is
1485 stadia.*' [It was the ancient capital of the
Olympia. kingdom of Pelops the Phrygian.] Olympia, with
the above-mentioned temple to Zeus, and numerous
statues dedicated there by the Rhegian Micythus
dm^ing his exile at Tegea.^ Also a brazen Zeus ten
cubits high, made from a tenth of the spoil taken at
Plataea.^ The oracle here was consulted by vic-
tims the same as the one at Thebes.^
Minyan 'Yh.Q Miiiyac who settled in Elis distributed them-

pinixae. selvcs iuto six divisioiis, and founded the following
Epium™' cities : Phrixae, Nudium, Epium, Macistus, Lepre-
Macistus. jjj^ Pwffus I but uiost of thcso wcrc already de-

Lepreum. ? J n 7 . , . ^ -^^ ■, -^ ,„

Pyrgus. stroyed by the Eleans ni the time oi Herodotus.'"

Lepreum sent 200 hoplites to Plataea.^^
VIII. mes- YIII. Messenia included the south-western quar-
nerai cie- ° tcr of the Pelopoiincsus. It was bounded by Elis and
scnption. ^pgadia on the north, and by Laconia on the east.
Pausanias describes it as the most fertile country in
the Peloponnesus. The western part was moun-
tainous, but the country generally was less rugged
and more productive than the neighbouring country
of Laconia, with which Euripides happily contrasts
it.'^ It contained two important plains. On the

viii. 73.

1 V. 44.

2 ix. 37. ^ ix. .33.

4 iv. 30. 5 V

« ii. 7.

■> vii. 170. « ix. 81,

» viii. 1.34.

1" iv. 148.

'1 ix.28.

'3 Sec sect. Laconica.

SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS. 47

north, near Arcadia, lay the plain of Stenyclerus, Europe.
surrounded by a hilly barrier. On the south, along chap, m.
the banks of the river Pamisus, down to the Mes-
senian bay, ran a large and beautiful valley called
Macaria, or " The Happy."

When the Dorians invaded the Peloponnesus ac- History.
companied by the Aetolians, they appear to have
first assisted the Aetolians in conquering Elis, and
then to have passed on in two detachments. One
of these settled at Sparta and the other at Steny-
clerus, or, to use the words of Grote, '' One of these
bodies ripened into the stately, stubborn, and vic-
torious Spartans; the other into the short-lived,
trampled, and struggling Messenians." The Spar-
tans coveted the more fertile territory of their
brother Dorians. After many disputes between the
two nations, war at last broke out. The first Messe-
nian war continued for twenty years, b. c. 743 — 723.
It ended with the captm-e of Ithome and the Mes-
senians agreeing to become the subjects of Sparta.
The second Messenian war commenced 38 years
afterwards and lasted 17 years, b. c. 685 — 668. It
terminated with the complete subjugation of the
country. Most of the Messenians left the Pelopon-
nesus, and those who remained behind were re-
duced to the condition of helots or serfs. Two
centuries afterwards, and between the Persian and
Peloponnesian contests, the third Messenian war
broke out. It lasted ten years, b. c. 464 — 455, and
ended by the Messenians surrendering Ithome to
the Spartans on condition of being allowed a free
departure from the Peloponnesus. They accord-
ingly migrated to Naupactus.

Messenia is very little mentioned by our author. Heiociotus's
In his time, as we have already seen, the territory ^^'^°'^'^ "
was occupied by a mingled population of perioeci
and helots, and entirely subject to Sparta. Arista,-
goras, when he wished to induce the Spartan Idng
Cleomenes to assist in the Ionian revolt, and con-
quer Asia, said to him : ^ ' Here you must carry on
war with the Messenians, who are yom* equals in

tion

48 SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

EUROPE, valour, and with the Arcadians and Argives, who
CHAP. III. have nothing that approaches gold or silver.^ He-
rodotus also mentions a victory gained by the Spar-
tans over the Messenians near Ithome.^
Topography Tlic following are the only towns noticed by He-
Pyius. rodotus. Pylus, from whence the Pisistratidae
Asine. originally came.^ Asine, near Cardamyle in La-
stenycierus couia, inhabited by Dryopians.* Stenyclerus, where
A'imnestus with 300 Spartans engaged with the
Messenians, but was killed with all his forces/
ithome. Itliome, wlicre the Spartans, assisted by Tisamenus

an Elean diviner, defeated the Messenians.^
IX. laco- IX. Laconica was formed by two mountain chains
rai^descrj- running immediately fr^om Arcadia and enclosing
the river Eurotas. The town of Sparta was seated
on the right bank of this river, about twenty miles
fr'om the sea. Above and below the town, rocks and
hills aproached the banks on both sides, and enclosed
a plain upon which the city stood. This enclosed
plain is without a doubt the " hollow Lacedaemon"
of Homer. The mountain slopes were fertile, but
the soil of the plain was poor. The country was
most fortunately situated for purposes of defence.
The interior of Laconica was only accessible from
Arcadia, Argolis, and Messenia by narrow passes
and mountain roads. The want of harbours like-
wise contributed to its natural isolation. Euri-
pides has successfully seized the peculiar character
of the country, and contrasted it with the more fa-
voured territory of Messenia.'

1 V. 49. 2 ix. 35. 3 V. 65. * viii. 73. ^ ix. 64. ^ ix. 35.

'' The following poetical translation of the description of Euripides
I have extracted from the English edition of Miiller's History of the Do-
rians.

" Far spreads Laconia's ample bound,
With high heaped rocks encompassed round,

The invader's threat despising ;
But ill its bare and rugged soil
Rewards the ploughman's painful toil ;
Scant harvests there are rising.

" While o'er Mcssenia's beauteous land
Wide watering streams their arms expand,
Of nature's gifts profuse ;

History.

SOUTHERN GEEECE, OR PELOPONNESUS. 49

The most ancient inhabitants of Laconica are said Europe.
to have been Cynurians and Leleges. Herodotus chap. m.
considered the Cynurians to be autochthonous, but
calls them lonians/ These were expelled or con-
quered by the Achaeans. Argos then became the
principal city in the Peloponnesus, and Sparta is re-
presented as subject to it. At the Dorian invasion
Laconica fell to the share of Eurysthenes and Procles,
the two sons of Aristodemus, the Heracleid. Three
distinct classes now existed at Sparta. (1.) The Do-
rian conquerors, who resided in the capital, and were
called Spartiatae or Spartans. (2.) The perioeci or
old Achaean inhabitants, who became tributary to
the Spartans, and possessed no political rights. (3.)
The helots, who were also a portion of the old
Achaeans, but were reduced to slavery. The helots
were rustic serfs, as distinguished from the perioeci,
who dwelt in the towns. The Messenians were sub-
sequently included amongst the helots.

The Lacedaemonians were the chief of the Do- Herodoms's
rians, and were descended from the Hellenes.^ They
affirmed, in opposition to all the poets, that Aristode-
mus himself, and not his two sons, brought them to
Laconica. Two kings subsequently reigned at
Sparta. One line descended fi-om Eurysthenes : the
other line descended from Procles.^ Lycurgus the

legislator belonged to this line of Procles

The celebrated constitution which lasted about six
hundred years, was a mixture of monarchy, aristo-
cracy, and democracy, and may be thus summed up.
Two kings ; a senate of twenty-eight nobles ; five
yearly-elected Ephori; assemblies of the people, com-

Bright plenty crowns her smiling plain ;
The firuitful tree, the full-eared grain,
Their richest stores produce.

Large herds her spacious valleys fillj
On many a soft, descending hill

Her flocks unnumbered stray ;
No fierce extreme her climate knows,
Nor chilling frost, nor wintry snows,

Nor dog-star's scorching ray."

1 viii, 73. 2 i 5g_ 3 V. 52.

account.

50 SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

EUROPE, posed however only of the citizens of Sparta ; equal
CHAP. III. (Jiyigion of land among 39,000 families ; no trade ;
iron money ; public and equal education ; no walls ;'
no fleets ; common tables ; all luxury forbidden ; no
theatre ; enslaved helots, who alone attended to agri-
culture and trade.
Description The Laconians were a numerous people, and dwelt
nia*ns! ^'^^°' 11^ many cities. They paid an especial attention to
religious observances,^ and were remarkable for stu-
dying an extreme brevity of speech,^ but at the
same time they often said one thing whilst they
meant another.^ The Spartans themselves were the
most valiant men amongst the Greeks, and were all
equal to those who fought at Thermopylae ; the
other Laconians were also vaKant, but rather infe-
rior.'^ Demaratus thus briefly sketched their cha-
racter to Xerxes. " In single combat, the Laconians
are inferior to none, and v/hen combined they are
the bravest of mankind. Few indeed they are, and
. yet not absolutely few ; for they have a master —
THE Law : whom they fear, far more than your slaves
fear you. Whatever that master commands they
will do ; and it inflexibly forbids them to fly from
battle before any number of enemies, and enjoins
them to remain in their ranks, and to conquer or
die. It is utterly impossible that they should list-
en to your proposals for enslaving Hellas. They
would oppose you for ever, even if all the rest of
the Grreeks went over to you ; and you need not
ask their number, for whether a thousand men or
more or less should march out, they would cer-
tainly give you battle." ^
Rights and Tlic Spartaus gave to their kings two priest-
tiKjhkmgs! hoods ; that of the Lacedaemonian, and that of
the Uranian Zeus. Also the following privileges,
which may be divided into those during war, and
those during peace. ^
In war. The Spartan kings might levy war against any

1 ix. 7. Comp. V. f)3; vi. lOG ; vii. 206. ^ ijj, 45.

3 ix. 54. Comp. V. <J2; vi. 108; viii. 142. * viii. 209, 234.

5 vii. 102, 104. '■ vi. 56, 57.

SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS. 51

country they pleased, and any Spartan wlio opposed europe.
them fell under a curse. They were always the ^hap. m.
first in an advance, and the last in a retreat. A
hundred chosen men formed their body-guard in the
field of battle. During the expeditions they sacri-
ficed as many cattle as they pleased, and took as
their own share the skins and chines of all the
victims.^

In times of peace the Spartan kings enjoyed the in peace.
following honours. At public sacrifices they were Atpiibiic
the first to sit down to the feasts ; they were served feasts.'^and
first ; and they each received a double portion, games.
They had the right of offering the first libations, and
were entitled to the skins of the cattle that were sacri-
ficed. At every new moon, and on the seventh day
of the month, the state presented each of them with
a perfect animal fit for sacrifice, in the temple of
Apollo ; together with a medimnus of barley flour
and a Laconian quart of wine. At all public
ffames, they had particular seats appointed. They ^^s^* ^^

<D J J ^ 1. ^ xx^ J appointing

also had the right of selecting the proxeni, or officers the proxeui,
to receive and entertain foreign ambassadors ; and ^" ^^* ^""
of appointing the pythii, or persons sent to consult
the oracle at Delphi, who dined publicly with the
kinffs. If the kin^s were absent fi-om the daily pub- Daily aiiovv--

^^ T , 1" en 1 jii' ance of food.

lie meal, two choenices oi nour, and one cotyle oi
flour were sent to each of their houses. When they
were present, a double portion of everything was
given to them ; and they received the same honour
at every private banquet among-st the citizens. They Keepers of

J X. JL o J til© orticlcs.

also preserved the oracles with the privity of the
pythii, and were the sole iuda^es in deciding upon Guardians

i--^ -'- -„ ..-•'. o ___ oJr of heiresses.

the husband for a virgin heiress, who had not been
betrothed by her father ; and in determining re- Commis-
specting the public high-ways. If any one desired theTigii-
to adopt a son, it was also necessary to do it in the ^^'^^^' ^^^-
presence of the kings. Finally, the kings sat in the Entitled to

X ^ o J 7 <D ^ scat m the

council of twenty-eight, where they each had two council of
votes ; and if prevented fi^om attending the sittings, ^^\^^l^'

^ vi. 56.
E 2

52 SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

EUROPE, they were represented by their nearest relations
CHAP. III. amongst the senators.^

' ' Oui' author mentions the following particulars re-

andTustoms specting the manners and customs of the Laconians.
of Ae peo- ^£^gp ^\^q death of a king, horsemen announced the
Burial of evcut througliout the whole country; in the town
"^^'^' however it was made known by an old woman, who
paraded through the streets, beating a kettle. As
soon as this had taken place, two freed persons, a man
and a woman from each house, were forced, under
the penalty of heavy fines, to disfigure themselves as
mourners. The Laconians also had the same cus-
tom as the Asiatic barbarians, for besides the citizens
of Sparta, a certain number of their subjects through-
out the country were obliged to join in the lament.
Accordingly many thousand helots, perioeci, and
Spartans, men and women, all assembled together in
one place, and struck their foreheads, and gave them-
selves uj) to unbounded lamentations, affirming that
the last king had been the best. If however one of
the kings fell in war, they made his efiigy, and ex-
posed it on a richly ornamented couch. After the
interment, all public business was sujDended for ten
days ; no assembly was held, and no elections for
public officials, but the whole interval was spent in
mourning.^ The people had a custom similar to the
Persians, for a new king remits all debts due from
any Spartan to the deceased king, or to the state. ^
Hereditary Tlicy also rcsemblcd the Aegyptians, inasmuch as the
professions. ^^^^ ^^ hcralds, flutc-players, and cooks followed the
same profession which their father had exercised.*
At the same time, handicraftsmen were the least re-
spected, and those were esteemed the most noble
MisceUane- wlio dcvotcd thcmsclves to war.^ Executions were
never carried into effect in the day-time, but only at
night.^ The La(;onians dressed their heads, when
about to hazard their lives in combat.'^ To the man
dislumoured by cowardice, a Spartan would neither
speak nor give any fire.^ When they wished to per-

1 vi. .57. 2 vi. 58. ' vi. .59. * vi. 60. « jj 157,

« iv. 14G. ' vii. 209. « yii. 231.

ous customs.

SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS. 53

suade a man to take a good draught, they said, Europe.
'' Pour out like a Scythian ; " an expression which ^«^^- "i-
they had adopted from the time of Cleomenes, who
contracted from the Scythians a habit of drinking
unmixed wine, and at last died insane.'

Herodotus mentions a few towns and other locali- Topography
ties in Laconica. The most celebrated of all was Sparta.
Sparta, the noblest city and kingdom in Greece,^
and contained 8000 men.^ Near the palace gates
was a shrine to the hero Astrabacus.* The city
contained a temple of Talthybius, the herald of
Agamemnon, whose descendants were called Talthy-
biadae, and as a privilege, were intrusted with all
embassies from Sparta.^ There was likewise a tem-
ple of Apollo,*^ together with temples of the celestial
Zeus, and of the Lacedaemonian Zeus, of which the
two kings of Sparta held the two priesthoods.'' Men-
tion is also made of the Aegidae as being a principal The Ae-
tribe in Sparta.^ They seem to have been a priest ^^ ^^'
family of the Cadmeians, like the Grephyraeans at
Athens.^ Herodotus likewise mentions the Car^
neian,'" Hyacinthian,'' and Gymnopaedian festi-
vals.'^ At the town of Therapne stood a temple of Therapne.
Helena, situated above stood a temple of Phoebus.'^
The town of Pitane sent a lochus of troops to Pitane.
Plataea.'* Cardamyle is alluded to as being situ- Cardamyie.
ated near Asine.'^ Oresteum was on the borders of oresteum.
Arcadia.'^

On Mount Thornax stood a golden statue of Mount
Apollo : the Laconians wished to buy this gold of
Croesus, but he gave it them as a present.'^ Mount ^ount
Taygetus was once the seat of the Minyans, who
from thence migrated partly to Elis, and partly to
the island of Thera.'^ Cape Taenarum is the place Cape Tae-

-•■ ■'• narum.

1 V. 84. 2 vii. 209. 3 vii. 234. * vi. 69.

5 vii. 134. « vi. 57. '^ vi. 56. ^ jy, 149

9 The Aegidae probably became incorporated with the three general
tribes, which are to be found in every Dorian community. There does
not appear to have been much distinction between the tribes at Sparta,
as by the constitution of Lycurgus, all the freemen were placed on a
footing of equality.

!« vii. 206. " ix. 7, H. '' vi. 0,7. '^ vi. 61. '* ix. 53.

15 viii. 73. 16 ix. 11. iM. 69. "1^,145,149.

54 SOUTHERN GREECE, OR PELOPONNESUS.

EUROPE, where Arion is said to have been carried by a dol-
CHAP. III. phin, and where there was a small brazen statue re-
^^Q presenting the story.' To Cape Malea the Argolic

Maiea. territory had extended in ancient times. ^

The Laconians sent ten ships to Artemisimn,^ and
sixteen to Salamis.* The description of this people
concludes the geography of the Peloponnesus.

1 i. 23, 24. 2 i. 82, ^ viii, 1. * viii. 43.

CHAPTER IV.

NORTHERN GREECE.

Division into ten distiicts. — I. Megaris, general description. — Hero- EUROPE,
dotus's account. — -Erroneously supposed to be the most westerly point in chap. iv.

Greece. — Topography: Megara, Nisaea, Scu-onian Way. — -11. Attica,

general description. — Ancient history: kings, archons. — Herodotus's ac-
count : origin of the Athenians. — lonians enter Attica.^ — Ionian migi'a-
tion. — Athenians regarded as Ionian Pelasgians. — Manners, customs,
etc. — Herodotus's description of Attica and Athens. — Four ancient divi- ■
sions of the Athenians. — Re-classification into ten tribes. — Each tribe
formed ten demi. — Three factions. — Public buildings, etc. : temple of
Aeacus, sepulchre of Cimon, grotto of Pan, temple of Boreas, Ennea-
crunos, Barathron, temple of Heracles, Areiopagus, harbours of Phale-
rum, Munychia, and Piraeus. — The Acropolis, general description. — He-
rodotus's account : sanctuary of Aglaurus, ancient wooden hedge,
Pelasgic wall, temple of Erectheus, the Serpent, the salt Spring, the
sacred Olive, trophies in the Propylaea. — Topography : Eleusis, Mara-
thon, Lipsydrium, Alopecae, Oenoe, Hysiae, Brauron, Decelea, Thoricus,
Anaphlj^stus, Oropus, Pallene, Anagyrus, Aphidnae, Sphendale, Thriasian
plain. Cape Sunium, Mount Laurium, Cape Colias, Zoster, Paeonia,
Mount Hymettus, Mount Aegaleos, Mount Cithaeron, river Ilissus. —
ni. BoEOTiA, general description : History. — Herodotus's account : Cad-
means. — Topogi-aphy: Thebes, with the temple of Amphiaraus, the
oracle, and the gifts of Croesus ; Delium, Thespia, Eleon, Tanagra, river
Thermodon, Coronaea, Lebadeia, Scolus, Acraephia, Orchomenus, Ery-
thrae, Plataea. — General description of the Plataean territory. — View of
the scene of the battle.— Plan of the battle : 1st position ; 2nd position ;
3rd position. — Sepulchres of the slain. — IV. Phocis, general description.
- — General description of Delphi : Castalian spring, temple of Athene
Pronaea, temple of Apollo, the oracle.' — Herodotus's account of the temple,
and its treasm-es : throne of Midas ; silver offerings and golden bowls of
Gj^ges ; silver bowl andiron saucer of Alyattes. — Gifts of Croesus : 117
golden demi-plinths, golden lion, gold and silver mixing vessels, and
other offerings.-— Miscellaneous gifts from the Lacedaemonians, Euel-
thon, Phocians, Pausanias, and fi-om the Greeks after the battle of Sala-
mis. — Herodotus's description of Mount Parnassus. — -Topography : route
of the army of Xerxes. — V. LocRis, general description.— Eastern or
Opuntian Locrians.— Western, or Locri Ozolae. — Herodotus's account of
the Ozolae : Amphissa.— The Opuntian Locrians. — Thermopjdae as de-
scribed by Herodotus and including Mails : — enclosed by the Trachi-
nian rocks ; Anticyra ; river Spercheius ; river Dyras ; river Melas ;
Trachis — the widest part ; ravine of the river Asopus ; river Phoenix ;
narrowest part ; Thermopylae ; Anthela ; temple of Demeter ; seats of
Amphictyons ; hot springs ; Phocian wall and gates ; stone lion to
Leonidas ; Alpenus ; the encampments ; pass of Anopaea ; inscriptions

NOETHERN GEEECE.

CHAP. IV.

EUROPE, at Thermopylae. — VI. Doris, mother country of the Dorians. — Topogra-
phy: Pindus, Erineus. — VII. Aetolia; scattered notices. — VIII. Acar-
NANIA ; river Achelous, Echinades islands, Anactorium, and Teloboae.
— IX. Thess.aly, general description. — Thessaly Proper, viz. Histiaeotis,
Pelasgiotis, Phthiotis, and Thessaliotis. — Two other districts. Magnesia
and Mahs. — Herodotus's account : Thessaly anciently a lake enclosed
by Pehon and Ossa, Olympus, Pindus, and Othrys ; formed by the rivers
Peneus, Apidanus, Onochonus, Enipeus, Pamisus, and Lake Boebeis. —
Outlet at Tempe formed by an earthquake. — Tribes of Thessaly. — Pass
of Tempe.-— Pass of Gonnus. — Topography : lolcus, Gonnus, Mehboea,
Alos, Larissa, Casthanaea, Gulf of Magnesia. — X. Epirus, scattered
notices in Herodotus. — Thesprotians, Molossians, Epidamnus, Ambra-
ciots, and Apollonia. — Oracle at Dodona : Aegyptian tradition of its
origin ; Greek ti-aditions ; opinion of Herodotus.

Division
into ten
districts.

NoETHEEN Geeece inaj be divided into ten dis-
tricts, viz. Megaris, Attica, Boeotia, Pliocis, Locris,
(including Malis,) Doris, Aetolia, Acarnania, Thes-
saly, and Epirus. These included the whole terri-
tory from the isthmus to the Cambunian and Ce-
raunian mountains. Their relative position on the
map was as follows.

_, . Locris. ^

Phocis. (;opuntians.)
Locris.
(Ozolae.)

Megaris.

NOETHEEN GEEECE. 57

I. Megaeis was a small mountainous district on the Europe.
isthmus beyond Corinth, between the Corinthian and °«^p- 1^-
Saronic Gulfs. Its only plain was the one on which i. megaris
the city of Megara was situated. General de-

Megaris was conquered by the Athenians^ under HeTodotus's
Pisistratus. Herodotus says it was the most westerly ^'=''''^'^*-
point of Europe reached by the Persians.^ This Erroneous-
statement is incorrect, as the expedition against Jt to ^'be^tht
Delphi^ proceeded much farther towards the west. {""'oJ'^^^-^''"
The general course of the invaders, however, was Greece.
from east to west ; and Herodotus speaks of the
farthest point of this course as if it were in fact the
farthest point westward. The Megarians sent 20 ships
to Artemisium* and the same number to Salamis,^
and 3000 of their soldiers fought well at Plataea.^

Herodotus mentions the following places in Me- Topography
garis. Megara, the capital, and native place of Megara.
Eupalinus, who constructed the great aqueduct at
Samos ; ^ Nisaea, which was taken by Pisistratus ; ^ Nisaea.
[and was the port of Megara, and about 2 miles from
the city ;] and the Scironian Way, which was blocked scironian
up by the Peloponnesians during the Persian war.^ ^^'

II. Attica is a triangular peninsula, having two of ii- attica.
its sides washed by the sea, whilst a third is protected scription.
by mountains. On the eastern side is the Aegean

Sea ; on the western is the Saronic Gulf. The base
on the north is formed by the following mountains.
The range which descends from Northern Greece
forms a knot at the huge mass of Cithaeron, from
which two chief branches run off. First, the Oenean
mountains in a south-westerly direction through
Megaris to the Scironian rocks on the Saronic Gulf.
Secondly, Mount Parnes, in an easterly direction to
the sea-coast. These two branches, with the central
mass of Cithaeron, completely protect the Attic pe-
ninsula from the remainder of Greece. Through
the range of Cithaeron and Parnes were three prin-
cipal passes into Boeotia. The western was called
the Three Heads by the Boeotians, and the Oak's

1 i. 59. 2 ix. 14. 3 viii, 35—37. ^ viii. 1. " viii. 45.

« ix. 21, 28. ^ iii. 60. ^ j. 59. 9 yiij. 71.

58 KOKTHERN GREECE.

EUROPE. Heads by the Atlieniaiis. The central was called
^"^''- '"'"• Phyle. The eastern was called Deceleia. The
west and eastern passes are both mentioned in He-
rodotus. Other ranges descend into the interior
under the names of Aegaleos, Hjnnettus, Laurium,
etc. The whole territory of Attica is distributed
into five natural divisions. (1.) The Eleusinian or
Thriasiau plain. (2.) The Athenian plain. (3.)
The Diacria, or Highlands, including the plain of
Marathon. (4.) The Mesogea, or midland district.
(5.) The Paralia, or sea-coast district.
Ancient his- At a vcry ancient period we find Attica governed
toiy. i^y g^ lijjg of kings a23parently commencing with

Cecrops and ending with Codrus. Cecrops lived a
little before Deucalion : Codrus reigned for some
time after the Dorian invasion of Peloponnesus.
This monarchical period therefore extended from
about B. c. 1550 to b. c. 1050. The most important
princes of this mythical line were the following.
Kings, Cecrops, the first king, called an autochthon, or

earth-born. The Athenians called themselves au-
tochthonous or aborigines. Cecro^^s civilized the
Athenians, instituted marriage, divided Attica into
twelve communities, and introduced a new mode of
worship, inasmuch as he abolished bloody sacrifices
to Zeus and substituted cakes.

Cranaus, who reigned at the time of the flood of
Deucalion.

Amphictyon, who married the daughter of Cra-
naus.

Erectheus.

Ion (?) — the fabulous ancestor of the lonians.
Traditions say that the Athenians, in their war with
the Eleusinians, called in the assistance of Ion, who
accordingly became their king between the reigns of
Erectheus and Codrus.

Theseus, who united the twelve communities
established by Cecro^is into one state, and made
Athens the capital.

Codrus, tlio last king.
Archons. After tlic dcatli of Codrus the monarchy was abol-

NOETHEEN GEEECE. 59

ished, and tlie supreme executive power was vested europe.
in an archon. The office at first was hereditary and ^^^^- ^^-
for life, and the succession of these perpetual and
hereditary archons lasted from about b. c. 1050 to
B. c. 680, commencing with Medon and terminating
with Alcmaeon. After the death of Alcmaeon it
was decreed that the archonship should be held for
ten years only. Six archons followed in succession.
Finally another change was effected. The archon-
ship was declared to be a yearly office, and its
duties were distributed amongst nine archons in-
stead of one. The facts recorded of this period
down to the legislation of Solon, b. c. 594, are few
and uncertain. Draco, b. c. 621, was the author of
the first written code of laws at Athens. He affixed
the penalty of death to nearly every crime. Solon,
b. c. 594, established another and a better system of
legislation. The government as altered by him
may be thus described: 1. Division of the peo-
ple into four classes, according to property. 2.
Offices of state filled only by citizens of the first
three classes. 3. Nine annual archons at the head
of affairs. 4. Council of four hundred chosen annu-
ally by lot to debate upon all matters previously to
their being submitted to the people. 5. The right
of confirming the laws, electing magistrates, and
debating all matters decided upon by the council of
four hundred, was given to the people. 6. The
council of the Areiopagus was restored and reno-
vated. The Pisistratidae subsequently obtained the
tyranny of Athens, but were expelled prior to the
Persian war.

The Athenians were a Pelasgian race, who had Herodotus's
settled in Attica fi:'om a very ancient period. ^ First origki'of
of all they were called Cranai ; ^ next under Cecrops ^^^^ ^*^^'''"
they were called Cecropidae ; and then under Erec-
theus they were called Athenians.^ Their name and

1 i. 56; vii. 161.

2 Cranaus, as we have seen, was posterior to Cecrops. Herodotus
therefore either followed a peculiar chronology, or else the name of
Cranai was derived from the rough and rugged nature of the soil,

^ viii. 44.

NORTHEEN GREECE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. IV.

loiiians en-
ter Attica.

Ionian mi-
gration.

Athenians
regarded as
Ionian Pe-
lasgians.

language however, and perhaps their very race, were
all changed by the Dorian conquest of the Pelopon-
nesus. The Ionian Aegialeis, driven from their
Peloponnesian settlements by the Achaeans, entered
Attica.^ The traditionary account of this migration
is preserved in the story of Ion, son of Xuthus and
grandson of Hellen.^ The lonians would therefore
ajipear to be Hellenes. They either conquered
Attica, or became amalgamated with the old Pelas-
gian inhabitants. Ion is mentioned as the leader of
the Attic armies ; ^ and the Athenians were subse-
quently divided into four tribes after his four sons.*
This addition to the Attic population led to what is
called the great Ionian migration to the coast and
islands of Asia Minor. The emigrants chiefly con-
sisted of lonians, together with natives of Attica,
and a motley band from other parts of Hellas.^ A
doubtfal po^^ulation remained behind ; apparently a
mixture of lonians and Pelasgians. A story is told
of some Pelasgians from the island of Samothrace
who became neighbours of the Athenians,^ but were
subsequently expelled from Attica.^ In the time of
Herodotus the Athenian people boasted of their
Pelasgian descent, but were regarded as lonians,
though they considered the latter name as a re-
proach.^ Their language, which was originally
Pelasgic, and distinct from the Hellenic, was
changed.^ They had in fact become Hellenes, and
they undoubtedly considered themselves as Hel-
lenes, and to be bound to all the other nations of
Hellas by the ties of blood, of language, and of re-
ligion.^'^ The great difficulty in Herodotus is his ap-
parent confusion between the Pelasgians and the
lonians. Sometimes he regards them as the same
race, for in one important passage he contrasts the
Dorians as an Hellenic race with the lonians as a
Pelasgic ; " and he certainly considered some of tlie
lonians to be as mucli the aboriginal inhabitants of

1 i. 14.5, 14G ; vii. 94. - viii. 44.

' i. 14G. '■ ii. 51. ' vi. 1.37.

'■' i. 57. '" viii. 144; ix. 7-

3 Ibid. * V. 66,

« i. 14.3; comp. V. 69,
'1 i. 56.

NORTHERN GREECE. 61

Hellas as the Pelasgians.* The best way of getting europe.
over the difficulty appears to be, to suppose chap. iv.
that the lonians and Pelasgians were identical, and '

that Herodotus followed the result of his own re-
searches in o|)position to the prevalent belief that
the lonians were Hellenes.^

The Athenians were the first people in Hellas J^^^^^^^^c
who made the images of Hermes fascino erecto,
a custom which they learnt not from the Aegyptians,
but from those Pelasgians who came from Samo-
thrace and settled for a while at Athens.^ Their
women originally wore the Dorian costume, which
nearly resembled the Corinthian. [It consisted of a
woollen chiton without sleeves, which was fastened
over both shoulders by clasps or buckles.] When
the single Athenian survivor returned from the
fatal attack on Aegina, the women pierced him to
death with their clasps, each asking him what had
become of her husband. The Athenians then com-
pelled their wives to change their Dorian for the
Ionian chiton, which had no clasps or buckles, [but
was a long and loose linen garment, reaching to the
feet, and having wide sleeves.] This Ionian costume
came originally from Caria.*

Attica was a country but ill adapted for cavalry, J®^°'^°*''^'®
and so protected by the line of mountains on the of Attica
north, that the only way by which an invading army ^nd Athens.
could retreat into Boeotia was through the narrow
passes of Mount Cithaeron.^ It is said that in ancient
times it was the only country in the world that pro-
duced olive trees." Athens was the chief town, and
appears in the time of Aristagoras to have had a
population of 30,000 men,^ including the Gephyrae-
ans, who were descended from the Cadmeian Phoe-
nicians. These Gephyraeans were however ex-
cluded from certain privileges of citizenship, which
are not worth mentioning,^ and they possessed
sanctuaries of their own, in which the other Atheni-

1 viii_. 73.

2 Thiiiwall, Hist, of Greece, chaps, ii. and iv. Comp. Grote, Part ii.
chap. 2.

3 ii. 51. * V. 87, 88. 5 ix. 13. « v. 82. ' v. 97. ' v. 57.

NORTHERN GREECE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. IV.

Four an-
cient diyi-
sious of tlie
Athenians.

Re-classifi-
cation into
ten tribes.

Each tribe
formed ten
denii.

Three fac-
tions.

Public

biiiluings,

etc.

Temple of
Aeacus.

Sepulchre of
Cimou.

Grotto of
Pan.

Temple of
Eoreas.

Enncacru-
nos.

ans could take no share. Theii' temj)le and mys-
teries of the Achaean Demeter ^ were the most
celebrated. The Athenians as a body were origin-
ally divided into fom^ classes, which were named
after the four sons of Ion — Geleon, Aegicores, Ar-
gades, and Hoples.

Cleisthenes, the Alcmaeonid, and grandson of the
tyrant of Sicyon, abolished this classification, and
divided the people into ten tribes, or phylae, and
named them all but one after heroes who belonged
to the land, [viz. Erectheis, Aegeis, Pandionis, Leon-
tis, Acamantis, Oeneis, Cecropis, Hippothoontis,
Aeantis, Antiochis,] in order that the Athenians
might not have the same tribes as the lonians. The
exception was the tribe of Aeantis, named after
Ajax, who, though a stranger, was added because he
was a near neighbour and ally. Each of these tribes,
or phylae, contained ten demi.^ We also find the
inhabitants of Attica divided into three parties or
factions, viz. the pediaei, or lowlanders ; the parali,
or inhabitants of the coast ; and the diacrii, or high-
landers.^

Beside the sanctuaries of the Gephyraeans already
mentioned, Herodotus mentions many other public
buildings in Athens. In the Agora was a temple to
Aeacus, which had been erected and dedicated at
the time of the Aeginetan war.* In the front of the
city, and beyond the road through Coela, was the
sepulchre of Cimon the father of Miltiades, and op-
posite were buried the mares with which he three
times obtained the victory in the Olympiades.^ Be-
low the Acropolis was the sanctuary [grotto] of Pan,
who was yearly propitiated by the Athenians with
sacrifices and a torch-race, in consequence of a per-
sonal remonstrance on the part of the deity. ^ By
the river Ilissus was a temple to Boreas, which the
Athenians erected in gratitude for the storm which
destroyed 400 Persian ships off Magnesia.^ Herod-
otus also mentions the spring called Enneacrunos ; ^

V. (51.

2 V. GO, fiO.
« vi. 10.3.

» i. 59.
vii. 189.

V. 89.
vi. 1.37.

■' vi. 10.3.

NOKTHERN GREECE. 63

the baratliron,^ into wliich the Athenians threw the Europe.
ambassadors of Darius when they^ came to demand chap. iv.
earth and water ; and the temple of Heracles at Cy- Barathron.
nosarffes,^ near which was the tomb of Auchimolius temple of

0 7 ^ 1 A T 1 1 -n Heracles.

at Alopecae. Oj)posite the Acropolis was the hill
Areiopagus, from whence the Persians besieged Areiopagus.
Athens.^ The city had three harbours, namely, Harbom-sof
Phalerum,*' Munychia,^ and Piraeus.^ In the time MmlyXa,
of the Persian war Phalerum was the real port.^ andPhaeus.

The Acropolis was a square craggy rock in the The acio-
centre of the city. It rose abruptly to a height of Snerai de-
150 feet. The summit was flat, and about 1000 feet scnption.
long from east to west, and about 500 feet broad
jfrom north to south. It was the fortress, the sanc-
tuary, and the museum of Athens. The rocks on
the north were called the Long Rocks. On this
side was the sanctuary of Agiaurus. Opposite the
western declivity stood the hill Areiopagus and the
altar of the twelve gods. On the Acropolis itself
was the Erechtheium, which coiitained the temple
of Athene, and the serpent, the olive, and the salt-
spring described by our author.

At the front of the Acropolis, [on the northern Herodotus's
side,] behind the gate and the road, [which were ^''^""'^ '
apparently at the western extremity,] the ascent was
very precipitous ; but, nevertheless, the Persians con-
trived to mount it near the sanctuary of Agiaurus, Sanctuaryof
the daughter of Cecrops.^" In ancient times the ele- Ancienr*
vation was enclosed by a hedge ; and when the ora- ^eXl™
cle declared that a wooden wall would alone protect
the Athenians from the Persian invaders, many of
the old citizens considered that this hedge was the
wooden wall to which reference was made.^^ A stone
wall was built by the Pelasgians who came from Sa-
mothrace,^^ and called the Pelass'ic wall or fort,^^ Peiasgic

.' • ^ wall.

which was sufficiently strong to defy the Spartans

^ The barathron was a deep pit at Athens, with hooks on the sides, in
which criminals were cast. The Persian envoj''S were told to get their
earth and water there.

2 vii. 133. 3 V. 63; vi. 116. * v. 63. ^ viii. 52. « viii. 91.

•^ viii. 76. 8 viii. 85. » v. 63; vi. 116. i" viii. 53. ^' vii. 142.

12 vi. 137. " V. 64.

CHAP. lY.

64 NOETHEEN GEEECE.

EUROPE, when the Pisistratidae took refage in the citadeL ^ This
Pelasgic wall was apparently dismantled before the
Persian war, for when the Acropolis was attacked by-
Xerxes, the only fortifications appeared to be pali-
sades and other works constructed of wood.^ In the
Temple of Acropolis was a temple dedicated to Erechtheus
Erectheus. ^^^ earth-bom.^ The Athenians said that a large
The serpent scrpcnt uscd to Hve in the temple, whom they re-
garded as the guardian of the Acropolis, and to whom
they brought honey-cakes every month. These cakes
were always consumed until Xerxes arrived, after
which they remained untouched ; and the Athenians
were consequently more anxious to abandon their
city, as they considered that the god had forsaken
The salt tlic citadcL* In the Erechtheium was the salt spring
^^''"^' which had gushed from the trident of Poseidon, and
The sacred ^he sacrcd olive by which Athene, when contesting
with the latter, had proved her claim to the coun-
try. The olive tree was burnt by the Persians with
the rest of the temple, l)ut on the second day after,
a shoot was seen to have sprouted from the stump
Trophies in to tlic height of a cubit.^ Herodotus also mentions
lael. '°^^' the two following trophies which were preserved in
the Propylaea.

Fii'st, a brazen chariot and four horses, which
stood on the left hand at the entrance, and bore the
following inscription :

" Athena's sons o'ercame in feats of war
Boeotians and Chalcidians, and subdued
Their pride within a dark and iron dungeon,
And tythed the spoil, and gave these mares to Pallas."

Secondly, the fetters of the Boeotians and of the
Chalcidians, who had both been defeated and taken
prisoners by the Athenians on the same day. These
fetters were still hanging in the time of Herodotus
on a wall which had been much scorched by fire
by the Mode, and which was oj^posite the temple
that faces the west.^ The Propylaea was subse-
quently rebuilt by Pericles in the most magnificent

' V. G.'). 2 viii^ 51 3 yjii, 55_ 4 viii. 41.

5 viii. .55. '"■ V. 77.

NORTHERN GREECE. 65

style with white marble, and covered the whole Europe.
western end of the Acropolis. It contained a temple ^hap. iv.
of Ge Curatrophus and Demeter Chloe, which ap-
pears to have been tlie temple alluded to by Hero-
dotus as the one which faced the west.

In Attica generally the following localities are Topography
mentioned by Herodotus. Eleusis,' where there Eieusis.
was a magnificent temple of Demeter which was
burnt down by the Persians,^ and where the grove
of the goddesses (Demeter and Cora or Perse-
phone, called mother and daughter) was cut down
by Cleomenes.^ Marathon, the best country in all Marathon.
Attica for cavalry,* and containing a sanctuary of
Heracles.^ Lipsydrium, above Paeonia,^ which was Lipsydrium
fortified by the Alcmaeonidae, after the death of
Hipparchus.'^ Aloj)ecae, where was the tomb of the Aiopecae.
Spartan general Anchemolius, who assisted the
Alcmaeonidae against the Pisistratidae.^ It was not
far from Cynosarges. Oenoe and Hysiae, the oenoe.
extreme demi of Attica.^ Brauron, from whence the B/auroli.
Pelasgians carried off the Athenian virgins at the
feast of Artemis,^*' [i. e. the young girls who carried
the sacred baskets.] Decelea,'^ whose inhabitants had
performed so great a service in the mythical period,
in showing the Tyndaridae where Theseus had de-
posited Helen, that at Sparta they enjoyed an ex-
emption fi:om tribute, and a precedency in assem-
blies ; and the Laconians spared the place when
they ravaged the rest of Attica during the Pelopon-
nesian war.^^ Also Thoricus ; ^^ Anaphlystus ;'* Thoricus.
Oropus ; " Pallene, the native place of Ameinias tu^^ ^^
the Athenian, ^^ which contained a temple of the pEe.
Pallenian Athene, where Pisistratus defeated the

1 V. 74. 2 ix. 65. 3 vi. 75. * vi. 102. ' vi. 116.

® Bobrik, following Wesseling and Valckenaer, reads TldpvrjOoc instead
of Jlaioviric- I have followed Gaisford in adopting the older reading.
This Paeonia in Attica was apparently a small town or district on the
southern slopes of Mount Parnes, and the family seat of the Paeonids,
who were kinsmen of the Alcmaeonids. The Paeonids of the Attic tribe
of Leontis are mentioned in inscriptions.*

''v. 62. ^ Y.63. «v. 75. 1" vi. 137; iv. 145.

" vi. 92; ix. 15. ^^ ix. 73. Comp. Dahlmann, chap. iii.

13 iv. 9. " Ibid. 15 vi. 100. i« viii. 84.

* Grotefend de Demis Att. p. 40.
F

NORTHERN GREECE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. IV.

Anagyrus.
Aphidnae.
Sphendale.

Thriasian
plain.
Cape Suni-
xini.

Mount Lau-
rium.

Cape Colias.

Zoster.

Paeonia.
Mount Hy-
mettus.

Mount Ae-
galeos.
Mount
Cithaeron.

Atlienians. It lay on one of the roads between
Athens and Marathon.^ Finally, Anagyrus, the na-
tive place of Enmenes ; ^ Aphidnae, the native place
of Timodemns ; ^ and Sphendale, at which Mardo-
nius halted on his route from Decelea to Tanagra/

The Athenians sent 127 ships to Artemisium, and
supplied 20 others which were manned by Chalci-
dians.* Subsequently they sent 53 more ships. ^ At
Artemisium about one-half of their vessels were de-
stroyed, but still they furnished 180 ships at Sala-
mis, which was more than were supplied by any of
the other allies. '^

Herodotus also mentions the following physical
features of Attica. The Thriasian plain, which was
well adajjted for a battle-field.^ Cape Sunium,^
where one of the Phoenician vessels was dedicated
after the battle of Salamis.''' Mount Lauriuim, cele-
brated for its silver mines, the profits of which the
Athenians were about to share at the rate of ten
drachmas per- man, when Themistocles persuaded
them to equip 200 triremes with the money. ^^ Cape
Colias, where many of the Persian ships were
wrecked after the battle of Salamis.*^ Zoster, where
some small promontories jutted out from the main-
land.'^ Paeonia ^^ on Mount Parnes (?). Mount
Hymettus, whose underlying lands were given to
the Pelasgians in return for the wall which they
built round the Acropolis. These Pelasgians were
afterwards driven from this settlement, either be-
cause they insulted the young Athenian women at
the Nine Springs, or because the Athenians desired
repossession of the lands after seeing them culti-
vated.'^ Mount Aegaleos, from whence Xerxes
viewed the battle of Salamis.'^ Mount Cithaeron,
with narrow passes leading into Boeotia, which
were called the Three Heads by the Boeotians, and
Oak's Heads by the Athenians.'^ Lastly, the river

1 i. 62. 2 vjii_ 93 3 yjji 125. * ix. 15. '^ viii. 1,

* viii. 14. ■^ viii. 44. ® viii. 65 ; ix. 7. ^ iv. 99.

1" viii, 121. 1' vii. 144. '- viii. 96. '-^ viii. 107.

'* See note to page 65. '^ ^i 137, ic y\{i 90. n j^. 39.

NORTHERN GREECE. 67

Ilissus, near which the Athenians erected a temple Europe.
to Boreas.' ^»^^- ^^-

III. BoEOTiA may be described as a large hoi- ^ly^j.
low basin, enclosed by mountains. On the south {jj'''boeo-
were Cithaeron and Parnes ; on the west was tia. Gene-
Mount Helicon ; on the north were the slopes of tfon.^^"'^'"
Parnassus and the Opuntian range ; whilst on the
east a continuation of the Opuntian chain extended
along the sea-coast as far as the mouth of the river
Asopus. This basin, however, is divided into two
distinct valleys, by a range of elevations running
across the country from Mount Helicon to the Eu-
boean Sea. Each of these two valleys has its lake
and river. The northern valley is drained by the
river Cephissus, whose waters form the lake Copais.
The southern valley is drained by the river Asopus,
and includes Lake Helice.

In ancient times these two valleys were under the History,
separate dominion of two celebrated towns ; Orcho-
menus in the north, and Thebes in the south. Or-
chomenus was inhabited by the Minyans ; Thebes,
by the Cadmeans. Sixty years after the taking of
Troy the Aeolian Boeotians, driven from Phthiotis
in Thessaly by the Thessalians, invaded this terri-
tory, and expelled the Minyans from Orchomenus
and the Cadmeans from Thebes. The Minyans fled
to Laconica.^ The Cadmeans went first to Athens,
and then to Lemnos, Samothrace, and the coasts of
Aeolis ; but the Gephyraeans and Aegids, who were
priest families of the Cadmeans, permanently set-
tled at Athens and Sparta.^ Twenty years after
this Aeolian conquest of Boeotia, the Dorians in-
vaded the Peloponnesus ; and some of the old Pelo-
ponnesian inhabitants, instead of subsiding into an
inferior caste, proceeded through Boeotia towards
Asia. "On their way they were joined by so many
of the Aeolian Boeotians, that the movement was
called the Aeolian migration. At the commence-
ment of the historical period, we find the principal
cities of Boeotia formed into a confederacy, of which

^ vii. 189. ^ Comp. page 45, 46. ^ Comp. page 53,. 61.

F 2

NORTHERN GREECE.

■with the
temple of
Amphia-
raus.

EUROPE. Thebes was the head, and Orchomenus the second
«iAP. IV. jj-^ importance. Plataea withdrew from this con-
federacy, and placed herself under the protection of
xithens as early as b. c. 519.
Heiodotus's Scarccly any information respecting the Boeotians
is furnished by our author. We can only learn
that their sandals, or clogs, must have been different
from those worn by the other Hellenes, for Herodo-
tus compares them with those of the Babylonians.'
cadmeaus. The foUowcrs of the Phoenician Cadmus, called
Cadmeans, settled in Boeotia, and introduced the
knowledge of letters.^ Many of them, together with
many Minyans of Orchomenus, joined the Ionian
migration.^
Topography Hcrodotus mcntious the following places in Boeo-
Thebes, ^ia. Thcbcs, the capital, and a fortified town,^ con-
taining a temple and oracle of the Ismenian Apollo,
and a sanctuary of Amphiaraus. The oracle of
Apollo was consulted by victims, the same as at
Olympia. In his temple Herodotus saw several
tripods bearing inscriptions in Cadmean letters,
which nearly resembled the Ionian. The first was
about the age of Laius the son of Labdacus, who
was grandson of Cadmus. It bore the following in-
scription :

" Amphitryon dedicated me on his return from the Teleboans."

The inscriptions on two other tripods were in hex-
ameters. One was in the time of Oedipus the son of
Laius, and ran thus :

" Scaeus, the victor boxer, placed me here,
A beauteous gift to darting-far Apollo."

The other was given by King Laodamas, son of
Eteocles, and had these words :

" Laodamas, the monarch, placed me here, .

A beauteous gift to glancing-far Apollo." *

The oracle. The oraclcs of Ampliiaraus were given to persons
in their dreams, for they had to sleep one night in
the temple, [after fasting one day and abstaining

195.

V. 57, 5S. 3 i. 14G. * ix. 86.

V. 59—61.

NORTHEKN GEEECE. 69

from wine for three days.^ ] This oracle could only Europe.
be consulted by strangers, as no Theban might chap. iv.
sleep in the temple ; for Amphiaraus had sent to ask
whether Thebes would have him for a prophet or an
ally, upon which the Thebans chose the latter.^

Croesus, king of Lydia, having learnt the virtues Gifts of
and sufferings of Amphiaraus, presented to him a
shield made entirely of gold and a massive golden
spear, which were still to be seen in the time of
Herodotus in the temple of the Ismenian Apollo.^
The Thebans sent 400 men to Thermopylae.*

Beside Thebes, notice is taken of the following
cities. Delium, which was situated in the Theban Deiium.
territory on the coast opj)osite Chalcis. A Phoeni-
cian vessel carried away from this place a gilt image
of Apollo, but Datis the Persian general deposited
it at Delos, where it remained until the Thebans
fetched it back twenty years afterwards.^ Thespia, Thespia.
which was burnt by Xerxes,^ and sent 700 men to
Thermopylae.'' Eleon.^ Tanagra,^ and its district, Eieon.
which on the arrival of Cadmus was given up to the
Gephyraeans. The latter were afterwards expelled
from thence by the Argives, and proceeded to Athens,
where they were enrolled as citizens under certain
restrictions.^" Between Tanagra and Glissas flowed
the river Thermodon.^^ Coronaea, near Thebes. ^^ River Ther-
Lebadeia, which contained the cave and oracle of coronaea.
Trophonius.^" Scolus, which was included in the scoiS?'^'
Theban territory.^* Acraephia, close by the precinct AcraepMa.
of the Ptoan Apollo, which belonged to the Thebans,
and stood above Lake Copais, at the foot of a moun-
tain. The oracle was consulted by the messenger
from Mardonius, and replied in the Carian language.^^
Orchomenus, the native place of Thersander.^** Ery- oichome-
thrae.^^ Lastly, Plataea, which was burnt by Xerxes.'^ Erythrac.
Its territory was separated from that of Thebes by ^^^t-'^^^-
the river Asopus, and by a line drawn by Llysiae,
from the Asopus to Mount Cithaeron.^'' The Pla-

1 Philostrat. Fit. Apoll. ii. 37. ^ viii. 134. ^ i. 52.

* vii. 202. 5 vi, 118. « viii. 50. ^ vii. 202. * v. 43.

« ix. 15. 10 V. 57. " ix. 43. i^ v. 79. ^^ i. 46; viii. 134.
1* ix. 15. 15 viii. 135. i« ix. 16. " ix'. 15. '^ vii. 50. i» vi. 108.

70 NOETHERN GEEECE.

EUROPE, taeans assisted the Athenians with all their forces
CHAP. IT. Marathon ; ^ they manned several of the Atheni>

ships at Artemisium ; ^ but were prevented by an
accident from fighting at Salamis.^ They furnishe'^
600 hoplites at the battle of Plataea.*
General de- The city of Plataca was situated on the slope
the^piatae- Mouut Cithacron, where its terraces descend into
an territory, ^j^g great plain of Tlicbes. The Plataeans, intrenc'
ed behind their native crags, had early defende^^
themselves from the encroachments of Thebes, anrl
separated their state from the Boeotian confederacy
Close behind the mountain wall of Cithaeron, w
the fo"iendly territory of Attica, ever ready to su
com* in the hour of need. The fortunes of Plataea
were thus naturally united with those of Athens.
Both had shared the glory and danger of Marathon ;
and both fought side by side at the great battle o.
Plataea ; whilst the Thebans appeared as traitors in
the ranks of the Persian invaders.

An idea of the country may be obtained by a due
consideration of the following prominent features.
First, the range of Cithaeron, gradually sloping to-
wards the north in a succession of terraces to the
great plain of Thebes. Next, the river Oeroe, which
runs away to the west ; and, farther north, at the
bottom of the slope, the river Asopus, which runs
away to the east. Lastly, the city of Plataea, which
was situated in the west, on the river Oeroe ; and
the towns of Hysiae and Erythrae, which stood in the
east, on the slope of Cithaeron, and near the Asopus.
The circumstances of the battle may be clearly un-
derstood, by remembering that the Greek forces oc-
cupied three distinct positions to the south of the
Asopus at three different periods ; whilst the Per-
sians remained, for the most j^art, to the north of th
river Asopus, where they j^ossessed a fortified camp,
from Avhencc they made tem2:)orary advances against
the enemy. ^

1 vi. 108. '^ viii. 1. ^ viii. 44. ^ ix. 2S.

* The geograi^hical difficulties in Herodotus's description of Plataea
have induced us to go more minutely into the details.

ixeoffrV CT Serodi^ltLS-.p 70.

PLAN OF THE BATTLE OF PLATAEA,

( after Eepert &: Orote . )

S>CX^ Persians

fimiTTTTITr AOienians
^^^^ Zacede^ <
^^^^ iHher breeks

I . n . m , dmoie Ihe First. Jeamd. and Third
positions of the respective annies,

W:Mu0hcs. .re

londcii lonoman tf- Co. 18S4.

NORTHERN GREECE. 71

Mardonius liad posted his army on the river Europe.
Asopus in the Theban territory/ beginning at Ery- _chap. iv.
thrae and stretching along by Hysiae to the terri- ^^n of the
tory of Plataea.^ He also fortified an area of 10 is^f^osiji^jj
stadia square with wooden walls and towers ; ^ but •

the front of this area, of course, occupied a much
less space than the extended front of the army/
Meantime the Greek allies had passed over Mount
Cithaeron to Erythrae, where they learnt that the
enemy were encamped on the Asopus. Accordingly
they formed opposite, in the Theban territory at
the foot of Cithaeron, and this was their first posi-
tion.^ Here they were charged by the Persian
cavalry; but the latter were defeated and obliged
to return to their camp.^

The Greeks ^ at length determined to remove into Sad posi-
tlie Plataean territory, where they would be better
supplied with water. Accordingly, they marched
along the foot of Mount Cithaeron westward to the
fountain Gargaphia,^ and the precinct of the hero

^ ix. 15. Comp. vi. 108.

^ It is difficult to decide whether the first position of the army of Mar-
donius was on the northern or southern bank of the Asopus. The words
of Herodotus indicate a position south of the Asopus. In the second
position, however, we find the Persians north of the Asopus, (ix. 40, 59,)
without any mention of his having previously crossed the river, and the
fortified camp was evidently on the northern bank. Kiepert and Grote
place the first position on the southern bank, and the fortified camp on
the opposite side.

3 ix. 15, 70. * ix. 15. 5 ix. 19. « ix. 23.

■^ Bobrik has here made an unfortunate error, by confounding the Per-
sians with the Greeks.

^ Col. Leake has identified the fountain Gargaphia with a fountain at
the source of a streamlet fiowing into the Asopus, and incased in an arti-
ficial basin covered with squared stones of ancient fabric. Mr. Grote
objects to this identification on the gi-ound that the Greek right, if sta-
tioned at this point, would be farther from the Asopus than is consistent
with the description of Herodotus. Mr. Grote also, in copying Kiepert's
plan of the battle of Plataea, has moved the second Greek position much
nearer to the river. Kiepert, however, fixed the position according to
Herodotus's own measurement, viz. 10 stadia from the island.

The question stands thus. It will presently be seen that in this second
position the river fiowed between the rival armies, (ix. 40, 59,) the Per-
sians being on the northern bank and the Greeks on the southern. The
Greeks were evidently close to the river-side, for each army could see and
distinguish the particular nations which composed the other, and each
could see the changes from right to left of the opposing line (ix— 47).
Moreover, all the Greek army, except the Spartans, were so near the
Asopus as to be able to draw their water from it, (ix. 49,) until the Per-

72 NORTHERN GREECE.

EUROPE. -Androcrates ; and here they formed in line, nation by
CHAP. IV. nation, and encamped on the right or southern bank
of the Asopus, on slight elevations and the level
plain.' This was their second position. When Mar-
doniiis heard of this movement, he marched his army
to the same part of the Asopus, but on the left or oppo-
site bank, and thus the river divided the rival armies.^
From this new position Mardonius at night sent
some cavalry to the passes of Cithaeron, called Three
Heads by the Boeotians, but Oak Heads by the
Athenians. These passes were in the rear of the
Greeks, and the detachment of cavalry was enabled
to intercept the supplies of men and provisions
which came through Attica from the Peloponnesus.
3rdposition. After ten days the Persian cavalry^ drove the
Greek position farther back from the Asopus, and
choked up the fountain Gargaphia. The Greek
generals being thus deprived of water, determined on
retreating to a spot called the Island, but which is
more properly a peninsula.* This supposed island

sian cavalry hindered them. On the other hand, Herodotus says, that
the Greeks were posted at a distance of 10 stadia from the island, (ix.
51,) whereas, by a modern measurement of the country, we find that the
river-bank must be 20 stadia from the island. Mr. Grote, as a historian
relying upon the general account, places the Greek army close to the
river-bank; Kiepert, as a hydrographer, and implicitly following the
measurement of 10 stadia, places the Greek army half way between
the island and river.

Mr. Grote has nothing to interfere with his view, but the plain mea-
surement of 10 stadia. Herodotus, however, is always a very doubtful
authority for exact measurement. He generally preferred round num-
bers for the sake of the memory of his readers, and frequently his
estimates of distances are exceedingly loose and inaccurate. In the
present naiTative of the battle of Plataea 10 stadia is a perfect hobby.
Everything is 10 stadia. The island was 10 stadia from Gargaphia,
and also 10 stadia from Asopus (ix. 51). Pausanias, however, marched
10 stadia from Gargaphia towards the island, and found himself not there,
but at Argiopius and the river Moloeis (ix. 56, 57). The Heraeum was
10 stadia beyond the island, and therefore 20 stadia from Gargaphia (ix.
52). The fortified camp was 10 stadia on every side (ix. 15) ; and it was
for 10 days that the Greeks continued to be posted in this second position
(ix. 41). I would therefore adopt Mr. Grote's view in preference to
Kiepert's.

1 ix. 25, .30. 2 ix. .31. Comp. 40, 59.

^ Not the detachment at the passes of Cithaeron, but the great body
of cavalry, who were still with Mardonius on the Asopus.

* This place, which Herodotus indicates as being before the city of
Plataea, and at a distance of 10 stadia from the Asopus as well as from
Gargaphia, is nothing more than a level meadow intersected by several

NORTHEEN GEEECE. 73

was formed by two tributary streams flowing down Europe.
the. slopes of Citliaeron, about 3 stadia apart, into chap. iv.
the river Oeroe, which was called by the neighbour- " '

ing inhabitants, the daughter of Asopus/ The island
was 10 stadia distant from the Asopus and the foun-
tain Grargaphia. Accordingly at night the Greek
forces prepare to decamp.^ It will be remembered
that their right wing was formed by the Lacedae-
monians, the left by the Athenians, and the centre
by the other Grreek nations. The centre now pro-
ceeded beyond the island of Oeroe to the temple of
Hera, which stood by the city of Plataea, and about
20 stadia from Gargaphia.^ The right wing, com-
posed of Lacedaemonians, next marched 10 stadia
along the hills to the river Moloeis, at a place called
Argiopius, where stood a temple of the Eleusinian
Demeter. The left wing, composed of Athenians,
retired in the same direction along the plain/ This

brooks uniting into one stream, and this is probably all that the historian
meant by an island. His description of it as formed by two streams
which were separated from one another in Mount Cithaeron, and were
afterwards united, is entirely conformable to present appearances. If
he had intended a real island, it would not have been necessary for him
to make any mention of the two branches in Mount Cithaeron, since the
separation of the waters of a single stream and their reunion would have
been sufficient to form the island. It is easy to imagine that the Pla-
taeans may have distinguished this part of their plain by the name of
Island, although it was in reality no more than a peninsula. The am-
biguity of the passage has not been diminished by the translators of
Herodotus, who, by referring the word ol to vrjiroQ instead of to Trorafidg,
have represented Oeroe as the name of the island, whereas the historian,
in describing the island as the place (;^Wj5ov) which Oeroe the daughter
of Asopus surrounds, {TrspKJxiZtTai,) clearly shows Oeroe to have been the
river. Their mistake may have partly arisen from the belief that the
river v^'hich formed the island was a branch of the Asopus, a very natural
supposition for them to have made in ignorance of the real topogra-
phy, as Herodotus nowhere indicates the contrary, and as it is greatly
favoured by the local mythus, according to which Oeroe was the daughter
of Asopus. We find however, as before stated, that although the sources
of the Asopus and Oeroe are very near to one another, they are not only
separate rivers, but flow in opposite directions, the former to the Euboic
channel, the latter to the Corinthian gulf. Leake.

^ It is surprising how difficult it is to eradicate the mistakes concern-
ing the river Oeroe and the island even from our recent geographical
works. The river Oeroe is sometimes mentioned as a branch of the
Asopus, and the island has often been represented as having been formed
by the Asopus. It is however to be hoped that the scholar will find no
greater mistakes in the present volume.
2 ix. 51. 3 ix. 52. 4 ix. 56,57.

74 NOETHERN GREECE.

EUROPE, was the third position. Meantime Mardonius crossed
CHAP. IV. the Asopus, with all his army. His Persians and
cavalry fell upon the Lacedaemonians, whilst the
Boeotians and other allies, who formed his right
wing, attacked the Athenians. The Greek centre,
who were drawn up by the temple of Hera, took no
part in the battle.^
Sepulchres Tlic scj^ulclires of tlic Grccks who were slain were
of the slain. g^£|2 ^^ l^g seeii in the time of Herodotus on the field
of battle. The Lacedaemonians distributed their
dead into three several burial-places : one for the
select warriors or officers ; ^ a second for the rest of
the Spartans ; and a third for the helots. The Tegeans
buried theirs in a separate spot ; as also the Athe-
nians, Megareans, and Phliasians. Sepulchres of
other Hellenic nations were also to be seen, which He-
redotus was informed were only empty mounds
thrown up by those who were ashamed of their ab-
sence from the battle. For instance, that of the
Aeginetans was thrown up ten years after the vic-
tory.^ Mardonius was also buried there,* and his
funeral monument was still to be seen in the time
of Pausanias.^
ly. Pnocis ly. Phocis was bounded by Boeotia on the east,
scription. the Locri Opuntians on the north, Doris and the
Locri Ozolae on the west, and the Corinthian Gulf
on the south. A mountain range traverses it in a
south-easterly direction, connecting the rugged chain
of Oeta with Cithaeron and Parnes, and including
the lofty summits of Parnassus. Northern Phocis, or
the country between Parnassus and Oeta, includes
the upper valley of the river Cephissus. In some
parts the banks are fertile, but in others the heights
approach very near to the river. Southern Phocis is
ahnost entirely covered with the mountains which
branch off to the south from the huge mass of Parnas-
sus, but there are a few fertile valleys between them,

I ix. 59—69.

^ The critical student has a choice of readings, but Jptvig is generally
adopted. The I(j£i/fe of Herodotus however were certainly not youths, but
commanders. Amompharetus, in parlicular, was lochagus of the Pita-
netan lochus. '' ix. 85. * ix. 84. ^ Paus, ix. 2, 2.

NOETHERN GREECE. 75

of which the largest is the celebrated Crisaean plain. Europe.
The early history of the Phocians is comparatively chap. iv.
unknown, but they appear to have been frequently
engaged in hostilities with the Thessalians, and were
successful in maintaining their independence. Their
territory was dreadfully ravaged by Xerxes during
the Persian war.

The small town of Delphi was the most important General dc-
in Phocis, and on account of its oracle of Apollo was Delphi.
also the most celebrated in all Hellas. It occupied
a rocky theatre-shaped position on the southern slope
of Parnassus, and was reached by a steep and diffi-
cult road. On its north were two great cliffs with Castaiian
peaked summits, and from between the two issued ^^"''^"
the waters of the Castaiian spring. It contained the
temple of Athene Pronaea, with the adjoining pre- Temple of
cinct of the hero Phylacus ; but above all, the great pJonaea.
temple of Apollo occupied a large space in the high- Temple of
est point of the city. Immense treasures were con- ^° °"
tained in this temple. Kings and private persons who
had received favourable replies from the oracle pre-
sented rich offerings ; and many of the Greek states
had separate thesauri, in which they deposited for the
sake of security many of their valuable treasures.
In the innermost sanctuary, or adytum, was the
golden statue of AjdoIIo, and before it a fire of fir
wood was kept constantly burning on an altar.
Laurel was also burnt as incense on the altar, and
the inner roof of the temple was covered all over
with laurel garlands. In the centre of the temple The oiacie.
there was a small opening in the ground, through
which from time to time an intoxicating smoke arose
from the hidden well of Cassotis. Over this chasm
stood a high tripod, to which the Pythia was led by
the prophetes, and took her seat whenever the oracle
was to be consulted. The smoke rising from under
the tripod affected her brain in such a manner that
she fell into a state of delirious intoxication, and the
sounds which she uttered in this state were believed
to contain the revelations of Apollo. These sounds
were carefully written down by the prophetes, and

NORTHERN GREECE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. IV.

Herodotus's
account of
the temple
and its
treasures.

Throne of
Midas.

Silver offer-
ings and
golden
bowls of
Gyges.

Silver bowl
and iron
saucer of
Alyattes.

Gifts of
Croesus.

afterwards communicated to the persons who had
come to consult the oracle.^

The old temple of Delphi was burnt down by an
accident. The Amphictyons then contracted to
build a new one for 300 talents. The Delphians
were required to furnish one-fourth of this sum, and
accordingly went from city to city to raise contri-
butions. In Aegypt the king, Amasis, gave them
1000 talents of alum, and the Hellenic settlers there
contributed 20 minas.^ Afterwards the Alcmaeonidae
undertook alone to rebuild the temple; and being
wealthy men, they completed it in a more beautiful
manner than the plan required. In particular, they
built the front of Parian marble, though, according
to the contract, they might have used Porine stone.^
Herodotus, who had evidently visited Delj)hi, men-
tions the following curiosities and rich offerings in
the sanctuary, together with the names of the do-
nors. Midas, king of Phrygia, was the first barbarian
who dedicated offerings at Delphi. He gave the
royal tln"one on which he sat. Next after him was
Gyges, king of Lydia, who sent most of the silver
offerings contained in the temple, together with a
vast quantity of gold, including six golden bowls
weighing 30 talents. The Delphians called these
articles Gygadian gold and silver, from the name of
the donor. The bowls of Gyges and the throne of Mi-
das stood together in the Corinthian treasury, which,
however, was not built at the cost of the state, but
by the celebrated Cypselus son of Eetion.'* Afterwards
Alyattes, another Lydian king, on recovering from
sickness, dedicated a large silver bowl, with a saucer
of iron inlaid, made by Glaucus the Chian, who in-
vented the art of inlaying iron. " This object," says
our author, " is deserving of more attention than all
the other offerings at Delphi."^ But the most bril-
liant and costly gifts in the temple appear to have
been those of the unfortunate Croesus. Tins mon-

^ Dr. Smith, Diet, of Gr. and Rom. Antiquities, art. Oracnlnm. Comp.
Leake's Northern Greece, vol, ii. p. .5.51, et seq.
2 11. 180. 5 V. fi2. * vi. 14. 5 1. 25.

NORTHERN GREECE. 77

arch dedicated 117 golden demi-plintlis, or half-in- euhope.
gots, eacli of which were 6 palms long, 3 broad, chap. iv.
and 1 thick. Four of them were of pm-e gold, and nygoiden
weighed 2 talents and a half each : the remainder <iemi-
were of pale or alloyed gold, and weighed 2 ta- Goideu
lents each. He also gave a lion made of refined ^^°""
gold, which originally weighed 10 talents, and stood
on the demi-23linths. When, however, the temple
was burnt down, the lion fell from the demi-plinth. In
the time of our author it was standing in the Corinth-
ian treasury, and weighed only 6 talents and a half, as
3 talents and a half had been melted from it.' Croe- ooid and
sus also sent two mixing-cups, one of gold and the ing-^yesseis.
other of silver, which were placed at the entrance of
the temple — the golden one on the right hand, and
the silver one on the left. After the fire, however,
they were removed : the golden one, weighing
8 talents and a half and 12 minas, was placed
in the treasury of Clazomenae ; and the silver one,
which would contain 600 amphorae, lay in a
corner of the vestibule. The silver one was used
by the Delphians for mixing the wine on the Theo-
phanian festival, and they say that it was made by
Theodorus the Samian. Herodotus also thought
that this was the case, as it appeared to him to be
no common work. Croesus likewise dedicated four other offer-
silver vessels which stood in the Corinthian treasury, croesus.
and two lustral vases, one of gold and the other of
silver. The golden one bore the inscription, AuKsSaL-
[jLoviwy, '' of the Lacedaemonians," who said that it was
their present ; but this was incorrect, for a Delphian,
whom Herodotus could name if he pleased, engraved
the inscription in order to please the Lacedaemo-
nians. Many other offerings he also sent without
any inscription,^ including some spherical-shaped
ewers of silver ; a golden statue of a female 3 cubits
high, which the Delphians said was an image of the
Artocopus, or baker, ^ of Croesus ; and the necklaces

^ i. 50. ^ Probably because they were of inferior value.

' The importance here ascribed to a baker is perfectly in keeping with
the manners of despotic eastern courts. The officers of the Tvu-kish

NORTHERN GREECE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. IV.

Miscellane-
ous gifts
from the
Lacedaemo-
nians,
Euelthon,
Phocians,

Pausanias,
and from
the Greeks
after the
battle of
Salamis.

Herodotus's
description
of Mount
Parnassus.

and gii'dles of his queen. The Lacedaemonians
dedicated the statue of a boy through whose hand
the water flows. ^ Euelthon, the tyrant of Salamis
in the island of Cyprus, gave a cmious censer which
was deposited in the Corinthian treasury.^ The
Phocians gave half of the shields which they cap-
tured from the Thessalians, when 600 of their
number attacked the enemy in chalked armour ;
and with a tenth of the spoil taken on the same oc-
casion they constructed those great statues around
the golden tripod,^ which stood upon a three-headed
brazen serpent close to the altar. The tripod and
serjDent were dedicated by Pausanias from a tenth
of the spoil taken at Plataea.* A statue, twelve
cubits high, holding the beak of a ship in its hand,
was also dedicated by the Grreeks from the iirst-
fr-uits of the spoil taken at Salamis. It stood in the
same place as the golden statue of Alexander the
Macedonian. The Pythia however demanded a
further offering from the Aeginetans on account of
their suj)erior valour, and the latter accordingly
gave three golden stars on a brazen mast, which was
placed in a corner near the mixing-cup of Croesus.^
Such were the temple treasures which our author
must certainly have seen with his own eyes.

Of Mount Parnassus two summits are mentioned
by Herodotus. One was called Tithorea, and lay near
the city of Neon. This was sufficiently large to
receive a great multitude on its top ; and the Phoci-
ans carried their effects to this spot when their
country was overrun by the army of Xerxes.^ The
other summit was called Hyampeia, and beneath it
was the Castalian spring.^ On the heights of Par-

janizaries, so long as that corps existed, were all named from the duties
of the kitchen, the colonel being styled the Soup-maker. In the time of
Xenophon, there was an officer called Artocopus in the Persian court.
(Hellen. VII. i. 26.— Cyrop. V. v. .39.) At a later period (Juvenal, Sat.
V. 72) the word appears to have become common.

The statue here mentioned was subsequently converted into money,
and assisted the Phocians in maintaining the Sacred War. Died. Sic.
xvi. .56.

' i. .51. 2 jv. 162. 3 viii. 27. " ix. 81.

5 viii. 121,122. « viii.32. '• viii. 39.

NORTHERN GREECE. 79

nassus was the Coiycian cavern, ^ where the Delphi- Europe.
ans secured their goods and chattels from the Per- ^hap. iv.
sian army.^ Near the Hyampeian summit was the
sanctuary of Athene Pronaea, which was the first
spot reached by the Persians in their advance on
Delphi. Here thunder fell on them from heaven,
and two large crags bore down upon them with a
loud crash and killed many.^ These crags were
still preserved in the time of Herodotus in the en-
closure of Athene Pronaea.^ Beyond the sanctuary
of Athene and by the side of the road was the pre-
cinct of Phylacus, a hero of the country ; and near
the Castalian spring, under the Hyampeian summit,
was that of another hero of the country, named
Autonous.^

The Persian army advancing along the banks of Topography
the river Cephissus, burnt the following cities, viz. the\rmyof
Drymus, Charadra, Erochus, Tethronium, Amphi- ^^^^'^^•
caea, Neon, Pediea, Tritea, Elatea, Hyampolis,
Parapotamium, and Abae.^ Near Hyampolis was a
narrow pass, where the Phocians destroyed the
Thessalian cavalry by digging a pit and filling it
with empty jars lightly covered with earth, over
which the cavalry charged and broke the legs of
their horses.'' At Abae the Persians plundered and
burnt the rich temple of Apollo which contained
many treasures and offerings, including half of the
shields which the Phocians took from the Thessali-

^ " The cavern is about seven miles from Delphi. . . We ascended more
than half way to the summit of the mountain, when a small ti-iangular
entrance presented itself, conducting into the gi-eat chamber of the
cavern, which is upwards of 200 feet in length, and about 40 feet high in
the middle. Drops of water from the roof had formed large calcareous
cr3fstallizations rising at the bottom, and others were suspended from
every part of the roof and sides. The inner part of this great hall is
rugged and irregular, but after climbing over some rocks, we arrived at
another small opening leading into a second chamber, the length of
which is nearly 100 feet, and has a direction nearly at a right angle with
that of the outer cavern. In this inner apartment there is again a nar-
row opening, but inaccessible without a ladder ; at the foot of the ascent
to it is a small natural chamber. There seems to have been ample space
for the Delphians and other Phocians to deposit here their valuable pro-
perty and even their families." Leake.

2 viii. 36. 3 viii, 37_ 4. viji_ 39^ 5 ii^]^^ 0 ^iji. 33.

' viii. 28.

NORTHERN GREECE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. IV.

V. Lociiis.
General de-
scription.

Eastern or

Opuntian

Locrians.

"Western, or
Locri Ozo-
lae.

Heroclotus's
account of
the Locri
Ozolae.

ans, and some great statues like those at Delphi/
and where also there was an oracle which still ex-
isted in the time of Herodotus.^ Passing by
Parapotamium the Persians reached Panopeus, and
then divided into two bodies : the largest pro-
ceeding under Xerxes through Boeotia to Athens/
whilst the other, keej^ing Parnassus on the right,
biu-nt Panopeus, and the two cities of the Daulians
and Aeolidae."^ The to^vn of Thyia is also men-
tioned, as the place where Thyia the daughter of
Cephissus had a sacred enclosure, and where the
Delphians erected an altar and sacrificed to the
winds, because the Pythia had assured them that
the winds would prove the most powerfid allies of
Greece against the Persians/ The Phocians sent
1000 men to defend Thermopylae.^

V. LocRis was a name aj^plied to two distinct
territories, situated at a considerable distance from
each other.

1. The eastern Locrians occupied a territory ex-
tending fi'om Thessaly and the pass of Thermopylae,
along the coast of the Euboean Sea, as far as the
frontiers of Boeotia. They were separated from
Phocis by a mountain range which stretches from
Oeta to the Boeotian borders. The northern part
of this district was inhabited by Epicnemidii ; the
southern by the Opuntians.^

2. The western Locrians, or Locri Ozolae, occu-
pied a territory on the Corinthian Gulf Accord-
ing to Strabo,^ they were a colony from the eastern
Locrians.

Om- author makes no mention of the Epicnemidii,
but he describes the country round the pass, called
Thermopylae, or Hot-gates, by the Greeks generally,
but by the inhabitants and neighbours only Pylae,

1 viii. 27. 2 vjji 33 3 y^n 34^ i y^^i ^5.

•^ vii. 178. <■' vii. 203.

' The northern pail of the mountain range, which is much higher than
the southern, was called Cnemis, whence the Epi-cnemidii Locrians de-
rived their name. The Opuntian Locrians were so called ,from Opus,
their chief town, which was situated on the borders of Boeotia.

** Strabo, ix. p. 427-

''U.

'/.■

33 i K

NORTHERN GREECE. 81

or Gates. ^ The city of Alpenus, however, which he europe.
describes as the first Locrian city coming from Ma- chap. iv.

lis,^ evidently belonged to the Epicnemidii. He also

names the Locri Ozolae and their city of Amphissa, Amphissa.
which was situated above the Crisaean plain ; ^ and
the Opuntian Locrians who appeared among the TheOpun-
Grreek forces at Thermopylae.'^ S^.^"''""

About the bay of Malis lies a plain country, in one Thermopy-
part wide and in the other very narrow, and around Sibed by
it are high and impassable mountains, called the f^ci"ied'b
Trachinian rocks, which enclose the whole Malian the Trachi-
territory.^ The first city on the bay, in coming from ^^^ ^°^^^'
the Thessalian district of Achaia, is Anticyra, by Anticyra.
which the river Spercheius flows into the sea. River
Twenty stadia farther is the river Dyras, which, |^ye?Dy!'
according to tradition, gushed forth to assist He- ^'^^•
racles when he was burning. Twenty stadia from
the Dyras is a third river, called Melas." The city River Me-
of Trachis is 5 stadia from this river. Near it is xrachis.
the widest part of the pass, for the Trachinian rocks widest
and the sea are 22,000 plethra^ apart.^ The nar- p^^*'
rowest part of the same locality is half a plethrum
wide.^ In the Trachinian mountains which enclose
the territory or district of Trachis, there is a ravine Ravine of
to the south of the city of Trachis through which Js^opus!"^
the river Asopus flows along the declivity.^" Farther
on to the south of the Asopus is the Phoenix, a Ri^er
smaller river, which flows from these mountains into
the Asopus. Here, at the river Phoenix, is the nar- Narrowest
rowest part of the entire pass, for the road has been ^^"^ "
made so as only to admit of a single chariot. Fifteen
stadia beyond the river Phoenix is Thermopylae, Thermopy-
and between the two is a village named Anthela, by Intheia.

1 vii. 201. 2 vii. 216. 3 viii. 32. * vii. 203.

' Our author's description of this celebrated pass leading from the
Thessalian plain of Malis into the Locrian territory, includes an account
of the Malian district It has not, however, been thought advisable to
disunite the narrative for the sake of an arbitrary division of the matter.

6 vii. 198.

'' A palpable mistake of a transcriber, as 22,000 plethra would be 366 1-
stadia, or 90 Enghsh miles. Baehr, however, does not know how to
correct the blunder.

« vii. 199. 3 vii. 176. " vii. 199.

82 NORTHEEN GREECE.

EUROPE, which the river Asopus, after receiving the waters of
cH.vr. IV. the Phoenix, falls into the Maliac Griilf.^ The conn-
Tempie of ^^T ^^oiit here is more sj^acious, and contains a tem-
Ss^of'tiie P^^ ^^ ^^^^ Amphictyon Demeter, the seats of the
Amphic- Amphictyons, and the temple of Amphictyon him-
tyons,etc. ^^^2 Q^^ ^|^g wcstem sidc of Thermopylae is an
inaccessible and precipitous momitain, stretching to
Mount Oeta : on the eastern side is the sea and a
morass. At the entrance to this passage there are
Hot springs, liot spriugs, or baths, which the inhabitants call
Chytri, and above them is an altar to Heracles. In
Phocian this passago a wall with gates had been formerly built
gSls^^^^ by the Phocians to keep out the Thessalians ; and
at the same time the Phocians had diverted the hot
springs into the entrance in order to render the pass
more impracticable. This wall had been built in
very ancient times, and in the time of the Persian
war the greater part had fallen down from age ; the
Greeks, however, at that critical moment determined
to rebuild it, and then repel the invaders.^ On a
neighbouring hill,* aj^parently to the north of the
Stone lion Wall, there stood, in the time of Herodotus, the stone
toLeonidas. ^ion to the memory of Leonidas.' South of Ther-
Aipenus. uiopylac, and near the town of Alpenus, the road
contracts, and will only receive a single chariot.^
Alpenus is the first Locrian city towards the Ma-
lians.^ Thus the general scene of the pass of Ther-
mopylae, as pictured by Herodotus, may be described
as two narrow openings, one near Anthela and the
other at Alpenus, having an intermediate mile of en-
larged road, and hot springs between them. Xerxes
Encamp- was cncampcd in the Trachinian territory of Malis,
and the Greeks in the pass of Thermojoylae.^

' The territory of Malis we may regard as extending to Thermopylae
and including Anthela. Locris, as beginning at Thermopylae and in-
cluding Alpenus. The pass itself led from one territory to the other
without actually belonging to either. Formerly it had been a part of
Phocis. 2 vii. 200. ^ vii. 176.

* This glorious spot, where the remnant of the Spartan band made
their last stand against the Persians, has been identified in a remarkable
hillock a little to the east of the hot springs. Near its base, the indica-
tions of the deposited soil are plainly discernible, having all the appear-
ance of a sea beach. '' vii. 225. ^ vii. 176. '' vii. 216.

^ The configuration of the coast, the course of the rivers, and the ge-

NORTHERN GREECE. 83

The pass of Anopaea, which Ephialtes discovered Europe.
to Xerxes, began at the ravine through which the ^^^^- ^^•
river Asopus flowed into the Maliac Gulf, and con- Pass of
tinning along the ridge of the mountain which is ^"^^paea.
called by the same name of Anopaea, ended at Al-
penus, by the rock of Melampygus, and the seats of
the Cercopes, where also the path is narrowest.^
The whole of the mountain in this neighbourhood
was covered with oaks.^

At Thermopylae were the following inscriptions, inscriptions
One was written over the grave of those who fell pyiae.^^"^"
before Leonidas dismissed the allies :

From Peloponnesus came four thousand men,

And on this spot fought with three hundred myriads.

Another was placed over the tomb of the Spartans :

Go, stranger ! tell the Lacedaemonians — here
We He, obedient to their stern commands.

The third was inscribed over the tomb of Megistias
the augur, by his friend Simonides :

The monument of famed Megistias,

Slain by the Medes what time they passed the Spercheius :

A seer, who, though he knew impending fate,

Would not desert the gallant chiefs of Sparta.^

neral local phenomena have now entirely changed ; and Thermopylae itself
no longer exists as a pass, and can only be identified by its hot springs.
But still, as Col. Leake observes, a comparison of Herodotus's description
with modern topography carries with it the conviction that the places
mentioned by Herodotus are there correctly placed. Surprising changes
however appear to have been created by the accumulation of soil brought
down from the upper countiy by rivers, especially by the Spercheius. The
Asopus is recognised by its rocky gorge, through which it issues into the
plain : between it and the Spercheius are found the two streams corre-
sponding to the Melas and Dyras, which now, instead of falling separ-
ately into the sea, unite, and then discharge their waters, as does the
Asopus itself, into the Spercheius. The latter, instead of meeting the coast
nearly opposite Lamia, as it appears to have done in the time of the Per-
sian war, not only receives the Dyras, Melas, and Asopus as tributary
streams, but continues its course on a line parallel to the pass of Thermopy-
lae, at a distance of a mile from the hot sources. It then forms a delta in
that new plain which has been created beyond the pass, and which has
thus caused the head of the gulf to be removed three or four miles from its
ancient position. The consequence is, that all the lower plain, although
intersected with marshes at all seasons, and scarcely passable in the
winter, affords in summer a road through it, which leaves Thermopylae
two or three miles on the right, and renders it of little or no importance
as a pass in that season. Leake's Northern Greece.
1 vii. 215,216. 2 vii. 217. ^ vii. 22S.

G 2

NOETHERN GEEECE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. IV.

VI. DOKIS.

Mother
country of
the Dorians.
Topography
Pindus.
Eriueiis.

VII. Aeto-
liiA. Scatter-
ed notices.

VIII. A-

CAKNAXIA.

Riyer
Acholous.

Echinades
islands.

Anactorium
Teleboa.

IX. Thes-
SALY. Ge-
neral de-
scription.

Thessaly
Proper, viz.

VI. DoEis was a narrow strip of mountamous ter-
ritory about 30 stadia broad, and situated between
tlie Malian and Phocian territories. We learn from
Herodotus that it was anciently called Dryopis, after
its older inhabitants the Dryopes. It was the mother
comitry ofthe Dorians of the Peloponnesus,^ and con-
tained two cities, Pindus and Erineus.^

VII. Aetolia is scarcely mentioned by our author.
Wlien the Dorians invaded the Peloponnesus, they
were accompanied by some Aetolians, who received
Elis as their share of the conquest.^ Males the Aeto-
lian went to Sicyon as a suitor for the hand of the
daughter of Cleisthenes. He was the brother of that
Titormus, who excelled all the Greeks in strength,
but fled from the society of men to the extremity of
the Aetolian territory.^

VIII. AcAENANiA was watered by the river Ache-
lous, which flowed through this country and fell into
the sea. In the time of Herodotus the Achelous had
converted one-half of the islands of the Echinades
into continent."'^ Acarnania contained the city of
Anactorium, which in conjunction with the Leuca-
dians sent 800 men to Plataea." The Teleboans
also are mentioned in a Cadmean inscription on a
tripod in the temple of the Ismenian Apollo in the
Boeotian Thebes.^

IX. Thessaly Proper is an irregular square plain,
shut in on every side by mountain barriers — the Cam-
bunian range on the north, Ossa and Pelion on the
east, Othrys on the south, and the Pindus range on the
west. In addition to this great plain, two other dis-
tricts were included under the general name of
Thessaly : one called Magnesia, a narrow strip of
land running from Tempe to the Pegasaean Gulf;
the other being a long narrow valley drained by the
river Spercheius, and running along the south of
Thessaly Proper, between Othrys and the range of
Mount Oeta. From the earliest times the plain of
Thessaly Proper was divided into four districts or

^ viii. 31. 2 viii. 43. ^ viii. 73. Comp. page 45.

* vi. 127. = ii. 10. « ix. 28. ' v. 59.

NORTHERN GREECE. 85

tetrarchies, viz. Histiaeotis in the north, Pelas- euhope.
giotis in the east, Phthiotis in the south, and Thes- chap. iv.
sahotis in the interior.^ The other two districts ^^r^~^
were as ah-eady mentioned : Magnesia east of Mount Peiasgiotis,"
Ossa and Pehon, and Malis south of Mount Othrys. fnci Thia-
The great plain of Thessaly is watered by the Pe- Two'other
neus and its tributaries ; the southern valley between districts :
Othrys and Oeta is drained by the Spercheius. m^s!^"^'

Herodotus gives us a very graphic and spirited Herodotus's
account of the physical geography of Thessaly.
According to a tradition it was anciently a lake Anciently a
enclosed on all sides by lofty mountains. On cioTedby
the east were the united bases of Pelion and Ossa ; oSl! o^m-
on the north was Mount Olympus ; on the west was pus, Pindus,
Pindus ; and on the south was Othrys. The vale of ^"^ "^' '
Thessaly was thus a hollow space shaped like a cal-
dron. From these surrounding mountains numerous formed by
rivers flowed into Thessaly. The most celebrated Peneus?
were the Peneus, the Apidanus, the Onochonus, the onoehomis,
Enipeus, and the Pamisus.^ Of all the rivers in P^^p^^^^^'
Thessalia Proper, the Onochonus was the only stream and Lake
whose waters were exhausted by the Persian armies ;
but none of the rivers in the Thessalian district of
Achaia, not even the Apidanus, or Epidanus,^ which
was the largest, could hold out.^ The five rivers
meet together in the plain, and discharge themselves
through one narrow ravine into the sea, but after
their union they are called by the one name of Pe-
neus. In ancient times, before this ravine or outlet
existed, these rivers, together with the lake called
Boebeis, made the whole of Thessaly a sea. The Outlet at
Thessalians say that the outlet was formed by Posei- formed by
don, and Herodotus thinks that all who believe that q^aTe*
earthquakes are the works of this deity will be of the
same opinion, as the separation of the mountains was
evidently effected by an earthquake.^ On this ac-
count Xerxes commended the prudence of the Thes-

^ The territory of Peiasgiotis is not mentioned by Herodotus, who
seems to include it in the district of Thessaliotis (i. 57).

2 vii. 129.

3 Called 'Amdavog (vii. 129), and 'HmSavbg (vii. 196). * vii. 196.
5 vii. 129.

NORTHEEN GREECE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. IV.

Tribes of

Thessaly.

Thessalians

Dolopes,

Enienes,

Magnetes,

Malians,

Perrhaebi,

Achaeans

of Phthiotis

salians in surrendering to him at once, as lie had
only to dam up tlie Peneus, and the whole country
would be inundated.' The lofty heights of Ossa and
01ymj)us were visible at Therma, and Xerxes beheld
the mouth of the Peneus with great astonishment.^

Herodotus mentions the following tribes who oc-
cupied the country, viz. the Thessalians, Dolopes,
Enienes, Magnetes, Malians, Perrhaebi, and Achae-
ans of Phthiotis,^ which last he seemed to consider
as scarcely belonging to Thessaly Proper.^ The
Thessalians originally came from Thesprotia in
Epirus to settle in the Aeolian territory, which they
still possessed in the time of Herodotus.^ The Eni-
enes dwelt upon the banks of the river Spercheius.^

The following diagram will show the position of
the tribes occupying Thessaly and Epirus.

Thessalians.

(Old Aeolian

territory.)

Dolopes.
Enienes.

Magnetes.

Achaeans.
Malians.

Pass of
Tempe.

Of the various districts Herodotus notices Phthiotis
and Histiaeotis, anciently occupied by the Hellenes ; "^
Thessaliotis, anciently occupied by the Pelasgi ; ^
Magnesia;^ and Malis.^" '' Two passes led from

1 vii. 129. 2 vii. 128. ^ yji, 132, 4 vii. 195. s yji. 176.
« vii. 198. ' i. .56. ^ i. 57. » vii. 183. i" vii. 198.

" Malis, like Achaia of Phthiotis, was also scarcely regarded by ovir
author as belonging to Thessaly Proper. The river Spercheius is not

NORTHEEN GREECE. 87

Macedonia into Thessaly. First that of Olympus, Europe.
which led from Lower Macedonia into the vale of chap. iv.
Tempe,^ up the outlet between Olympus and Ossa,
through which the river Peneus flows. ^ Secondly,
that by the city of Gonnus, which led from Upper Pass of
Macedonia through the country of the Perrhaebi.^ *
Xerxes entered Thessaly by this latter pass, as he
was informed that it was the safest way ; ^ but he
first employed a third of his army, then encamped
in Pieria, in clearing the road.^

The following places in Thessaly are mentioned Topography
by Herodotus. lolcus, which the Thessalians offered loicus.
to Hippias, who however did not accept it.^ Gon- Gonnus.
nus, l3y the pass through which Xerxes entered
Thessaly.^ Meliboea, and the places called Ipni or Meiiboea.
Ovens, on the coast in the neighbourhood of Mount
Pelion, where 400 Persian ships were dashed to
pieces by a Hellespontine gale.'' The Ovens were
probably concealed crags or breakers. Alos in aios.
Achaia, where there was a sanctuary of the Laphys-
tian Zeus, with the mythus of the cm^se of the de-
scendants of Athamas, and a prytaneum called Lei-
tum.^" Larissa, the native place of the Aleuadae.^^ Larissa.
Lastly, Casthanaea and the acte Sepias in Magnesia. ^^ casthanaea.
Ameinocles, who possessed some lands near Sepias,
was enriched by the great treasures, including many
drinking vessels of gold and silver, which were
thrown on shore after the shipwreck of the Persian

included in the description of the celebrated Thessalian rivers, whilst
the account of Malis itself is given in the description of Thermopylae.

^ The lovely scenery of this beautiful and romantic valley has been
too often described to require much repetition here. The whole glen is
rather less than five miles long, and opens gradually to the east into a
spacious plain stretching to the shore of the Thermaic Gulf. On each
side the rocks rise precipitously from the bed of the Peneus, and in some
places only leave room between them for the stream ; and the road,
which at the narrowest point is cut in the rock, might in the opinion of
the ancients be defended by ten men against a host. See ThirlwaWs
Greece.

2 vii. 172, 173. ' vii. 173.

^ This defile passed by the village of Pythium at the north-east ex-
tremity of the range of Olympus. It was also crossed by Brasidas in the
eighth year of the Peloponnesian war. Thucyd. iv. 78-

5 vii. 12S. 6 vii. 131. 7 V. 94. 8 vii. 128, 173.

» vii. 188. " vii. 197- " ix. 1. ^- vii. 183, 188.

NORTHERN GREECE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. IV.

Gulf of
Magnesia.

X. Epirtjs.
Scattered
notices in
Herodotus.

Thespro-

tians.

Molossians.
Epidamnus.

Ambraciots
ApoUonia.

Oracle at
Dodona.

fleet. All the coast belonged to Thetis and the
other Nereids, because Peleus had carried that god-
dess away from thence.^

The Gulf of Magnesia is also mentioned. It ran
up to Pegasae. On it was a place called Aphetae,
Avhere Heracles was abandoned by the Argonauts.
The Persian fleet moored here after the storm.^
Xerxes got up a match at Aphetae with his own
horses for the purpose of trying the Thessalian
cavalry, which he was told were the best in all
Hellas. On this occasion the horses of Thessaly
proved far superior to all the others.^

X. Epirus, or ' ' the mainland," the country between
Thessaly and the sea, is not mentioned under this
comprehensive heading, but the following scattered
notices of this region are to be found in Herodotus.

Thesprotians dwelt on the river Acheron, where
there was an oracle of the dead^ [where those
who consulted called up the spirits of the dead and
offered sacrifices to the gods of the lower world].
The Thessalians formerly lived here, either before
the Thesprotians, or else as a branch of the same
people.^ From the Molossians came Alcon to con-
test for the hand of the daughter of Cleisthenes of
Sicyon.^ On the Ionian Gulf was the city of Epi-
damnus, from which place Amphinestus also came
to Sicyon.^ The Ampraciotae, or Ambraciots, bor-
dered Thesprotia and the river Acheron on the
eastern side.^ They sent seven ships to Salamis."
The city of Apollonia was situated on the Ionian
Gulf. Here a flock of sheep were kept sacred to
Helios. By day they grazed near the river that
flows from Mount Lacmon through Apollonia, and
discharges itself into the sea near the port of Oricus.
At night they were folded in a cavern at some dis-
tance from the city, and watched by eminent citizens,
who were appointed every year for the office.'"

Above all, Herodotus mentions the celebrated
oracle of Zeus at Dodona," which was the oldest in

' vii. 190, 191. - vii. 19.3. ^ vii. 196. " v. 92. « vii. 176.
« vi. 127. Mbid. « viii. 47- ■' viii. 45. i" ix. 92, 93. 'M. 46.

NORTHERN GREECE. 89

Hellas. Two different traditions were told of its europe.
origin ; one by the Aegyptians and the other by the chap. rv.
Greeks. The priests of Zeus at the Aegyptian Aegyptian
Thebes told Herodotus that two holy women, or 5[g^Jj.V°^°^
priestesses, were carried away from that city by cer-
tain Phoenicians, who afterwards sold one of them
in Libya and the other in Hellas ; and these women
were the first who established oracles in these two
countries. On the other hand, the prophetesses of Greek tra-
Dodona said, that two wild black pigeons flew from
Thebes, one to Libya and the other to Dodona, and
that this last one perched on an oak tree, and com-
manded in a human voice, that the oracle to Zeus
should be established there. It was Herodotus's Opiniouof
opinion, that if the Phoenicians did really carry
away the women, that the one in question was sold
to some Thesprotians in that country, which in his
time was called Hellas, but was originally named
Pelasgia ; and that here the woman erected a temple
to Zeus under an oak in memory of the one she had
left at Thebes. Further, that the woman was called
a dove, because at first she spoke a foreign tongue,
which must have sounded like the chattering of birds;
and also a black dove, because of the dark colour of
her Aegyptian complexion ; and that when she be-
gan to speak the language of the country, it was said
that the black dove spoke with a human voice.
Oracles were delivered in Thebes and Dodona in a
very similar manner.'

Such then is the geography of the Hellas of He-
rodotus ; we shall now proceed in a separate chapter
to develope and explain his knowledge of the islands.

1 ii. 54—57.

CHAPTER V.

THE ISLANDS.

EUROPE.

CHAP. V.

Distribu-
tion of the
islands.

Islands in
the loniiin
Sea.

Distribution of the Islands.^ — -Islands in the Ionian Sea. — Corcyra.
— Leucas. — Cephallenia. — Zacynthus. — Islands in the Mediterra-
nean.— Cyrnus. — Sardo. — Sicily. Topography of Sicily : Syi-acuse, Ca-
marina, Gela, Megara, Zancle, ErjTC country, Egestaea, Selinus, Minoa,
Mactorium, Inycus, Callipolis, Naxos, Leontini, Himera, Agrigentum,
Hybla, Camicus, river Elorus, Cithera. — Crete, its history. Topography
of Crete: Cydonia, Cnossus, Itanus, Axus. — Carpathus. — Rhodes. — Cy-
prus. Topography of Cyprus : Paphos, Soli, Curium, Amathus, Salamis,
Key of Cyprus. — Islands of the Aegean, or Grecian Archipelago, ge-
neral description. — I. The Cyclades. — Delos, the centre ; its sacred charac-
ter ; sanctuary of Artemis ; banqueting-hall of the Ceians ; gi-ave of the
two Hyperborean virgins, Hyperoche and Laodice ; grave of two other
Hyperborean virgins, Opis and Arge- — Islands round Delos, viz. Rhenea,
Myconus, Tenos, Andros, Scyros, Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphus, Siphnos, Me-
los, Paros, Naxos.^ — II. The Sporades, viz. Thera, Telos, Cos, Leros. — 'III.
Other islands of the Aegean. — Samos. — The aqueduct; the mole; the
temple of Hera and its curiosities, viz. the gi'eat brazen mixing- vessels, two
wooden statues of Amasis, picture of the Bosphorus bridge, furnitm'e of
Polycrates, linen corselet of Amasis, brazen vessel on a tripod : descrip-
tion of the city of Samos ; curious festival observed by the Samians ;
flourishing condition of Samos under Polycrates ; Samians in Libya ;
artistic skill of the Samians ; their dialect, etc, — Lade. — Chios. — To-
pography of Chios : Chios, Caucasa, Coeli, Polichne : notices of the Chi-
ans. — Lesbos. — Hecatonnesi. — Tenedos. — Lemnos, atrocities committed
there. — Imbros. — Samothrace. — Thasos, its valuable mines.- — Sciathus.
— Euboea. — Topography of Euboea : Eretria, Chalcis, Styi'a, Geraestus,
Carystus, Histiaeotis ; description of the beach of Artemisium ; Coela,
Cape Cephareus, mountains, the Abantes. — Salamis. — Psyttalea. — Aegi-
na, its trade and shipping. — Hydrea. — Belbina.

The Islands pertaining to the geogra2:)liy of He-
rodotus we have included, for the sake of clearness,
in a single chapter under the division of Europe,
though many of them lay off the Asiatic coast. They
are divisible into three classes, namely, those in the
Ionian Sea, those in the Mediterranean, and those
in the Aegean, which last are usually known by the
name of the Grecian Archipelago.

The Islands in the Ionian Sea mentioned by our

THE ISLANDS. 91

author are only four in number, viz. Corcyra, Leu- Europe.
cas, Cepliallenia, and Zacynthus. chap. v.

CoRCYRA is the modern Corfu. Its inhabitants corcyra!
manned 60 ships before the battle of Salamis, but
anchored about Pylus and Taenarum to await the
issue of the contest.^ Leucas (or the modern Santa Leucas.
Maura) was peopled by Dorians from Corinth, who
sent three ships to Salamis,^ and in conjunction with
the Anactorians supplied 800 men at Plataea.^ Ce- CephaUenia
PHALLENIA (or Ccphallonia) included the town of Pale,
which sent 200 men to Plataea.^ Zacynthus (or Zante) zacynthus.
contained several lakes, of which the largest was 70
feet every way, and 2 orgyae in depth. Herodotus Lake ceie-
had seen pitch drawn from this lake, by dipping in usytch?'^
a pole with a myrtle-branch fastened to the end,
upon which the pitch adhered to the mjrrtle. The
pitch had the smell of asphalt, but in other respects
was better than the pitch of Pieria. It was poured
into a cistern near the lake, and when a sufficient
quantity had been collected, it was put into jars.
All that fell into the lake passed under ground, and
reappeared in the sea 4 stadia distant.^ The
Zacynthians are also mentioned as being in Crete. ^

The Islands in the Mediterranean mentioned islands in
by Herodotus, were eight in number, viz. Cyrnus, terraneln.
Sardo, Sicilia, Cythera, Crete, Carpathus, Rhodes,
and Cyprus.

Cyrnus was the modern Corsica. Here the cymus.
Phocaeans, in obedience to an oracle, built the
town of Alalia. Twenty years afterwards their
own city of Phocaea was destroyed by the Persians,
and accordingly they proceeded to Cyrnus. After
five more years their fleet of 60 ships engaged 60
ships belonging to the Carthaginians and Tyrrhe-
nians in the Sicilian Sea, upon which the Phocaeans
gained a Cadmean victory, forty of their own ships
being destroyed, and the remaining twenty disabled.'
The Cyi-nians fought in the Carthaginian army
against Gelon.^

1 viii. 168. 2 yiii, 45. 3 jx. 28. * Ibid. ^ iv. 195.

" iii. 59. i. 165, 166. « vii. 165.

92 THE ISLANDS.

EUROPE. Sardo (or Sardinia) Avas a large and important
CHAP. V. island, wnicli however Histiaeus offered to make tri-

s^^o. butary to the Persians, and even assured Darius that
he would not lay aside his clothes until he had done
so.^ Bias of Priene advised the lonians to sail in
one common ileet to Sardo, and build there one
common city for all.^ This advice, which Herodotus
considered to be of the most salutary character, was
rejected, and we subsequently find Aristagoras pro-
posing a sunilar course to the Milesians.^ The
Sardonians fought in the Carthaginian army against
Gelon.^ The sm-rounding waters were called the
Sardonian Sea/

Sicily. Sicily was called Sicania in the time of Minos,

but Sicilia in the days of Herodotus ; ^ and our
author mentions the Sicelians and the war against
them, in which Hippocrates fell.^ He, however,
says nothing about the island in a general way.

Topography thougli wc are able to extract some information
'^' ^' concerning the following cities.

Syracuse. Syracusc sccms to have been the most important
town. Under the government of Gelon it rapidly
grew up and flourished,^ until it became far superior
to any other Hellenic state. ^ The Demus or popu-
lace had united with the Cyllyrii or slaves, and
driven out the Gamori or landholders.^** The latter
then settled in the city of Casmene, but Gelon
brought them back again." He also removed all
the Camarinaeans, half the Geloans, and all the more
opulent of the Sicelian Megarians and Euboeans, to
Sjo-acuse, and admitted them to the citizenship.'^

1 V. 106. 2 i. 170. 3 V. 124. " vii. 165. ^ i jge.

» vii. 170. ■' vii. 155. « vii. 156. » vii. 145.

1" Three classes existed at Syracuse. (1.) The Gamori, or old Corinth-
ian colonists, who had divided the land amongst themselves and form-
ed the iroKuTEvna, or body politic. (2.) The Demus, or populace ; whom
Gelon regarded as " an unpleasant fellow-lodger " (vii. 156). (3.) The
Cyllyrii, or slaves, who were without doubt native Sicelians, as is shown
by the various forms of their name, KnXXvpioi, KtXXtKvptoi, KaXXiKwpiot,
which, as MiJller says, cannot be explained from the Greek. Miiller adds
that the Gamori and their Cyllyrians stood in nearly the same relation
to the Demus as tlie patricians with their clients did to the plebeians at
Rome. Dor. B. iii. c. 4.

'1 vii. 145. '^ vii. 1.56.

THE ISLANDS. 93

The town of Camarina originally belonged to the europe.
Syracusans, but the latter gave it up to Hippocrates, ^hap^
the tyrant of Gela. Subsequently Gelon destroyed camarina.
the city and removed all the inhabitants to Syracuse,
of which place he made them citizens.^ Gela was Geia.
founded by the Lindians from Rhodes, and among
the colonists was an ancestor of Gelon, who came
from Telos, and whose descendants became priests
of the infernal deities.^ Gelon removed half of the
inhabitants to Syracuse.^ The town of Megara was Megara.
taken by Gelon, who removed the more opulent in-
habitants to Syracuse, but sold the populace, whom he
regarded as an unpleasant fellow-lodger, for exporta-
tion from the island.'^ The Euboeans of Sicily were
treated by Gelon in the same way as the Megarians.^
The town of Zancle, or '' a sickle," was so called from zancie.
the shape of its harbour. After the suppression of
the Ionian revolt, the Zanclaeans invited the loni-
ans to found a city in Cale acte, which lay on that
side of Sicily which faced the Tyrrhenians. The
Samians and Milesians alone accepted the invitation,
but afterwards seized the city of Zancle for them-
selves, whilst its citizens were absent at a siege,
being persuaded to commit this treacherous act by
King Anaxilaus of Rhegium, who was at enmity with
the Zanclaeans.^ The Eryx country was the place Eryx coun-
where Dorieus, the Lacedaemonian colonist, was '^"
advised by Antichares to found Heraclea, as, accord-
ing to the oracles delivered to Laius, all the region
of Eryx belonged to the Heracleidae.''

The following miscellaneous localities are also
noticedby Herodotus. Egestaea, which contained the Egestaea.
tomb of Philippus, the handsomest man of his time,
together with a shrine where the Egestaeans propiti-
ated him with sacrifices ; ^ Selinus, which contained Seimus.
an altar to the Forensian Zeus ; ^ Minoa, a colony of Mmoa.
the Selinuntines ; ^ Mactorium, a city situated above Mactorium.
Gela;^^ Inycus, where Scythes king of Zancle was i"ycus.

1 vii. 154, 156.

2 vii. 153.

3 vii. 156.

* Ibid.

5 Ibid.

6 vi. 22, 23.

7 V. 43.

8 V. 47.

9 V. 46.

10 Ibid.

" vii. 153.

94 THE ISLANDS.

EUROPE, sent in chains ; ^ Callipolis ; Naxos ; Leontini ; ^
CHAP. V. Hiniera, where the Carthaginians were defeated by
Callipolis Grelon ; Agrigentum ; ^ Hybla ; * and Camicns,
Naxos. which in the time of Herodotus was possessed by
nlmcra.' tho Agrigcntincs, and which was besieged for five
tSn!^^"^ j^ears by all the Cretans, except the Polichnitae and
Hybla. the Pracsians, after the death of Minos/ Lastly,
River Ei'o- thcrc was tlic river Elorus, where the Syracusans
I'^s. were defeated by Hippocrates.^

Attempts of Tlic conqucst of Sicily was attempted by the Car-
g^iansto'^" thaginians in the time of Gelon. The latter requested
conquer Si- -^lie Grocks to assist him against the invaders, and thus
avenge the death of Dorieus, who had been slain by the
Phoenicians '^ and Aegestaeans ; and he even promised
to free the ports, but could obtain no assistance.^
Subsequently, at Himera, he gained a brilliant vic-
tory over the Carthaginians, who at the instigation
of Terillus, the exiled tyrant of Himera, had invaded
Sicily with 300,000 men under Hamilcar.^ The
battle was fought on the same day as that at Sa-
lamis.^*^ Gelon offered to furnish 200 triremes,
20,000 heavy-armed troops, 2000 horse, 2000
archers, 2000 slingers, and 2000 light horse, to the
allied army of Hellas at the Persian invasion, and
also to su]3ply the whole army with corn until the
conclusion of the war, upon condition of being made
commander-in-chief; but this offer was declined.'^
cythera. Cythera, uow Called Ccrigo, lay off the Malean

promontory of Laconica. Chilon, the wisest man
amongst the Lacedaemonians, said that it would
be more to the advantage of Sparta if it was sunk
to the bottom of the sea, than if it remained
above water. '^ It once belonged to Argolis, to-
gether with al Xonral -rUbv vrjffwy, or, " the remainder of
the islands." It is imjoossible to say to what islands
Herodotus alludes in this last expression ; but it
is probable that he meant either the small islets by
Cithera, or else those in the Argolic Gulf ^^

' vi. 2.3. 2 vii. 154. ^ yjj. 155, 4 y\i 155.

' vii. 170. Comp. page 95. " vii. 154. ' v. 46. " vii. 158.

» vii. 165. 10 vii. 166. " vii. 158. '^ vii. 235. " i. 82.

THE ISLANDS. 95

Crete, tlie modern Candia, was in ancient times in europe.
the possession of the barbarians. The Lycians of chap. v.
Asia Minor originally dwelt there. The Caunians ^i-ete, its
also said that they came from Crete, but Herodotus history.
thinks that they were aborigines of Caria. The two
sons of Europa, Sarpedon and Minos, had struggled
for the sovereign power. Minos obtained the su-
premacy, and Sarpedon and his partisans migrated
to Asia Minor. ^ Minos was subsequently killed in
Sicily, where he had gone in search of Daedalus ;
and all the Cretans excepting the Polichnitae and the
Praesians sailed there to avenge his death, but being
unable to take the city of Camicus, they proceeded to
lapygia and founded Hyria. Crete being thus al-
most deserted, the Hellenes came and settled there.
After the return from the Trojan war, which took
place three generations after the death of Minos, fa-
mine and plague carried off all the inhabitants and
cattle on the island. The Cretans in the time of Xerxes
were therefore the third people who had occupied
Crete. ^ Herodotus seems to have joined in the general
belief of their naval supremacy and piratic daring in
ancient times. The Hellenes who sailed to Tyre and
carried off Europa, he says, must have been Cretans,^
which corroborates the testimony of Thucydides.*

The following towns in Crete are mentioned by Topography
our author. Cydonia, which was founded by those cycionia.
Samians who were exiled in the time of Poly crates,®
but who however did not go to Crete for the purpose
of founding this colony, but to drive out the Zacyn-
thians. These Samian exiles remained in Cydonia
and prospered for five years, and erected the sacred
precincts which existed there in the time of Herodo-
tus, and also built the temple of Dictynna ; but in
the sixth year they were defeated by the Aeginetans,
and enslaved with the other Cretans, and the prows
of their boats, which represented the figure of a boar,
were dedicated in the temple of Athene in Aegina.^
Cnossus was the ancient capital of Minos, who is cnossus.

1 i. 172, 173. 2 vii. 170, 171. M. 2. * Thuc. i. 4, 8.

^ iii. 44. " iii. 59.

THE ISLANDS.

EUROPE.

CHAP. A^

Itauus.
Axus.

Carpathus.
Rhodes.

Cyprus.

Topography
of Cjrprus.
Paphos.

Soli

Curium.

Amathus.

Salamis.

called the Cnossian.^ Itanus was the residence of a
dyer of purple named Corobius, who had been to
Libya, and who conducted the Theraeans to the
island of Platea.^ Axus was a city where Etearchus
was king.^

The Polichnitae and Praesians have been already
mentioned, together with some strangers who were
settled in the island.*

Caepathus, the modern Scarpanto, is merely
named by Herodotus.^

Rhodes was inhabited by Dorians.^ Herodotus
only mentions three of its cities — Lindus, lalyssus,
and Cameirus.'' At Lindus there was a temple of
Athene, said to have been founded by the daugh-
ters of Danaus, when flying from the sons of
Aegyptus. On this account the Aegyptian king,
Amasis, dedicated two stone statues and a linen
corselet, well worthy of notice.^ The Lindians
founded Gela in Sicily.^

Cyprus contributed 150 ships to Xerxes. Her
kings wrapped their heads in turbans. The people
generally wore tunics, and were in other respects
attired like the Hellenes. The inhabitants of the
island were a mixture of many nations, some coming
from Salamis and Athens, others from Arcadia, others
from Cythnus, others from Phoenicia, and some even,
as the Cyprians themselves said, from Aethiopia.^°
Artemisia said of the Cyprians, that they were bad
slaves, and fit for nothing. ^^ The following localities
are mentioned. Paphos, which sent 12 ships to
Xerxes, 1 1 of which were destroyed in the storm oif
Sepias.'^ Soli, which held out longer against the
Persians than any of the other Cyprian cities, but
was taken in the fifth month by the enemy under-
mining their wall.^^ Curium, whose inhabitants are
said to be a colony of Argives.^* Amathus, whose
inhabitants refused to join in the Ionian revolt. ^^ Sa-
lamis, whose tyrant, Euelthon, dedicated the curious

' iii. 122.
« ii. 178.
" viii. 6«.

2 iv. 151, 152. 3 iv. 154.
7 i. 144. « ii.l82.

'» vii. 19.5.

115.

< iv. 151.
» vii. 153.
1" V. 113.

5 iii. 45.
1" vii. 90.
15 v. 104.

THE ISLANDS. 97

censer at Delphi, which Ls deposited in the treasury europe.
of the Corinthians.^ The promontory called the chap. t.
Key of Cyprus.^ The island also contained a tern- j^^ ^^
pie of the celestial Aphrodite, which was built after cypms.
the fashion of the one at Ascalon.^ The Cyprians
called spears aiyvvveQ.'^ In many parts of Cyprus there
was a custom very similar to the one observed by
the Babylonian women in the temple of Aphrodite.''

The Islands of the Aegean which are included islands of
under the name of the Grecian Archipelago, are best or^G^effa^lT'
considered under their separate heads. First, the ^"^o^'^Qg
group of isles off the coast of Europe, which are nerai de-
called the Cyclades, because they were supposed to ^*^"p*^°^-
lie in a circle round Delos. Secondly, the S]3orades,
or " scattered islands," which lie more to the south,
and off the Asiatic coast. Thirdly, the northern
islands, or those lying off the more northern coasts of
both Europe and Asia Minor. Countless numbers of
isles or islets, beside those mentioned by our author,
are scattered over the Aegean Sea. Many are of vol-
canic formation ; others, like Paros, are composed of
a pure white marble ; and we learn from modern tra-
vellers, that in no part of Greece does the character
and expression on the face of ancient statues so de-
cidedly show itself, as upon the countenances of the
fine athletic men, and very beautiful women, who
still people

" the isles of Greece,
Where bui'ning Sappho loved and sung."

I. The Cyclades mentioned by Herodotus are thir- i- The cy-
teen in number, viz. Delos, Rhenea, Myconus, Te- ''^'^*'
nos, Andros, Scyros, Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphus,
Siphnos, Melos, Paros, and Naxos.

The small island of Delos, which formed the cen- Deio.s,the
tre of the Cyclades, was celebrated as having been sacred cha-
the birth-place of the two deities, Apollo and Arte- '"^'''"''
mis ; and its inhabitants were apparently regarded
as sacred.^ It contained a sanctuary of Artemis sanctuary
with an altar ; and also a hall called the banqueting- BanquTing

hall of the
1 iv. 162. 2 V. 108. 3 I 105. * v. 9. Ceians.

5 i. 199. Comp, Asia, chap. iii. ^ vi. 97-

THE ISLANDS.

EUROPE.

CHAP. Y.

Grave of the
two Hyper-
boi-eau yir-
gins, Ilype-
roche and
Laoclice.

Grave of
two other
Hyperbo-
rean vir-
gins, Opis
and Arge.

Islands
round Da-
les, viz.
Rhcnea,

Mycomxs,
Tenos,
Andios,
Scyros,

Ceos,

room of the Ceians/ On the left-hand side of the
entrance to the sanctuary of Artemis was the grave
of two Hyperborean virgins, Hyperoche and Laodice,
who died at Delos ; and on the grave there grew an
olive tree. The two virgins had carried some sacred
things, wrapped in wheat straw, from their native
country to Delos, attended by five of the principal
Hyperborean citizens, who were afterwards called
Perpherees, and highly venerated at Delos. The
maidens and youths of the island dedicated their
hair to these two virgins ; the maidens cutting off a
lock before marriage, and laying it on the sepulchre
wound round a distaff ; and the youths placing their
hair on the sepulchre wound round a plant.^ Be-
hind the temple of Artemis, facing the east, and very
near the banqueting-room of the Ceians, was the se-
pulchre of two other Hyperborean virgins, named
Opis and Arge, who came with the gods themselves
long before the two others. The Delians paid them
different honours, and the women collected contri-
butions for them, and invoked their names in a hymn
sung by Olen the Lycian ; and the ashes of the thighs
of victims burnt on the altar were strewed uj)on
their grave. ^ Delos was spared by the Persians
under Datis, but after their departure was shaken
by an earthquake, which Herodotus says had
never happened in his time before or since.* In
obedience to an oracle, Delos was purified by Pisis-
tratus, who dug up all the dead bodies within sight
of the temple, and removed them to another part of
the island.^

West of Delos was the island of Rhenea, which is
merely named by Herodotus.^ To the east was the
island of Myconus, also scarcely noticed.^ Northward
was Tenos ; ^ then Andros, which was dependent on
Naxos.^ South of Andros was Scyros.^" Again, to
the north-west was Ceos, whose inhabitants were
lonians from Athens, and furnished two triremes and

' iv. 35. 2 iv. 33^ 34, 3 iy. 35. 4 y^ 93.

5 i. 64. Comp. Thucyd. iii. 104. « ^i 97. 1 yi. 118.

« iv. .'«. " V. 31. "> vii. 183.

THE ISLANDS. 99

two penteconters, both at Artemisium and Salamis.' Europe,
Southwards of Ceos was Cythnos, whose inhabitants ^hap. v.
were Dryopes, and sent one trireme and one pente- cythnos,
center to Salamis.^ Many of the Cythnians were
settled at Salamis.^ Next came Seriphus, whose in- Seriphus.
habitants were lonians from Athens. They refused
to send earth and water to Xerxes, and had one
penteconter at Salamis.*

The island of Siphnos came next. In the time of siphnos.
Polycrates it was in a very flourishing condition,
and so rich in gold and silver mines that Herodotus
considered the Siphnians to be the richest of all the
islanders. A tithe of the produce went to Delphi,
and the remainder was shared by the inhabitants.
When the Siphnians sent their treasure to Delphi,
they inquired of the oracle if their prosperity would
continue. The Pythia thus replied :

" In Siphnos when the hall and mart are white,
Then she will need a prudent man to guard
From wooden ambush and a crimson herald."

This prophecy was fulfilled. The prytaneium and
agora of Siphnos were faced with Parian marble,'
and at that time all ships were painted with red
ochre or vermilion. Ambassadors came in a ship
from Samos to request the loan of ten talents, and
when this was refused the Samians ravaged the
country, and exacted a fine of 100 talents.^ Siph-
nos was one of the few islands that refused to send
earth and water to Xerxes, and one of its ships with
50 rowers fought on the side of the Greeks at Sala-
mis. Its inhabitants were of Ionian extraction, and
came from Athens.'^

Lastly came the three islands, Melos, Pares, and
Naxos. The inhabitants of Melos were Dorians Meios.
from Lacedaemon. They refused to send earth and
water to Xerxes, and furnished two penteconters at
Salamis.^ Paros included a town of the same name, Paros.
which was surrounded by a wall. When the Pa-
rians were threatened by Miltiades, they raised the

^viii. 1, 46, 47. ^ viii. 46. ^ vii. 90. * viii. 46, 48.

5 iii. 57. 6 iii. 58. ' viii. 46, 48. « viii. 46, 47.

H 2

100

THE ISLANDS.

EUROPE.

CHAP. A-.

Naxos.

II. The

Sporades.

Thcra.

most exposed parts of this wall to double the former
height.^ On a hill in front of the city was a temple
of Demeter Thesmophora, surrounded by a fence,
which Miltiades leaped over, as he could not open
the door. He then entered the interior, which con-
tained things that ought not to have been revealed
to the male sex, but a thrill of horror came over
him, and he turned back ; but on again leaping the
fence, dislocated his thigh, or, as others say, hurt his
knee.^ The Parians were chosen by the Milesians
to reconcile the factions at Miletus/^ Naxos was
regarded by Herodotus as an island of no great
extent, but otherwise beautiful and fertile. It was
near Ionia, and contained much wealth and many
slaves. Pares, Andros, and the other islands that
are called Cyclades, were dej^endent upon it.* In
the time of Darius, its inhabitants were the richest
of all the islanders,^ and possessed 8000 heavy-armed
men, and a considerable number of shijDS of war.^
Aristogoras built a fortress for the Naxian exiles.'
The island was apparently mountainous in the inte-
rior.^ The Naxians were lonians from Athens, and
sent four triremes to Salamis.^

II. The Spoeades mentioned by our author are
only four in number, viz. Thera, Telos, Cos,
and Leros. They lie off the western coast of Asia
Minor.

The island of Thera (the modern Santorin) was
anciently called Callista, and Avas inhabited for eight
generations after Cadmus by the descendants of
Membliares and some Phoenicians. Theras, found-
er of a colony ft-om Sj)arta including Laconians
and Minyans, re-named it after himself.'" The Py-
thia admonished the Theraeans to send a colony to
Libya, but the latter did not know where Libya lay.
Seven years of drought followed, during which no
rain fell, and all the trees in the island except one
withered away. The Pythia then renewed her ad-

1 vi. 133. - vi. 133, 134.

3 V. 29.

^ V. 31.

5 V. 2S. « V. 30. ■^ V. 34.

« vi. 96.

8 viii. 46.

"> iv. 147, 14S.

THE ISLANDS. 101

vice, and it was followed.^ A Theraean merchant europe.
is mentioned as living in Axns, a city of Crete. ^ chap. v.

Of the other three islands, Telos lay off Triopium, ^^^
and was the native place of an ancestor of Gelon ; ^
Cos was inhabited by Dorian Epidamnians ; * and cos.
Leeds was brought before the notice of the Milesians Leros.
by Hecataeus the historian, who advised them to
occupy it after the sujjpression of the Ionian revolt.^

III. The Islands in the Aegean not reckoned iii. other
amongst the Cyclades and Sporades, include seven- thrAegean.
teen which are mentioned by Herodotus, viz. Samos,
Lade, Chios, Lesbos, Hecatonnesi, Tenedos, Lem-
nos, Imbros, Samothrace, Thasos, Sciathus, Euboea,
Salamis, Psyttalea, Aegina, Belbina, Hydrea.

Samos was one of the most important of them all, Samos.
and Herodotus dwelt longer on the affairs of the
Samians because they possessed the three greatest
works that have been accomplished by the Hellenes.

First, there was a mountain, 150 orgyae or fathoms The aque-
in height, at the base of which a tunnel was dug,
having an opening at each side. The excavation
was seven stadia long, eight feet broad, and eight
feet high. Throughout the whole length of it ran a
trench 20 cubits deep and three feet broad, through
which the water was conveyed by pipes from an
abundant spring into the city. The constructor was
Eupalinus from Megara.

Secondly, there was a mole carried out to sea, and The moie.
surrounding the harbour. This mole was 20 orgyae
or fathoms deep, and more than two stadia long.

Thirdly, there was a temple of Hera, the largest that The temple
had ever been seen,^ of which the first architect was cfuSsiUes!^
Rhoecus, a Samian.^ Amongst other consecrated
gifts and curiosities, it contained a large brazen mix- The great
ing- vessel, covered outside to the rim with various in|!vessTr"

1 iv. 150. 2 [y^ 154. 3 vii. 153 4 yji 99 s y. 125.

^ Herodotus seems to have seen this temple, and perhaps wrote his
description of it before he visited Aegypt ; for speaking of the Lab)nrinth
a little above Lake Moeris (ii. 148) he says, " This I have seen myself:
it is greater than can be described. This Labyi-inth must have been the
work of more labour and money than all the buildings and public works
in Hellas, though the temple in Epliesus is worthy of mention, as well
as that of Samos." ' iii. 60.

102 THE ISLANDS.

EUROPE, figui'es, and capable of containing 300 amphorae.
CHAP. V. Tliis mixing- vessel liad been sent as a present by
^ the Lacedaemonians to Croesus, king of Lydia, in

retm-n for the gold he had given them for the Apollo
statue on Mount Thornax. The mixing-vessel how-
ever never reached Sardis. The Lacedaemonians
said that on its way it was seized by the Samians,
and forcibly carried off. On the other hand, the Sa-
mians affii-med that the Lacedaemonians who were
carrying it to Croesus, hearing that Sardis was taken
and that the king was a prisoner, sold it to some
private persons in Samos, who thereupon dedicated
it in the Heraeum. Herodotus adds, that perhaps
those who sold it pretended that they had been
T^vowood- robbed.' Amasis, on account of his friendship for
AmlsSr** °^ Polycrates, sent two images of himself carved in
wood to this same temple, and they were standing
behind the doors in the time of Herodotus.^ Man-
picture of drocles the Samian, the architect of the bridge over
rusfridg^?' the Bosphorus by which Darius and his army cross-
ed into Europe, having been amply rewarded by the
king, dedicated in return in the Hera temple a pic-
ture of the entire construction of the bridge, with
king Darius on his throne, and the army crossing
over. Attached to the picture was the following in-
scription :

" Mandrocles bridged the fishy Bosphonis,
And this memorial to Hera gave :
Thus having pleased Darius, he has earned
Glor}^ to Samos, for himself a crown." ^

Furniture of Macandrius dedicated in this temple all the magnifi-
Poi) crates. ^^^^ omamcutal ftirniture from the men's apartment
Linrn in the house of Polycrates.'^ Here also was probably
the corselet, which Amasis had sent to the Lacedae-
monians, l3ut which the Samians stole the year before
they took the brazen mixing- vessel. This corselet was
made of linen, inwrought with many figures of ani-
mals, and adorned with gold and cotton wool ; and
each thread, though fine, consisted of 360 small
threads, which were all distinct.^ Lastly, the Samians
' ' i. 70. 2 ji, 182. 3 iv 88_ i iii. 123. « iii. 47.

corselet of
Amasis

THE ISLANDS. 103

wlio were carried to Tartessus, set aside from the im- Europe.
mense profits of the voyage, one-tenth, amounting chap. v.
to six talents, with which they made a brazen vessel Brazen mix-
like an Argive mixing-jug, with griffins' heads pro- 'j'spQ^®^°''
jecting round the edge. This vessel they dedicated
in the temple, upon a pedestal of three colossal
brazen figures, seven cubits high, leaning upon their
knees. ^

The city of Samos was fortified by walls and sur- Description
rounded by a moat, which had been dug by some of samos.^
Lesbian captives. ^ Near the sea, and facing the suburbs,
was a tower, and farther from the coast was another,
which Herodotus calls the upper tower, and which
stood on the ridge of the mountain.^ There were
also arsenals or docks, literally " ship houses," in
which Polycrates imprisoned some women and chil-
dren.* In the former stood a monumental column
bearing the names and ancestry of the eleven cap-
tains, or steersmen, who refused to desert the lonians
at Lade ; ^ and in the suburbs was an altar and sacred
precinct to Zeus the liberator, which had been
consecrated by Maeandrius.^ Both the column and
altar stood in the time of Herodotus. Maeandrius
also dug a secret passage, from the citadel to the
sea.'^ The place called Calami was near the cele-
brated Hera temple.^

The Samians celebrated a festival in consequence ^^^'J""^*/*^^'
of the following circumstance. Periander, tyrant of served by
Corinth, sent 300 Corcyraean boys, who were sons mian^s?
of the principal men, to Sardis for emasculation.
On their way the Corinthians landed at Samos, and
the Samians instructed the youths to hold to the
temple of Artemis. The Corinthians cut off all pro-
visions from the youths, but the Samians instituted
choruses of virgins and young men to carry cakes of
sesame and honey by night to the temple. This
custom continued not only until the departure of
the Corinthians, but also down to the time of Hero-
dotus.^

1 iv. 152. - iii. 39. ^ [\[ 54^ 4 [^ 45. s ^i 14

« iii. 142. ' iii. 146. » jx. 96. " iii. 48.

104:

THE ISLANDS.

EUROPE.

CHAP. V.

Flourishing
coudition of
Sainos un-
der Poly-
crates.

Samians in,
Libya.

Artistic
skill of the
Samians.

Samos
ravaged by
Otanes.

Under Poly crates Samos flourished. He had 100
galleys with 50 rowers to each, together with 1000
archers, but he plundered without distinction.
Having taken the Lesbians prisoners, he forced them
to dig the ditch round the city walls of Samos. ^
The commerce of the island must also have been
very considerable. The Samians built a temple of
Hera in Aegypt ; ^ and one of their vessels having
been driven by an easterly wind to Tartessus,
wliich was at that time an unfrequented port, they
made more money by the voyage than any one
else, except Sostratus of Aegina, with whom our
author says it is impossible for any one to compete.
It was on this occasion that the Samians relieved
Corobius with a year's provisions, when he was re-
duced to the last extremity on the Libyan island of
Platea ; and this timely relief led to the great friend-
ship wliich existed between them and the Cyrenae-
ans and Theraeans.^

Some Samians of the Aeschrionian tribe inhabited
the oasis called Island of the Blessed, which is about
seven days' march from the Aegyptian Thebes, from
which it is separated by a sand desert.*

The Samians must have been celebrated for their
sliill in works of art from an ancient period. Poly-
crates possessed an emerald signet ring mounted in
gold, the work of Theodorus of Samos ; ^ and also
found native artisans sufficiently skilful to strike a
number of coins in lead, and gild them sufficiently
well, in imitation of the Samian money, to enable
him to impose them upon the Lacedaemonians as a
bribe to induce them to raise the siege of the city.^

The Samians sent 60 ships to Lade.'' Their
island had been previously scoured and hunted
through by the Persians under Otanes, who had
drawn it as with a net, and delivered it up to
Syloson utterly destitute of inhabitants ; but Otanes,
in consequence of a dream and distemper, subse-
quently rcpeoplcd it.^

iii. .39.
■' iii. 41.

ii. 17H.
« iii. 5f>.

3 iv. 152.

' vi. 8.

" iii. 26.
« iii. 149.

THE ISLANDS. 105

The Samians spoke a peculiar dialect of the Europe.
Ionian language.^ Their cubit was the same length chap. v.
as that of the Aegyptians.^ ^~^a.

Near Samos was the small island of Lade, which lect, etc.
was celebrated as the spot where the Ionian fleet
assembled and were defeated during the Ionian
revolt.^

In the island of Chios the following places are Chios. To-
mentioned by Herodotus. The city of Chios, which chfos."^ ^'
contained a sanctuary of Athene Poliuchus,* and a
school of which the ceiling fell in upon 120 boys as
they were learning to read, and only one escaped.^
Caucasa, a port from whence Aristagoras with a Caucasa.
north wind wanted to sail to Naxos.^ Coeli, where coeii.
Histiaeus defeated the Chian garrison : '' the name
appears to indicate a valley or hollow way. Lastly,
the little town of Polichne.^ Poiichne.

The Chians sent 100 ships to Lade,^ forty chosen Notices of

• ,• • •! T r 1 110 the Chians.

Citizens serving as marines on board oi each vessel.
The island was afterwards scoured and depopulated
by the Persians, who took one another by the hand,
and extending from the northern to the southern
sea, marched over the whole of it, hunting out the
inhabitants.^^ From Chios came Grlaucus, who first
invented the art of inlaying iron.' ^ The Chians
possessed the Oenyssae islands, and refused to sell
them to the Phocaeans.'^

In the island of Lesbos the three following places Lesbos.
are mentioned by Herodotus. Methymna, the na-
tive place of Arion ; '* Mitylene, the birth-place of
Charaxus, the brother of Sappho ; ^^ and Arisba,
whose inhabitants the Methymnaeans reduced to
slavery though of kindred blood.'*' Herodotus how-
ever says that five Aeolian cities were situated in
Lesbos, and he mentions Arisba as the sixth. '^

The Lesbians sent 70 shij^s to Lade,'^ and their
island was netted by the Persians the same as

1 i. 142.

Mi. 168. ^Yi.7,U5.

* i. 160. « vi. 27.

« V. 33.

■> vi.26. 8 Ibid,

9 vi. 8. " vi. 15.

" vi. 31.

12 i. 25. " i_ ig5_ u

i. 23. 15 ii. 135.

1" i. 151.

" Ibid. 18 vi_ 9_

106

THE ISLANDS.

EUROPE.

CHAP. V.

Hecaton-
nesi.

Tenedos.

Lemnos,
atrocities
committed
there.

Chios. ^ The Sc}i;hian cauldrons for cooking the
flesh of their sacrifices are compared with the Les-
bian mixing-vessels, only the former were much
larger.^

The Hecatonnesi, or Himdred Islands ; a group of
small islands, of which the real number is reckon-
ed by some at 20, by others at 40, in number. They
lay between Lesbos and the continent, and their
name, according to Strabo, is derived not from eKarov,
a hundred, but from "EKaro?, a surname of Apollo.
Herodotus merely mentions the solitary circum-
stance of their containing one Aeolian city.^ Tene-
dos he also names as containing one Aeolian city,*
and having been netted by the Persians like Chios. ^
The island of Lemnos was famous for bloody atro-
cities. In ancient times all the Lemnian women
murdered their husbands.^ Subsequently the island
was occupied by the descendants of the Argonauts,
called Minyans, who were expelled by the Pelas-
gians.' These Pelasgians carried oif the Athenian
women from Brauron. The sons of the latter, how-
ever, were perpetually fighting with the sons of the
Pelasgian women, and accordingly the Pelasgians
murdered all the Athenian women and their pro-
geny. In consequence of this atrocity, and of the
former murder of the Lemnian husbands by their
wives, Lemnian Deeds became a proverb in Greece
for all atrocious acts.* Lemnos was still inhabited
by Pelasgians when taken by Otanes, the general of
Darius, against whom they fought bravely. ^ Milti-
ades subsequently delivered Lemnos from the Per-
sians, and brought it under the sway of Athens, the
Hephaestians yielding at once, but the Myrinaeans
not surrendering until after the siege. ^^ Some islands
are mentioned as lying oif Lemnos, and Onomacritus
was discovered in the very act of interpolating
among the oracles of Musaeus a prophecy imj^orting
that these isles would disappear beneath the sea."
imbros. Imbros was taken l^y the Persians at the same

1 vi,31.
7 iv. 145.

2 iv. 61.
" vi. 1.3S.

' i. 151.

" V. 26.

Ibid. 5 vi. 31. " vi. 138.
'" vi. 140. " vii. 6.

THE ISLANDS. 107

time as Lemnos, and was also inhabited by the europe.
Pelasgians/ Samothrace was celebrated as having chap. v.
been also occupied by Pelasgians who taught the samothra^
mysteries of the Cabeiri.^

The island of Thasos was visited by Herodotus, Thasos, its
who found there a temple of Heracles, which had ^S^^
been founded by the Phoenicians five generations
before Heracles the son of Amphitryon appeared in
Greece.^ The Phoenicians discovered the island
and its valuable mines whilst sailing in search of
Europa, and being led by Thasus they called it
after him. Before the Persian conquest the Thasi-
ans derived a clear surplus revenue of 200 talents
yearly, and sometimes even 300 talents ; of which
sum 80 talents came in from the gold mines of
Scapte Hyle on the opposite coast of Thrace, whilst
the mines in the island itself produced somewhat
less, and the produce of the soil was exempt from
taxes. Herodotus himself saw the mines in Thasos,
and says that the most wonderful were those which
were discovered by the Phoenician colonists. These
were between Aenira and Coenyra, opposite Samo-
thrace, and a large mountain had been thrown up-
side down in the search for ore. The Thasians
having been besieged by Histiaeus the Milesian, ap-
plied their wealth to building ships of war and
fortifying their city with a stronger wall ; but
at the command of Darius they demolished the wall
and sent their ships to Abdera.* The entertain-
ment to Xerxes cost the Thasians 400 silver talents.^
They possessed several cities in Thrace, of which
Stryme is mentioned.^

Next comes the island of Sciathus, which is prin- Sciathus.
cipally celebrated as being one of the posts of observ-
ation at the invasion of Xerxes. Between Sciathus
and Magnesia was a sunken rock,^ called Myrmex
or Ant, upon which the crews of three of the ten

' V. 26 ; vi. 41. 2 ii. 5i_ 3 ii. 44^ i yi 46, 47.

5 vii. 118. 6 vii. 108.

'' Bobrik makes «p/za signify a sand-bank ; but this is an evident
mistake.

108 THE ISLANDS.

EUROPE. Persian vessels erected a stone pillar to mark its posi-
CHAP. Y. tion. Three Grreek ships were stationed at Sciathus
at the Persian invasion, and from thence announced
the apj)roach of the enemy by fire signals.^

Eiiboea. The large island of Euboea, now called the Negro-

opogiap y p^j^^^ contained the following cities and districts^

Eretria. mentioned by Herodotus. The most important
was the town and territory of Eretria, from whence
the Gephyraeans of Athens said that they themselves
were sprung; but Herodotus found upon diligent
inquiry that they formed part of those Phoenicians
who came with Cadmus to Boeotia.^ An Eretrian
was amongst the suitors for the hand of the daughter
of Clisthenes of Sicyon, and at that time it was
flourishing.* The territory of Eretria also included
the towns of Tamynae, Choereae, and Aegilia. The
city of Eretria was plundered, its temples fired, and
its inhabitants enslaved by the Persians in accord-
ance with the commands of Darius.^ Eretria sent
seven ships to Artemisium,*^ and the same number to
Salamis.'^ The people were lonians,^ and those who
were enslaved by the Persians were transported to a
station called Arderica in Cissia.^

chaicis. T}2e city of Chalcis was situated at the straits of

Em^iDus.^" The most opulent of the Chalcidians were
called Hippobotae, and after the defeat of the Chal-
cidians near Euripus, their lands were occupied by
4000 Athenian settlers." The Chalcidians were lo-
nians. They manned 20 ships at Artemisium, which
were furnished by the Athenians, and the same num-

styia. ber at Salamis.^^ The city of Styra sent four ships to
Artemisium, and the same to Salamis. The Styreans
were Dryo2:)es,^^ and also possessed a small island call-
ed Aegilia.'* The following towns and localities are

Goraostus. also briefly noticed. Geraestus, where Hermolycus

1 vii. 179—183.

* The Histiaeans dwelt in the north, with the EUopians in their
neighhourhoocl. In the south were Dryopes. The centre of the island
was inhabited chiefly by lonians, and it was in this part of Euboea
that the Athenians planted the colonies of Chalcis and Eretria.

3 V. 57. * vi. 127. ^ vi. 101. « viii. 1. ' viii. 46.

« viii. 46. s vi. 119. '" v. 1']. i' Ibid. i- viii. 1, 46.

'3 viii. 1, 46. 11 vi. 107.

THE ISLANDS. 109

the Athenian was buried/ Carystus,^ which in- europe.
eluded the place called Cyrnus.^ Histiaeotis, which chap. v.
included the city of Histiaea, and the Ellopian dis- cavjstus.
trict with all its maritime villages/ Histiaeotis.

The celebrated beach of Artemisium, (in northern Description
Euboea,) was, according to Herodotus, 80 stadia of Artem^
distant from the opposite point of Aphetae in Thes- ^'""'•
saly," and so near Thermopylae that what happened
at one place could be seen from the other/ It was
situated just where the Thracian bay contracts into
a narrow strait, passing between the island Sciathus
and the main-land of Magnesia. On it was a temple
of Artemis,^ from which it naturally took its name.
It was here that Themistocles engraved inscriptions
upon the stones, calling on the lonians either to de-
sert, or to withdraw, or else to purposely behave ill
in the approaching action.^

Herodotus also notices the following. Coela, coeia.
where 200 Persian ships were dashed against the
rocks. ^"^ The Caphareus promontory. ^^ The moun- cape Ca-
tains of Euboea, namely, those in the south, which in- Mountains.
eluded the fastnesses where some of the Eretrians
proposed to retire on the approach of the Persian
fleet ; ^^ and those of the north, where the Greek
scouts were stationed. ^^ Many of the Abantes of The Aban-
Euboea went with the lonians to Asia Minor. ^*

The island of Salamis is celebrated for the famous Saiamis.
naval battle fought off its shores. A Phoenician
trireme was dedicated in the island to Ajax, from
the first-fruits of the spoil. '^ A temple of Athene
Sciras stood upon the coast. ^'^ Some lands in Salamis
were presented by the Athenians of Antidorus, a
Lemnian, as being the only Greek in the service of
Xerxes who went over to the Greek side at the
battle of Artemisium.^'' Ceos and Cynosura were
undoubtedly promontories, though not expressly
stated to be such by Herodotus. ^^ Near Salamis

1 viii. 7 ; ix. 105. 2 iv. 33. ^ jx. 105. * viii. 23.

« vii. 175. « viii, 8. ^ vii. 175. » y^ j^g. " viii. 22.
10 viii. 12. " viii. 7. ^^ vi. 100. '^ vii. 182. " i. 146.

15 viii. 121. i« viii. 94. "viii, 11.

1^ viii. 76, Comp. Baehr's note.

110 THE ISLANDS.

EUROPE, was the little island of Psyttalea, upon wliich the
CHAP. T. Persians landed some troops prior to the battle.^
Psyttalea South of Salamis was the island of Aegina, whose

Aegina. inhabitants were Dorians from Ej^idaurus. The
island was formerly called Oenone.^ The Aeginetans
wore very long clasps to their garments, for a reason
ah-eady explained.^ The capital was apparently
divided into the old and new town : Herodotus men-
tions that part which he said was called the old
town/ The city contained a temple of Athene, in
which the Aeginetans dedicated the beaks of the
Samian ships they captured at Cydonia. The beaks
or prows represented the figm-e of a boar/ There
was also a temple of Demeter Thesmophoria, with a
propylaea/ At the village of Oea in the interior of
the island, and about 20 stadia from Aegina, the
Aeginetans erected two olive-wood statues of Damia
and Auxesia, which they had captured from the
Epidaurians; and here they propitiated the two
deities with sacrifices and derisive dances of women,
ten men being assigned to each deity as leaders of
the chorus. In these choruses the women of the
island, and not the men, were the subjects of rail-
lery.^
Trade and The trade and shipping of the Aeginetans must
s ippmg. liave been very important. They erected for them-
selves in Aegypt a temple of Zeus.^ They sent 18
ships to Artemisium,^ and yet kept back many vessels
ready manned to guard their own island. They also
sent 30 of their best sailing vessels to Salamis, which
was half as much again as any of the other island-
ers ; ^° and here they obtained more renown than any
other Hellenic nation. ^^ Our author says that their
immense riches originated after the battle of Plataea,
when they purchased a great quantity of gold and
silver vessels from the helots almost at the same
price as brass. '^ Herodotus however states, that at a
much earlier period the profits which Sostratus of

' viii. 76. 2 viii. 46. ^ v. 88. Comp. page 40. * vi. 88,

' iii. 59. « vi. 91. ^ v. S3. » ii. 178. » viii. 1.

'" viii. 46. " viii. 93, 122. »'^ ix. 80.

THE ISLANDS. . Ill

Aegina derived from a single cargo, were larger than eijrope.
any that had ever been gained by the Greeks.^ c"ap. v.

Lastly, two small islands are mentioned by our
author, Hydeea, which the Hermionians gave to the Hydrea,
Samian exiles ; ^ and Belbina, whose inhabitants ap- Beibma.
pear to have excited either general hatred or con-
tempt. Timodenus of Aphidna, who envied The-
mistocles, reproached him by saying that the honours
he had received at Sparta had not been paid to him
as Themistocles, but as a citizen of Athens. The-
mistocles however replied : " Were I a Belbinite I
shoidd not have been honoured, nor would you, fel-
low, though you are an Athenian."

1 iv. 152. 2 iii. 59.

CHAPTER VI.

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYRIA.

EUROPE. Countries north of the Cambunian and Ceraunian hills. — I. Mace-
chap Ti I^ONIA : difference between Macedonia Proper and the Macedonian em-

' pire. — General description of the Macedonian empire. — Watered by four

rivers: Haliacmon, Lydias, Axius, Echeidorus. — Divided into five dis-
tricts : Pieria, Macedonia Proper, Bottiaeis, Mygdonia, Crestonica. —
Peninsula of Chalcidice. — Eastern frontier formed by Mount Dysorum.
— Herodotus's geography illustrative of Xerxes's progress. — Route of the
Persian fleet : description of Mount Athos ; canal through the isthmus ;
bay of Singus ; Sithonia ; Cape Canastraeum ; Pallene ; Crossaea ;
Therma ; river Axius ; gulf of Therma ; Olynthus ; Scione ; Potidaea.
— Route of the Persian army : river Echeidorus ; camels attacked by
lions ; rivers Lydias and Haliacmon ; Pieria. — Additional topographical
notices : Mount Dysorum ; Anthemus ; Creston ; mythus of the Teme-
nidae; sacred river; gai'dens of Midas ; Mount Bermion. — II. Thrace:
its geography illustrative of the routes of Darius and Xerxes. — General
description. — Northern Thrace. — Southern Thrace. — Herodotus's idea of
the magnitude of Thrace. — Its frontier towards Scythia. — Route taken
by Darius : bridge over the Bosphorus ; two columns of white marble ;
Byzantium ; Cyanean isles ; river Tearus ; Heraeopolis ; Perinthus ;
ApoUonia ; rivers Contadesdus, Agrianes, and Hebrus ; Aenus ; river
Artiscus ; the Odrysae, Scyrmiadae, Nipsaei, and Getae ; Mesambria ;
bridge at the Ister. — Route of Xerxes from the Hellespont to Acanthus :
the Chersonesus ; inhabited by the Thracian Dolonci ; wall across
the isthmus ; topography — -Elaeus, sepulchre of Protesilaus, Sestos, Ma-
dytus. — Xerxes leaves the Chersonesus. — Apsinthians. — Agora. — Bay
and river of Melas.— Aenus. — Lake Stentoris. — Doriscus. — Valley of the
river Hebrus. — Sala and Zona. — Cape Serrhium. — Mesambria. — River
Lissus. — Stryme. — Briantica, anciently Galaica. — Maroneia. — Dicaea. —
Abdera. — Lakes Ismaris and Bistonis. — Rivers Travus and Compsatus. —
River Nestus. — Pistjnns. — Paeti. — Cicones. — Bistones. — Sapaei. — Der-
saei.-^Edoni. — Satrae. — Pierian forts. — Mount Pangaeus. — Pieres. —
Odomanti. — Paeones. — Doberes. — Paeoplae. — District of Phyllis. —
River Angites. — Paeonia : its extent. — Siro-paeones. — Scapte Hyle. —
Paeones on the Strymon. — Paeones above Crestonica, and on Mount
Orbelus and Lake Prasias. — Agrianes. — River Stiymon. — Eion.^ — Stry-
mon bridge. — " Nine Ways." — Edonia. — Myrcinus. — Datus. — Bisaltia. —
Argilus. — Plain of Syleus. — Acanthus. — Miscellaneous notices of south-
em Thrace : Bryges ; gold mine of Scapte Hyle ; Cape Sarpedon ;
Perinthus ; Selybria ; Aegospotami ; Tyrodiza ; Leuce Acte ; Bisanthe ;
Hellespontines. — Northern Thrace, but little known : its seven rivers ;
Istria'; Pillars of Sesostris. — Manners and customs of the Thracians. —
Peculiar tenets of the Getae. — Belief in the immortality of the soul. —

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYRIA. 113

Their deity Zalmoxis. — Greek account of Zalmoxis. — ^Effect of his teach-
ings on the Thracians. — His subterranean dwelUng, and re-appearance.
— Herodotus's opinion. — Pecuhar custom of the Trausi : mournful births
and happy funerals. — Thracians above Crestonica, their polygamy. —
The favom-ite wife killed at her husband's death. — Customs of the Thra-
cians generally. — Sale of children. — Profligacy of the unmariied women.
— Tattooing. — Fondness for war. — Worship of Ares, Dionysus, and Arte-
mis.— Worship of Hermes. — Funerals. — Sepulchral monuments. — Gar-
ments of Scythian hemp. — Paeonians on Lake Prasias : living in huts
supported over the lake by planks and piles. — Polygamy. — Horses and
cattle fed on fish. — Satrae, the only independent Thracians. — Their
oracle of Dionysus. — III. Illyria; scarcely noticed by Herodotus.—
Sale of maidens amongst the Eneti. — River Angrus. — Tiiballic plain. —
River Brongus. — The Enchelees. —

We must now leave the Aegean Sea, and return europe.
to tlie European continent. The regions south of chap. vi.
the Cambunian range, and of the hills which connect ^^^^~~"
Pindus with the Ceraunian mountains, have already north of the
been described in the chapters on Hellas ; and we and^cerau-
have already noticed the chain of Pindus, which ex- ''^^'^ ^^^®-
tended through Greece from the Balkan range like
the back-bone of the country, and sent out ribs on
every side. East of Pindus were the Macedonians,
and the rude tribes of Thrace and Paeonia, stretch-
ing northward from the Cambunian range over the
Balkan or Haemustothe southern bank of the Danube
or Ister. West of Pindus were the Illyrians, who ex-
tended northwards from the Ceraunian mountains
beyond the head of the Adriatic to the Save and
the Alj)s. The geography of these three nations
will be comprised in the jDresent chapter.

I. The Macedonia of Herodotus was much more i..macedo-
limited in extent than the Macedonia of a later pe- ^^^^ £'5'''''
riod, and our author himself almost seems to employ tween Ma-
the name in two different senses. First, we have Proper and
Macedonia Proper, or the small district originally 5aifem-'^°
occupied by the Macedonian race. Then we have p"'^-
what may be called the Macedonian empire, or the
more extensive country obtained by conquest or
political preponderance. After the time of Herodo-
tus the empire embraced a still larger portion of the
surrounding territory, and consequently the name
had a still wider signification.

The Macedonian empire in the time of Herodo-

114

MACEDONIA, THEACE, AND ILLYRIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. TI.

General de-
scriptiou of
the Macedo-
nian em-
pire.

Watered by
four rivers,
viz.

Haliacmon,
Lydias, ^

Axius,
Echeidonis.

Divided in-
to five dis-
tricts, viz.

Pieria,

Macedonia
Proper,

Bottiaeis,

Mygdonia,
Crestom'ca.

Peninsula
of C'halci-
dice.

tus stretclied j&.'om Tliessaly and the Cambunian
moimtains to a ridge wliicli he calls Mount Dysorum,^
and which was situated near Lake Prasias, and
therefore close to the frontiers of Paeonia.^ This
region is watered by four rivers, which flow from
very different directions ; but they all discharge
themselves into the Thermaic Bay, now called the
Gulf of Salonika, at very short distances from each
other. On the south is the river Plaliacmon ; next
above it is the Lydias. In the time of Plerodotus
these two rivers discharged themselves at the same
mouth, ^ and in modern maps the interval between"
them is represented as very small. Further north
is the river Axius, and just beyond it the river
Echeidorus empties itself into a lagoon.'^ The
Axius, at present called the Vardar, flows from the
Balkan, or Mount Haemus. The Haliacmon, or
modern Vistriza, flows from the Cambunian range.
Between the Haliacmon and Lydias is a ridge which
Herodotus seems to describe under the name of
Mount Bermion.^

This Macedonian empire was divided into five
districts, viz. Pieria, Macedonia Proper, Bottiaeis,
Mygdonia," and Crestonica.

PiEEiA was apparently the district under Mount
Olympus. Macedonia Proper lay northward of
it, and was divided from Bottiaeis by the united
mouths of the Lydias and Haliacmon.^ Bottiaeis
extended to the river Axius ; and beyond the Axius
was Mygdonia^ on the Thermaic Bay. Above Myg-
donia was the district of Crestonica, from whence
flowed the river Echeidorus.^ In addition to these
may be mentioned the peninsula of Chalcidice, oc-
cupied by settlers from Euboea and others ; but
though we include it in our account of Macedonia,

' V. 17. 2 Lake Prasias was in Paeonia. v. 15, 16.

3 vii. 127. A fuller account is given further on in the present volume.
^ vii. 124. « viii. 138.

" Bisaltia was reckoned as part of Thrace.

' vii. 127. Herodotus therefore cannot make Pieria reach as far as
the Haliacmon, because this river was north of Macedonia Proper.
« vii. 123. Cf. 127. '■> vii. 124. Cf. 127.

MACEDONIA, THEACE, AND ILLYEIA.

115

snxixiia

SillMOJ

116 MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYRIA.

EUROPE, it certainly formed no part of tlie empire. It runs
CHAP. VI. out into the Aegean in three prongs, viz, Athos,

Sithonia, and Pallene.^
Eastern AVhctlicr, liowcver, Herodotus really alludes to

formSby ^^^^ collectivc territory under the name of Macedo-
Mount nia, depends upon the identification of Mount Dyso-
yboi-um. j,^^^^ which undoubtcdly formed the eastern frontier.^
K. 0. Miiller identifies Dysorum with the ridge
between the Haliacmon and Lydias,^ but if we
adopt this theory there is no finding Lake Prasias.
I am more disposed to follow Colonel Leake in sup-
posing Lake Prasias to be the same as the Lake Cer-
cinitis, and Mount Dysorum as that part of the
range which separates the Strymonic plain from
those mountains that extend to Thessalonica and the
Axius.'^
Herodotus's Hcrodotus's knowlcdgc of the Macedonian empire
0^1 iUus-^ is only brought forward to exj^lain the route taken
teative of "^y the flcct and army of Xerxes between Acanthus
progress, and the parts of Macedonia bordering on Thessaly.
It will therefore be advisable, for the sake of clear-
ness, to follow in these two separate tracks ; one
illustrating the geography of the coast, the other the
geography of the interior.
Route of The army and navy of Xerxes had reached Acan-
fl^et^^'^^'^'^ thus on the eastern coast of the Chalcidian peninsula.
At this point the king dismissed his fleet, with orders
to proceed to Therma, on the western coast and at
the head of the Thermaic Gulf, and there to await his
arrival with the land forces. Accordingly the fleet
left Acanthus, and sailed through the canal which
divided the peninsula of Mount Athos (or eastern
prong of Chalcidice) from the main-land.^
Description Athos is a large and celebrated mountain, stretch-
Athor"^ ing into the sea, and joined to the continent by an
isthmus 12 stadia across. At the isthmus the coun-
try is level, nor are there any considerable hills be-

' See preceding Diagram of Macedonia, Thrace, and Illyria.

2 V. 17.

^ Dorians, vol. i. Appendix I., on the settlement, origin, and early his-
tory of the Macedonian nation, with map.
^ Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iii. p. 210; iv. p. 581. * vii. 121.

MACEDONIA, THEACE, AND ILLYRIA. 117

tween the Acanthian Gulf and that of Torone.^ The europe.
isthmus was cut through to avoid the disasters chap. vi.
which befell the fleet of Mardonius, when 300 of his ^~^
ships were wrecked in endeavouring to double the througii the
promontory, and 20,000 men were either dashed ^^
against the rocks, or destroyed by the numerous
sea-monsters which abounded in the neighbour-
hood.^ Three years were employed upon the canal.
Triremes were stationed at Elaeus in the Cherso-
nesus, and men of all nations, having been drawn
from the army, were sent out from these triremes, and
compelled to dig under the lash in successive sets,
and the inhabitants of the surrounding country
were also compelled to take a part in the labour.
The excavation was thus managed. A straight
line was drawn near the city of Sana, (at the nar-
row part of the isthmus,) and the entire space was
allotted in parcels to the several nations that were
to be employed. In the progress of the excavation
the earth dug out was handed up by man to man
from the bottom of the canal to the top — the whole
being performed by hand, without any aid of cranes
or barrows. The canal was made sufficiently wide for
two triremes to pass abreast, and the Phoenicians
showed their superior intelligence, by being the only
people who took the precaution of beginning the
excavation at a breadth far greater than that pre-
scribed, so as to enable them to gradually narrow
the canal as they approached the bottom, and leave
a convenient slope for the sides. The others dug
straight down, so that the time as well as the toil of
their work was doubled by the continual falling in
of the sides. ^ A mound was placed at each end

1 vii. 22. 2 vi. 44.

3 The present condition of the canal has been thus described by Lieut.
Wolfe : " The canal of Xerxes is still most distinctly to be traced all the
way across the isthmus, with the exception of about 200 yards in the
middle, where the ground bears no appearance of ever having been
touched. But as there is no doubt of the whole canal having been ex-
cavated by Xerxes, it is probable that the central part was afterwards
filled up, in order to allow a more ready land passage into and out of the
peninsula. In many places the canal is still deep, swampy at the bot-
tom, and filled with rushes and other aquatic plants : the rain and small
springs ^draining down into it from the adjacent heights afford, at the

118

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYRIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. VI.

Bay of

Sinffus.

Cape Am-

pehis.

Sitlionia.

Cape Canas-
traeum.

Pallene.

Crossaca.

of the canal to prevent its mouths from being
choked up/ A market and bazaar were held in a
neighboming meadow, and great abundance of meal
was brought fi^om Asia. On the isthmus stood the
Hellenic city of Sana. On the peninsula of Athos
itself stood the cities of Dion, Olophyxus, Acro-
thoon, Thyssus, and Cleonae.^

After leaving the canal the fleet entered the Bay
of Singus, now called the Grulf of Monte Santo, on
which were situated the cities of Assa, Pilorus, Sin-
gus, and Sarta. Having taken troops on board from
these cities, the fleet doubled the Toronaean foreland
of Ampelus, and passed by the following Hellenic
cities, viz. Torone, Galepsus, Sermyle, Mecyberna,
and Olynthus ; and from thence took both ships and
men. The district in which these places lay was
called Sithonia.^ The fleet then stretched fr^om
Cape Ampelus to Cape Canastraeum, the most promi-
nent point of all Pallene, which was anciently called
Phlegra. Pallene contained the cities of Potidaea,
Aphytis, Neapolis, Aega, Therambus, Scione, Men-
da, and Sana, from all of which the Persians col-
lected both men and ships. Coasting along the
country called Crossaea, they collected men from
the cities of Lipaxus, Combrea, Lisae, Gigonus,

Monte Santo western end, a good watering-place for shipping. The
distance across the isthmus is 2500 yards, which agrees very well with
the breadth of 12 stadia assigned by Herodotus. The width of the
canal appears to have been about 18 or 20 feet. The level of the earth
nowhere exceeds 15 feet above the sea. The soil is alight clay. It is
on the whole a very remarkable isthmus, for the land on each side, but
more especially to the westward, rises abruptly to an elevation of 800 to
1000 feet." Fen. Ct/chp.

Herodotus (vii. 24) considers that Xerxes performed this laborious
work from motives of mere ostentation, for the ships might have been
easily drawn across the isthmus. Col. Leake however says, that there
can Ije no doubt that even now this canal, which might be renewed
without much labour, would be useful to the navigation of the Acgean,^ —
" for such is the fear entertained by the Greek boatmen of the strength
and uncertain direction of the cmTcnts around Mount Athos, and of the
gales and high seas to which the vicinity of the mountain is subject dur-
ing lialf the year, that I could not, as long as I was on the peninsula, and
though offering a higli price, prevail upon any boat to carry me from
the eastern side of the peninsula to the western. . . . The circumnaviga-
tion of the Capes Ampelus and Canastraeum was much less dangerous."
North. Greece, vol. iii. p. 145.

' vii. 37. - vii. 22—24. » vii_ i22.

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYEIA. 119

Campsa, Smila, and Aenea. From Aenea the fleet Europe.
went to Therma ; then to the towns of Sindus and ^'"^^- ^^-
Chalestra ; and finally to the river Axius, which Therma.
forms the boundary between the territories of Myg- ^^.^^^
donia and Bottiaeis. On a narrow part of Bottiaeis
near the sea stood the cities of Ichnae and Pella.^

Herodotus also mentions a few particulars in con-
nexion with some of these localities. The Ther- ^^^^
mian Grulf, he says, derives its name from the city
of Therma.^ Olynthus was formerly occupied by oiynthus.
Bottiaeans, who had been driven from the Thermaic
Gulf by the Macedonians. Artabazus took the
town and slaughtered the garrison in a neighbour-
ing marsh, and then gave the place to the Chal-
cidian people.^ Scione was the birth-place of Scyllias, scionc.
the best diver of the period, who carried to the
Greeks the news of the 200 Persian ships which
were to sail round Euboea. Potidaea was also be- Potidaea.
sieged by Artabazus for three months, at the expir-
ation of which there happened an extraordinary
ebbing of the sea, and the besiegers seeing the
shallows attempted to proceed round the city.*
When, however, they had accomplished two-fifths of
the way, a strong flood-tide came upon them, such
as, the inhabitants say, was never seen before, though
floods were frequent. All who could not swim
perished, whilst the Potidaeans put out in boats and
slew many who would otherwise have escaped. The
Potidaeans say, and Herodotus thinks they are cor-

1 vii. 123. 2 vii. 121. 3 viii. 127.

* Potidaea was situated on the narrow isthmus which connected the
peninsula of Pallene with the main-land. The walls of the city were
built across the entire breadth of the isthmus, and thus were a defence
for the entire peninsula as well as for the city. Artabazus apparently
besieged it on the north side, and was thus shut out from Pallene as well
as fi'om Potidaea. His troops thought of proceeding along the shore
which was left by the tide, and by getting into Pallene and to the south
of Potidaea, to surround the city and to complete the blockade. The
walls above and below the city were apparently connected by break-
waters or walls running along the two shores on each side of the city.
At the siege of Potidaea during the Peloponnesian war, (Thucyd. i. 62,
63,) Aristeus, the commander of the Corinthians and Potidaeans, made
a similar attempt to run along under the sea wall, and obtain an entrance
into the town of Potidaea at one of the gates on the inner part facing Pal-
lene. He and his troops were however more successful than the Persians
imder Artabazus.

120

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYEIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. VI.

Route of
the Persian
arjny.

River

Echeidorus.

Camels at-
tacked by
lions.

Rivers
Lydias and
Haliacmon.

rect, that the Persians were thus punished for having
profaned the temple and statue of Poseidon in the
suburbs of the city.^

Xerxes and his land force proceeded also from
Acanthus, taking the road through the interior, and
passing through Paeonia and Crestonica^ towards
the river Echeidorus. This river rises up amongst
the Crestonians, flows through Mygdonia, and dis-
charges itself in the swamp which is above the
river Axius/ During the march some lions left
their lairs at night and attacked the camels carrying
the provisions, but made no attempt to seize the
other beasts or the men ; and Herodotus wonders
that they should thus have only attacked an animal
like the camel, which they could never before have
either seen or tasted.^ The lions were very numer-
ous, but were only to be found between the rivers
Nestus and Achelous. The country also abounded
in wild bulls, whose horns were of an extraordinary
size, and were exported to Hellas/

The army at length encamped in a district on the
coast stretching from Therma and Mygdonia to the
rivers Lydias and Haliacmon, which, uniting their
waters into the same channel, divide the territories
of Bottiaeis and Macedonia.^ The Echeidorus was

» viii. 129.

2 K. O. Mliller conjectures that this Crestonica was a district of
Chalcidice, and quite different fi-om that of the Crestonaeans at the
source of the Echeidorus ; and he urges as a reason the difficulty of sup-
posing that Xerxes, in going from Acanthus to Therma, would pass
through Paeonia and Crestonica. There may have been Crestonaeans in
Chalcidice, but it is considered most advisable here to draw the map ac-
cording to the plain meaning of the author. The student, however, can
compare Herod, viii. 116; Thucyd. ii. 99.

3 vii. 124. * vii. 125. ^ ^n 126.

6 It appears from this passage, that in the time of Herodotus the
Haliacmon was joined by the Lydias, a discharge of the lake of Pella.
But a change has now taken place in the course of the Lydias, which
joins not the Haliacmon, but the Axius. The Haliacmon itself appears
of late to have moved its lower course more to the east, so that in time
perhaps all these three rivers may unite before they join the sea. In all
the large rivers of Greece, similar changes of direction in the lower parts
of their course are observable, as we have already noticed in the case of
the Spercheius. The new soil which is brought down by the water, and
distributed along the shore by the sea, acted upon by prevailing winds
and currents, produces a continual change of obstacles and of relative
levels in the maritime plain, which speedily gives a new course to the

MACEDONIAj THRACE, AND ILLYRIA. 121

the only one of the above-mentioned rivers that Europe.
proved insufficient for the wants of the army.^ chap. vi.
Xerxes remained several days about Pieria, for a ^~~
third division of his army was employed in felling
the trees on the Macedonian range, that the whole
army might pass in that direction, [i. e. over the
Cambunian mountains through the pass of Gronnus,]
into the country of the Perrhaebi.^ Pieria produced
pitch, which was however not equal to that obtained
from Zacjmthus.^

The following scattered notices may also be con- Additional
nected with those which belonged to the routes pMcli no-
taken by the Persian armament. From Lake Prasias *'''®*-
the road to Macedonia was very short. Adjoining
the lake was a mine, which in later times produced
a talent of silver daily to Alexander the son of
Am3mtas. Beyond the mine the traveller has only
to pass over the mountain called Dysorum to be in Mount Dy-
Macedonia.^ Herodotus also mentions the town of ^°^^^-
Anthemus, which Amyntas offered to give to Hip- Anthemus.
pias, but the latter refused to accept it.^ Also the Creston.
town of Creston, above the Tyrrhenians. The
inhabitants of Creston had once held possession
of Thessaliotis, and were distinguished in the time
of Herodotus as conservators of the old Pelasgian
language.^ It was probably the capital of the Cres-
tonaean race.

A few notices of north-western or Upper Mace- Mythus of
donia are also to be found in a mythus. Three nidae.''°^
brothers of the race of Temenus, named Gauanes,
Aeropus, and Perdiccas, fled from Argos to the IHy-
rians, and from thence to Lebaea in Upper Macedo-
nia, where they hired themselves to the king as
servants. At length they were expelled, and pur-
sued by horsemen. In this region there was a river Sacred
to which the descendants of these men from Argos "^
afterwards sacrificed as their deliverer ; for when
the three Temenidae had crossed over, it swelled to

waters, even in the land which is not of the latest formation. See
Leake's North. Greece, vol. iii. p. 437.

1 vii. 127. "" vii. 131. » iv. 195. * v. 17. ' v. 94. " i. 57-

122

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYRIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. TI.

Gardens of
Midas.

Mount
Berniion.

II. Thrace
its geogi-a-
pliy illiistra-
tive of the
routes of
Darius and
Xerxes.

General
description.

such a lieight tliat tlieir pursuers were unable to ford
it. The three brothers then dwelt in another
quarter of Macedonia, near the gardens that were
said to have belonged to Midas, son of Grordias.
Wikl. roses grew in this region, each one hav-
ing sixty leaves, and surpassing all others in fra-
grance.^ The Macedonians relate that Silenus was
taken in these gardens. Above them is a mountain
called Bermion, which was inaccessible fi'om the cold.
The three brothers having possessed themselves of
this tract, subsequently issued from thence and sub-
dued the rest of Macedonia.^

Such is the extent of our author's knowledge of Ma-
cedonia. We next come to the geography of Thrace,
and as this also is chiefly brought forward to illus-
trate the routes taken by Darius and Xerxes, we
shall pm'sue the subject in a similar manner, namely,
first review the general geography of the country,
and then follow in the tracks marked out.

II. The Thrace of Herodotus extended from the
north-eastern frontier of the Macedonian empire to
the right bank of the Ister or Danube. It included
the Roman provinces of Moesia and Thracia, and the
districts of Paeonia, and thus answered to the mo-
dern territories of Bulgaria, Rumilia, and eastern
Macedonia, which now belong to European Turkey.
This region is divided into two parts by the Balkan
range, (or Plaemus,^) which runs from west to east,
separating the plain of the lower Danube from the
rivers which flow into the Aegean Sea. Three ex-
tensive chains branch off from the southern side of
Haemus, and traverse Thrace. One, about 100 miles

^ " The roses of Miletus," says Pliny, " have no more than twelve
petals : the rose called Spineola has many, but they are small. The
least leafy roses have five petals ; and there is a species called ' centifo-
lia,' which has a hundred petals ; these are found in Campania, and in
Greece not far from PhiHpin. The territory of that city does not pro-
duce them ; the shruhs are brought from Mount Pangaeus, and, being
replanted in a rich soil, produce roses larger than those that grow on the
mountain itself." Jlist. Nat. xxi. iv., quoted by Larcher.

2 viii. 1.37, 138.

^ This mountain probably derived its name from its cold and snowy
top, since Haemus seems to contain the same I'oot as the Sanscrit hima,
" snow," whence also comes the name of the Himalaya mountains.

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYRIA. 123

from tlie Euxine, runs in a sontli-easterly direction Europe.
towards Byzantium. The second, which is much c"^!"-^^-
larger, branches off near the sources of the Hebrus, ~
(or Maritza,) and likewise runs to the south-east.
This latter chain is alluded to bj Herodotus as
Mount Rhodope : at present it bears the name of
the Despoto mountains. A third branch, which ap-
pears in Herodotus under the name of Orbelus, ex-
tends from the northern elevations of Rhodope along
the eastern bank of the Str^mion to Mount Pan-
gaeus. The whole of this mountain system is dis-
tinguished by craggy summits and steep sides, and
is everywhere rent by terrific fissures so deep and
narrow that daylight is almost excluded.

The northern half of Thrace, or the region beyond Northern
the Balkan, is watered b}^- several small streams,
which take their rise from the northern declivities
of the mountain range, and discharge themselves
into the Danube.^ In the time of Herodotus it was
occupied by the celebrated G etae,^ afterwards called
the Dacians, and by a people whom Herodotus
merely names as the Thracian Crobyzi.^

The southern half of Thrace is described at far southern
greater length and detail, in consequence of its in-
cluding the routes taken by Darius and Xerxes.
Twelve rivers are mentioned by Herodotus, namely,
the Melas ; the Hebrus, (or Maritza,) which receives
the waters of the Teams, the Contadesdus, the
Agrianes, and the Artiscus ; the Lissus, the Travus,
the Compsatus, the Nestus, (or Carasu,) the Angites,
and the Strymon (or Struma). The country was
occupied by numerous nations. On the coast of the

^ Herodotus enumerates seven of these tributaries, viz. the Athrys,
Noes, Artanes, Scios, Tibisis, Am-as, and Atlas (iv. 49). These are of no
importance in history, and many others flow in a similar direction. It is
therefore as unnecessary as it would be difficult to attempt to identify
them. Spruner, in his map of Thracia, etc., has given the Herodotean
names to some of the streams, but not in the order in which Herodotus
places them. Rennell thinks that under the name of Tibisis our author
alludes to the Tibiscus or Theiss, but that by a mistake he has made it
descend from Mount Haemus instead of the Bastarnian Alps in the op-
posite quarter, I am not inclined, however, to beUeve that the two rivers
are identical, or that Herodotus could have made such a blunder.

2 iv. 93. 3 iv. 49.

124 MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYRIA.

EUROPE. Euxine were the Scyrmiadae, and Nipsaei. On the
CHAP. VI. Propontis were tlie Hellespontines. In the Cher-
sonesns were the Dolonci. On the river Melas were
the Apsinthians. Between the Melas and the He-
brus were the Paeti, and on the upper course of the
Hebrus were the Odrysae. Lower down were the
Trausi and Brygians. Nearer to the coast of the
Aegean were the Cicones and Bistones. On the
lower course of the Nestus were the Sapaei and Der-
saei. On the lower course of the Angites were the
Satrae, Pieres, and Edoni. Between the Angites
and the Strymon were the Odomanti ; and west-
ward on the Strymon was the territory of Bisaltia,
afterwards included in Macedonia. Last of all must
be mentioned the extensive region of Paeonia,
which included the upper courses of the Nestus,
Angites, and Strymon. The nations occupying this
country were the Paeoplae, Satrae, Doberes, Agri-
anes, Siro-paeones, and an amphibious j^eople who
lived on Lake Prasias, (or Cercinitis,) all of whom
were described by Herodotus under the general
name of Paeones.
Herodotus's Tlic Tliraciau people, according to Herodotus,
Magnitude wcrc the uiost numcrous in the world excepting the
of Thrace. Indians, and if they had been governed by one man,
or had acted in concert, they would have been in
his opinion invincible, and the most powerful of all
nations. It was however impossible that they should
ever be united, and therefore they were weak.^

From this paragraph we plainly see that Herodo-
tus had formed an extravagant idea of the magni-
tude of Thrace. The country was but little known,
and the veil of obscurity which hung over the inte-
rior served to magnify its extent in the same way
that a Highland mist exaggerates the objects it en-
velopes.^

1 V. 3.

^ Niebuhr, in his map of the world according to Herodotus, gives a
large accession of territory to Thrace, by representing the Ister, which
formed the northern Ijoundary, as flowing along a parallel very much
farther to the north, and then taking a southerly direction towards its
present mouth, and thus forming the western side of the Scythian square.
This theory is discussed in the next chapter.

MACEDONIA, THRACEj AND ILLYEIA. 125

'' Thrace," says Herodotus, ''where it adjoins the europe.
sea, projects before the Scythian territory, and where chap. vi.
a bay is formed in this country Scythia begins, and j^s frontier
the Ister discharges itself, having its mouth towards towards
the east."^ By this description we may understand ''y*^^'^'
our author to mean, that in that part where the
mouths of the Ister form a bay, (probably Lake
Rassein,) Thrace projects either into the Euxine, or
else towards the south, and that the river there forms
the boundary between Thrace and Scythia.^

We will now form an itinerary of the country by Route taken
following in the routes taken by Darius and Xerxes. ^

At the mouth of the Pontus, where there was a
sanctuary,^ and also a large mixing-vessel dedicated
by Pausanias,* the celebrated bridge over the Bos- Bridge over
phorus was erected for Darius by Mandrocles the rus.
Samian. Herodotus conjectures that the bridge was
contructed half way between the sanctuary and the
city of Byzantium/ On the same spot Darius erect- Two co-
ed two columns of white marble, bearing inscriptions, wWte mar-
one in Assyrian, and the other in Greek, enumer- ^^^•
ating all the nations which were included in his
armament. These columns were subsequently re- Byzantium,

1 iv. 99.

2 The river Ister, or Danube, will be further discussed in chapters vii.
and viii. We may however here remark, that its mouths particularly
attracted the attention of Herodotus, and probably led him in the first
instance to compare the Ister with the Nile (ii. 33, 34). He describes
each of these rivers as discharging itself into the sea through five mouths
(ii. 17 ; iv. 47) ; but the great changes which the Danube has evidently
undergone at its mouth render it diflicult to identify his description.
At the present day this river, about fifty miles from the coast of the
Euxine, divides into three principal arms, besides forming, on its southern
side, the lake now called Rasselm or Rassein, from which several minor
arms proceed. The delta of the Danube is a vast swampy flat, inter-
spersed with lagoons covered with bulrushes, the resort of vast flocks of
water-fowl. The northern arm, which is named Kilia, and the south-
ern one, named Edrillis, are shallow and of little value. The latter one
forms the boundary between the Russian and Turkish dominions. The
middle arm is called Sulineh, and has from ten to twelve feet of water
over the bar at its mouth. The mouth of the Sulineh arm is now rapidly
filling up from the deposits of mud brought down by the river, and which
the current is not sufficiently strong to carry away. MaccuUoch, Geoff.
Diet.

3 iv. 87. * iv. 81.

5 iv. 87. The two ancient castles, Rumili-Eski-Hissar on the Euro-
pean side, and Anadoli-Eski-Hissar on the Asiatic side, are supposed to
mark the points which the Persians connected by the bridge of boats.

126

MACEDONIA, THKACE, AND ILLYRIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. VI.

Cyanean
Isles.

River
Tearus.

Heraeopolis

Perinthiis.

Apollonia.

Rivers Con-
tadesdus,
Agrianes,
andHebrus.

Aenus.

River Ar-
tiscus.
The Odiy-
sae.

moved by the Byzantines into their city, and were
used in building tlie altar of the Orthosian Artemis,
all but one stone, which was left near the temple of
Dionysus in Byzantium, covered with Ass}7Tian cha-
racters.^ The Persian fleet then sailed through the
Cyanean Isles,^ to the river Ister, whilst Darius
proceeded through Thrace with liis land forces.^

The &st recorded spot reached by the Persian
army, was at the sources of the river Tearus, which
were celebrated amongst the neighbouring inhabit-
ants. The Tearus was said to be the best of all rivers,
both for its general healing qualities, and especially
for curing the itch in men and horses. This
river rises from 38 springs, some warm and others
cold, which all flow from the same rock. The road
to them was equally distant from the town of He-
raeopolis near Perinthus, and from Apollonia on the
Euxine, being two days' journey from either place.
The Tearus discharges itself into the Contadesdus,
the latter into the Agrianes, and this last again into
the Plebrus, which falls into the sea near the city of
Aenus.^ Darius was so pleased with the river that
he erected a pillar at the sources bearing, this in-
scription: ''The springs of the Tearus yield the
best and finest water of all rivers ; and a man, the
best and finest of all men, leading an army against
the Scythians, Darius son of Hystaspes, king of the
Persians, and of the whole continent." ^

Proceeding fr-om thence Darius reached the river
Artiscus, which flows through the Odrysae, and here
he left vast heaps of stones, having marked out a cer-
tain spot and commanded each soldier to place a

• iv. 87.

2 These Cyanean isles, also called Symplegades by Euripides and others,
are correctly described Ijy Strabo as " two little isles, one upon the Euro-
pean and the other on the Asiatic side of the strait, separated from each
other by 20 stadia." The more ancient accoimts, representing them as
sometimes separated, and at other times joined together, were explained
by Tournefort, who observed that each of them consists of one craggy
island, but that when the sea is disturbed the water covers the lower
parts, so as to make the dififerent points of either resemble insular rocks.
The presence of copper gives to these rocks a greenish colour, and ob-
tained for them the name of Cyaneae.

3 viii. 99. " iv. 90. '^ iv. 91.

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYEIA. 127

stone there.^ On his way the Scyrmiadae Thraci- Europe.
ans, who occupy Salmydessus, and the Nipsaei chap. vi.
Thracians, who dwell above the cities of Apollonia ,;
and Mesambria, surrendered ; but the bretae, who ciae.
were apparently the last Thracian nation and oetae?'*
reached to the Ister, made an obstinate resistance,
but were at length overcome and made slaves,^
though they were the most valiant and most just
of all the Thracians. The city of Mesambria was Mesambria.
founded about this time by the Byzantines and
Chalcedonians who fled before the Persians along
the coast of the Euxine, and established a colony.^
Darius at length reached the bridge which he had Bridge at
ordered to be thrown over the Ister, and at last en-

the Ister.

tered the Scythian territory.*

The army of Xerxes proceeded in its turn, but 1°^^^^°^
over the Hellespont (or modern Dardanelles) instead from the
of the Bosphorus. The Chersonesus (land-island or 2 IShis
peninsula) was first traversed. This was 420 stadia
long, and at the isthmus which connects it with the
European continent it was 36 stadia broad.*' The TheCher-
Chersonesus was originally occupied by the Thra- habited by
cian Dolonci, who made Miltiades son of Cypselus ai^Doionci.
their tyrant in accordance with an oracle. Miltiades
built a wall on the isthmus, from the city of Cardia waii across

1 A • ii • rrn • 7 the isthmus.

to Pactya, to keep out the. Apsmtnian inracians.'
The Chersonesus contained numerous cities,^ of Topography
which Herodotus mentions the following : Elaeus,^ Eiaeus, and
with a sepulchre of Protesilaus in the midst of a p^oteSu?
sacred precinct, originally containing rich treasures
of gold and silver vessels, and brass, robes, and other
consecrated offerings, all of which were stolen by
Artayctes the Persian, who sowed and pastui-ed part
of the precinct, and profaned the sanctuary.^" Sestos, sestos.
which was the strongest fortress in those parts, and
occupied by native Aeolians," Madytus, between Madytus.
which city and Sestos a craggy shore, or Acte Tra-
chea, ran out into the sea directly opposite Abydos ; '^

• ' iv. 92. 3 iv, 93. 3 yi 33. 4 j^. 97. ' 5 ^n 58.

« vi. 36. ' vi. 34,36. « vi. 33. ^ vi. 140. '" ix. 116.
11 ix. 115. ^2 vii. 33.

128

MACEDONIA, THEACE, AND ILLYEIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. vr.

Xerxes
leaves tlie
Chersonesus

Apsintliians

Agora.
Bay and
river of

Melas.

Aenns.
Lake Sten-
toris.
Doriscus.
Valley of
the river
Hebrus.

Sala and
Zona.
Cape Ser-
rliiiiin.

Mesambria.

River Lis-

sus.

Stryme.

Briantica,

anciently

Galaica.

Maroneia.

Dicaea.

Abdera.

and here Artayctes was nailed to a plank and
lioisted aloft, because of tlie atrocious crimes lie had
committed with women in the sanctuary of Protesi-
laus at Elaeus. Others however say that Artayctes
was thus crucified on a hill above Madytus/

The army of Xerxes proceeded tlu-ough the Cher-
sonesus in an easterly direction, having the sepulchre
of Helle on the right hand and the city of Cardia on
the left,^ and then entered the territory of the Ap-
sinthian Thracians, who subsequently, according to
the custom of their country, sacrificed the Persian
general Oebazus to Pleistorus their national deity.^
The army then marched through the middle of a
city named Agora, and bending round the bay of
Melas, at length crossed the river Melas, which gave
its name to the bay, and whose stream was insuf-
ficient for the forces. From thence the Persians
proceeded westward by the Aeolian city of Aenus
and the lake Stentoris to Doriscus,* under which
name was included not only the tract along the
coast, but also an extensive plain watered by the
river Hebrus. Here stood a royal fortress also
called Doriscus, where Darius had placed a Persian
garrison at the time of his expedition against Scythia.
On the coast stood the Samothracian cities of Sala
and Zona ; and at its extremity was the celebrated
promontory of Serrhium. The entire coast formerly
belonged to the Ciconcs.^

From Doriscus the army first passed the Samo-
tlu-acian fortresses already mentioned to the most
westerly one of all, called Mesambria.^ It then
crossed the river Lissus, which was insufficient for
the forces, and reached Stryme, a city of the Thasi-
ans. This country was anciently called Galaica,
but at that time Briantica, although in strict right
it belonged totheCicones.^ The army next passed
the Hellenic cities of Maroneia, Dicaea, and Abdera.

ix. 119. Comp. vi. 36.

58.

1 ix. 120. 2 vii. 58.
5 vii. .59.

^ This Samothracian fortress of Mesamhria must not be confounded
with the city of Mcsambria on the Euxine.
7 vii. 108.

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYRIA. 129

Between Stryme and Maroneia was the lake Ismaris, Europe.
and near Dicaea was the lake Bistonis, into which ^^^^- ^^^
the rivers Travus and Compsatus emptied them- L^kes iT"
selves.^ Abdera was peopled by the Teians, after maris and
their own city on the coast of Asia Minor had been Rive°i^'Tra-
taken by Harpagus. It had however been first comp'^satus.
founded by Timesius of Clazomenae, who was after-
wards driven out by the Thracians, but in spite of
this was honom-ed as a hero by the Teians.^ In the
subsequent flight of Xerxes after the battle of Sala-
mis, he made an alliance of friendship with the
Abderites, and presented them with a golden
scimeter and a gold-embroidered tiara ; and the
Abderites said, what appeared incredible to Herodo-
tus, that at this place he loosened his girdle for the
first time after leaving Athens. Abdera was situated
nearer to the Hellespont than the Strymon and
Eion, whence, as they say, he embarked.^

The Persian army did not pass by any lake near River Nes-
Abdera, but in the neighbourhood of the city was
the river Nestus, which flows into the sea.* From
this place the army marched by several continental
cities. Near one of these, named Pist3rrus, was a Pistyrus.
lake 30 stadia in circumference, abounding in fish,
but with brackish waters ; yet the sumpter beasts,
who alone drank of it, were suflicient to exhaust it.^

The Thracian nations through which Xerxes Paeti.
passed, were the Paeti, Cicones, Bistones, Sapaei, Bistones.
Dersaei, Edoni, and Satrae.^ Then he passed the §eS.
Pierian forts, one of which was called Phagres, and f^°^^
the other Pergamus, marching close to them, and Pieriaii
keeping on his right the vast and lofty mountain of Mount Pan-
Pangaeus, whose gold and silver mines were worked s^*^^-
by the Pieres and Odomanti, and especially by the qJ.®^®^\ ,j
Satrae.^ Northward of Pang-aeus were the Paeo- Paeones. "
nes, Doberes, and Paeoplae. The country which PaeopTae.
surrounded this mountain was called Phyllis, and pjj^^[|jf °^

1 vii. 109. 2 i. 168. ^ yiii. 120.

* Abdei'a was at some distance to the east of the river Nestus. Hero-
dotus says Kara Abdera. In another place, (vii. 126,) however, he speaks
of it as flowdng through Abdera.

5 vii. 109. « vii. 110. ^ vii. 112.

130

MACEDONIA, THEACE, AND ILLYRIA

EUROPE.

CHAP. VI.

River Au-
gitcs.

Paeonia, its
extent.
Siro-paeo-
nes.

Scapte
Hyle.

Paeones on
the Stry-
mon.

Above Cres-
tonica, and
on Mount
Orbelus
and Lake
Prasias.
Agrianes.

River

Strynion.

Eion.

Stiymon
bridge.

" Nine
Ways."

extended westward to the river Augites, whicli
falls into tlie Strymon, and soutliwards to the Stry-
nion itself, which the Magi propitiated by the sa-
crifice of white horses.^ From this river a violent
north wind was called "a wind from the Stry-
mon.^" ^

The Paeones dwelt on its banks, ^ and amongst
others, the race of Siro-paeones,^ so called from their
city of Siris.^ The revenues which Pisistratus drew
from the river Strymon,'' and the rich mines of
Scapte Hyle, must also be noticed in reference to this
district. The Paeones on the Strymon professed to
be descended from the Teucri of Troy,^ but the
name has a very wide signification, for Herodotus
also mentions the Paeones dwelling above Crestonica
and over Mount Orbelus and the lake Prasias.^ All
the above-mentioned races then, together with the
Agrianes, which are drawn upon our map within these
limits, may be regarded as so many sub-divisions of
the Paeones. The Siro-Paeones, the Paeoplae, and
other Paeonian tribes as far as Lake Prasias, were
transported into Asia by Mardonius, but those upon
Mount Pangaeus, including the Doberes, the Agri-
anes, the Odomanti, and the people dwelling on the
lake, were not completely subdued.^*'

Xerxes now came to Eion," where a large store of
provisions had been laid up for his army,^^ arid which
was governed by Boges, the same Persian who after-
wards, when besieged, threw all his treasures into
the Strymon, and himself into a fire, rather than
capitulate.'^ The Strymon was already bridged over
by the royal command,'* and the army approached
it by the town called the '' Nine Ways " of the Edo-
nians, where, having heard the name, the Magi buried
alive nine of the sons and nine of the daughters of

' vii. 113.

2 The ancients understood the north wind by the words,' a blast from
Strymon^ or a blast from Thrace, because Thrace was a cold country, and
was looked upon as the abode of Boreas.

3 viii. 118. " V. 1, 1.3. « V. 1.5. « viii. 115. M. 64.
8 V. 13. » V. Ifi; vii. 124. i" v. 1.5, 16. " vii. 113.
12 vii. 25. ''^ vii. 107. '^ vii. 24.

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYRIA. 131

the inhabitants.^ Herodotus gives no account of europe.
this place, which was originally so called from the chap. vi.
many roads which met there. It was subsequently
called Amphipolis, and was one of the most import-
ant positions in this part of Thrace. This was the
same city, though not there named by Herodotus,^
that Aristogoras of Miletus endeavoured to besiege,
but both he and his army were cut off through a
breach of faith on the part of the Thracians. In the
country of Edonia lay Myrcinus, where Histiaeus Ecionia.
obtained permission from Darius to found a city,^ " jicmus.
but was afterwards recalled whilst building its walls,
as the neighbourhood presented too many facilities
for revolt, being thickly populated by both Hellenes
and Barbarians, and possessing abundance of timber
for ship-building, wood for oars, and valuable silver
mines.* Also in the same neighbourhood was the
city of Datus, where the Athenians, after the battle Datus.
of Plataea, fought for the gold mines.^ At some
distance beyond the Strymon the Persians passed an
Hellenic city called Argilus, situated on the coast Argiius.
towards the west. This district and the country
above it was called Bisaltia. Proceeding from Bisaitia.
thence, and keeping the bay near the temple of Po-
seidon on the left, the army marched through what
was called the plain of Syleus, and passing by the Piiin of
Hellenic city of Stageirus, arrived at Acanthus. Aca'nthus.
This road, along which King Xerxes and his army
marched, was not subsequently disturbed or culti-
vated by the Thracians, but regarded by them with
great veneration even down to the time of Herodo-
tus.^ Xerxes enjoined the Acanthians to show hospi-
tality, and presented them with a Medic dress. ^ Here
Artachaees of the Achaemenidae race died of dis-
ease. He had superintended the excavation of the
canal at Athos, and was the tallest of all the Persians,
and had the loudest voice of any man. He was now
buried with great pomp, and the whole army raised
up a mound for his sepulchre, and the Acanthians,

1 vii. 114. 2 V, 126. Comp. Thucyd. iv. 102. ' v. II.

* V. 23. 5 ix. 75. 6 yji ii5_ 7 vii. 116.

K 2

132 MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYRIA.

EUROPE, in obedience to an oracle, sacrificed to liim as a hero,
CHAP. VI. and invoked liini by name.^

Misceiiaue Noticcs of tlic following pcoplc and localities in

ous notices Tliracc are also to be found in Herodotus: — The

Brygkns!' Thraciau Brygians, who were enslaved by Mardo-

Goid mines iiius.^ Scaptc Hylc, whcro the Thracians possessed

Hyie?^'^ a gold mine which produced 80 talents annually.^

^eXn^^" Cape Sarpedon, where the fleet of Xerxes was order-

Perinthus. ed to Wait.* Tlio citics of Perinthus and Selybria,

A^gospota- on the Hellespont.^ Aegospotami, or the goat-river,

Tyrodiza. wlicrc Artayctcs was captured.^ Tyrodiza of the

Leuce Perintliiaus, and Leuce Acte, in both of which places

provisions were stored up for the army of Xerxes.^

Bisanthe. Bisanthc, on the Hellespont.*' The Hellespontines

pontines. in general are also noticed. They were Ionian and

Dorian colonists, and contributed 100 ships to the

navy of Xerxes, and were equipped like the Hellenes.^

Northern Northcm Tliracc is but little described by Hero-

Siekno^n dotus. Wc Icam that it was watered by seven rivers.

Its seven y{z^ i}^q Athrys, Nocs, Artanes, Scios, Tibisis, Auras,

and Atlas. Of these the Scios flowed from the foot

of Mount Rhodope, and after dividing Mount Hae-

mus in the middle discharged itself into the Ister.

The other six flowed down the northern slope of

Haemus, and likewise fell into the Ister. ^^ The town

istria. of Istria, colonized by the Milesians, was situated at

the Ister mouth. ^^ Herodotus also casually mentions

Pillars of that pillars were erected in Thrace by Sesostris.^^

Manners The Tliraciaus had various names according to

of the'*'^"'^^ their respective regions, but they all observed the

Thracians. game customs, cxccpting the Getae, the Trausi, and

those Thracians who dwelt above the Crestonaeans.^^

Peculiar Tlic Gctac wcpc the most valiant and the most

Getae.° ^ just of all tlic Thracians. They believed in the im-

Smortaiuy mortality of the soul, inasmuch as they imagined

of the soul, that they did not actually die, but that the soul of

the deceased went to the deity Zalmoxis, and some

1 vii. 117.

2 vi. 45.

3 vi. 46.

* vii. 58.

5 vi. 33.

« ix. 119.

' vii. 2.5.

8 vii. 1.37.

» vii. 9.5.

1" iv. 49.

" ii. 33.

'2 ii. 103.

13 iv. 3.

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYKIA. 133

of tliem thought that he was the same as Gebeleizis, europe.
or " he who gives repose." Every fifth year they se- chap. vi.
lected one of themselves by lot to go to Zahnoxis Their deity
and tell him what they required. Their mode of zaimoxis.
sending the messenger was as follows. Some of
them were placed together holding three lances with
the points upward. Others then seized the appoint-
ed ambassador by the hands and feet, and swinging
him backwards and forwards, tossed him upon the
points of the lances. If he died of the wounds they
considered that the deity, Zaimoxis, would prove pro-
pitious ; if he did not die they decided that the
messenger was a bad man, and selected another.
These Getae considered that there was no other
deity but theirs, and in storms of thunder and light-
ning they shot their arrows towards heaven, and
tln-eatened the god.^

Herodotus was informed by the Grreeks who dwelt Greek ac-
about the Hellespont and Pontus Euxinus, that this zaimoxis.
Zaimoxis was originally a slave of Pythagoras, ihe
son of Mnesarchus, in Samos ; but that, having ob-
tained his liberty and acquired great riches, he re-
tu^rned to his own country. Here he found the Thra- Effects of
cians living in a wretched and very uncivilized state, ingson^'the
and being acquainted with the more refined manners Thracians.
of the lonians, and having enjoyed familiar inter-
course with the Grreeks, and especially with Pytha-
goras, who was not the meanest sage in Hellas, he
built a saloon, in which he received and entertained
the principal persons of the country, and taught
them that neither he, nor any of his guests, nor their
posterity for ever, should die, but should go into a
place where they would live eternally and enjoy
every kind of blessing. Meanwhile he prepared for His'subter-
himself a subterraneous dwelling, and at length sud- dwem^g
denly disappeared from amongst the Thracians and pg^r^nc^e^'
lived in this under-ground abode for three years ;
but in the[^fourth year, and whilst the people were
still lamenting his supposed death, he re-appeared,

1 iv. 94.

134

MACEDONIA, THRACE, AND ILLYEIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. VI.

Herodotus's
opinion.

Peculiar
custom of
the Trausi :
mournful
births and
happy fune-
rals.

Thracians
above Cres-
tonica, their
polygamy.
Favoiirite
wife killed
at her hus-
band's
death.

Customs of
of the Thra-
cians gene-
rally. Sale
of children.
Profligacy
of the un-
married
women.

Tattooing.

Fondness
for war.

and thus obtained additional credibility for his
teachings.^

Herodotus neither disbelieves nor entii'ely believes
in this Greek account of Zalmoxis and his subterra-
nean dwelling, but he is of opinion that the man
lived many years before Pythagoras ; though he ap-
pears to doubt whether he were a man or a native
deity. ^

The Trausi observed a strange custom at births
and bm'ials, which was the only one in which they
differed from the other Thracians. When a child was
born, its relations sat round it and deplored the many
evils it would have to undergo, and at the same time
they enumerated the various suiferings incidental to
mankind. But when any one died, they buried it in
the earth with merriment and rejoicing, that now
being released from so many evils, the departed
being would henceforth revel in perfect bliss. ^

The Thracians who dwelt above the Crestonaeans
had a multiplicity of wives, and when the husband
died, a great contest arose amongst his wives, and
violent disputes between their friends, as to which
was most loved by the deceased. When at length
it was decided who was to be so honoured, the fa-
voured woman received the praises of all, and was
then slain upon her husband's tomb by her nearest
relative, and buried in the same grave, whilst the
surviving widows considered themselves to be dis-
gi^aced.*

The remainder of the Thracian nations practised
the following customs. They sold their children for
exportation into foreign lands. Fathers kept no
watch over their unmarried daughters, but permit-
ted them to cohabit with any man they pleased ; but
husbands maintained a strict watch over their wives,
and purchased them from their parents at high
prices. Tlie man who tattooed himself was acknow-
ledged to be noble, but the untattooed man was con-
sidered to be ignoble. To do no work, but to live by
war and rapine, was accounted to be most honour-

iv. 95.

2 iv. 96.

V. 4.

V. 5.

MACEDONIA, THEACE, AND ILLYEIA. 135

able, but tilling the soil was highly despised.^ Of europe.
gods, they only worshipped Ares, Dionysus, and ^"^^- ^'-
Artemis ; their kings however especially reverenced Worship of
Hermes above all other deities, swore only by him, ^^^^^^'^^^^
and held him to be their ancestral head.^ The Artemis,
funerals of the more wealthy Thracians were thus Hemies"? °^
celebrated. The dead body was laid out for three funerals.
days, and the mourners made lamentation and killed
various kinds of animals for sacrifice. They then
feasted, and at last concluded the ceremony by burn-
ins: the body or interrine: it ; a erreat mound of earth Sepulchral

o J 070 I'l monuments.

was afterwards thrown up over the grave, upon wliicn
were practised all kinds of games, and the highest
prizes were adjudged to the victors in single com-
bat.^ Our author also incidentally remarks, that the l^'^'^'jj?^*' °^
Thracians made garments from Scythian hemp, hemp.'
which bore so strong a resemblance to linen, that
persons who had never seen that kind of hemp would
think that the garment had been really made from
flax.*

The most sino^ular people in Herodotus's descrip- Paeonians

o iJr 1T1 on Lake

tion of Thrace were perhaps those who lived upon Prasias.
Lake Prasias, and whom Megabazus was unable to hute°up-
subdue. These actually lived on the lake itself, in P^ff^^^P°y''
dwellings or huts built upon planks which were pianks and
fitted on lofty piles in the centre of the lake. A^ ^^'
single narrow bridge alone connected this commu-
nity with the main-land. The piles which support-
ed the planks were anciently fixed at the common
charge of all the citizens, and the wood was brought
from the Orbelus mountain. Subsequently they estab-
lished a law, that whenever a man married he should
sink three piles for each wife, for they practised poly- Polygamy.
gamy to a considerable extent. Every man had his
own hut upon this extensive platform, with a trap-
door closely fitting in the planks, and leading down
to the lake, and a cord was tied to the feet of the
young children to prevent their falling in. Horses hokcs and
and draught cattle were fed with fish instead of fod- foh.
der ; and there was such an abundance of fish, of
1 V. 6. 2 V. 7, ^ V.8. * iv. 74.

136 MACEDONIA, THEACE, AND ILLYRIA.

EUROPE, wliich Herodotus particularly notices tlie papraces
CHAP. VI. and tilones, that when a man let down a basket
tlirough the trap-door into the lake, he drew it up
again after a little time completely filled.^
The Satrae, The Satrae, according to our author, were the only
Spendent' Thraciau nation who kept themselves independent
Thracians. dowii to his time. They inhabited lofty mountains
covered with woodland and snow, and were cour-
Thcir oracle agcous in war. They possessed an oracle of Diony-
of Dionysus. ^^^^ ^hich was situatcd on the highest of their moun-
tains, and was under the charge of a race of the
Satrae called Bessi. The decrees themselves were
deHvered by a priestess as at Delphi, and were not
at all more ambiguous.^
III. Illy- UJ. The Illyeians, wcstward of Macedonia and
ly noticecr Thracia, are but very little mentioned by Herodotus.
tus.^''™'^°' He says that the Eneti, an Illyrian race, collected and
Sale of sold their marriageable maidens by auction, in a
™uongst the manner similar to the Babylonians. The handsomest
Eueti. £^21 ^^ ^-j^g highest bidders, and the sums they pro-
duced were given as dowries to the plainer maidens,
who in their turn fell to those who offered to take
them with the least money.^ In another place He-
rodotus speaks of the Eneti on the Adriatic,* from
which it would seem that they had inhabited the
River An- islands aloug Dalmatia. He also says that the
bImcpTa7n. river Angrus flowed from the Illyrians and emptied
Bron'^ s itself iuto the Triballic plain, and into the river
Brongus, which then discharged itself into the Ister.^
The Enche- The Enchclecs of lUyria are also named, but nothing
more.*^

I V. 16. 2 vii. 111. 3 i. 196. * v. 9. ^ jy^ 49,

6 ix. 43.

CHAPTER VII.

SCYTHIA.

Difficulties in Herodotus's description of Scythia. — Its identification EUROPE,
with southern Russia, Moldavia, and Wallachia. — Face of the country, chap. tii.

— Crimea or Taurica. — Eivers of southern Russia. — Herodotus's descrip-

tion of Scythia. — Its form and measurement. — Its boundaries. — Extent
of our author's personal knowledge.^ — Olbia, the centre of his observa-
tions.— Explanation of his statements respecting the route along the
coast. — Explanation of his statements respecting the route into the inte-
rior.— The four-sided shape of Scythia explained. — Scythian rivers. —
The Ister or Danube, its five mouths and equal stream. — Five tributaries
flowing into it : the Porata, Ararus, Naparis, Ordessus, and Tiarantus. —
Difficulties in the theory of Niebuhr and Ideler. — Identification of the
five tiibutaries with the Pruth, Sireth, Jalomnitza, Argisch, and Aluta. —
Seven independent rivers : the Tyi-as, Hypanis, Borysthenes, Panticapes,
Hypacyris, Gerrhus, and Tanais. — The Hyi'gis. — Modern names of the
rivers. — The Dniester. — The Bog. — The Dnieper. — Difficulty in identi-
fying the Panticapes, Hypacyris, and Gerrhus : probably the Samara,
Kalantchak, and Tastchenik. — The Don and Hyrgis. — Boundaries of Scy-
thia on the modern map. — Scythian nations : west of the Borysthenes or
Dnieper. — I. Callipidae. — II. Alazones.— III. Aratores: Exampaeus,
Hippoleon, and Hylaea. — IV. Georgi. — V. Nomades. — VI. Royal Scy-
thians.— VII. TjTitae. — VIII. Tauri. — Carcinitis. — Course of Achilles.
— History of Scythia. — Anciently occupied by Cimmerians. — Scythian
invasion. — Sepulchre of the Cimmerian kings. — Scythian pm'suit of the
Cimmerians.' — Cimmerians in Asia Minor. — Scythians masters of Upper
Asia. — Plunder the temple of Aphrodite at Askalon. — Return to Scy-
thia.— Proofs of the ancient occupation of Scythia by the Cimmerians. —
District of Cimmeria. — Cimmerian fort and ferry .^ — Cimmerian Bospho-
rus. — Massagetae and Sacae of Scythian race. — Climate of Scythia. —
Eight months of the year winter, during which the sea jfreezes.^ — Four
months of cold summer, constant rains and violent thunder-storms.—
Effects of cold on the horses and cattle. — Scythian story of the air filled
with feathers. — Tradition of the Hyperboreans. — ^Foot-piint of Heracles.
— Pillars of Sesostris. — Natural productions of Scythia : grass, hemp,
wheat, onions, gai-lic, lentils, millet. ■ — Cranes. — Swine. — National
my thus of Targitaus, and his three sons, Lipoxais, Arpoxais, and Colaxais.
— The Auchatae, Catiari, and Traspies. — Generalname of Scoloti.^ — Greek
mythus of the three sons of Heracles, and the serpent maiden Echidna.
— Ignorance of the nations on the Euxine. — Wise device of the Scji;hians
against invasion. — Their houses carried with them. — Scythian deities:
Hestia, Zeus, Ge, Apollo, Aphrodite, Heracles, and Ares. — Poseidon. —
Mode of sacrifice. — Enormous piles of faggots sacred to Ares. — Human
sacrifices. — Enemies' heads presented to the king. — Mode of preparing

138

SCYTHIA.

the skulls and other trophies. — Soothsayers and manner of divining. —
Ceremonies at the illness of a king. — Manner of making contracts. —
Sepulchres of the Scythian kings. — Funeral ceremonies. — Favourite con-
cubine, servants, and goods buried with the king. — Fifty attendants
killed and placed on horseback round the tumulus. — Burial of private
citizens. — Manner of purification. — Hatred of foreign customs. — Cos-
tume.— Blinding of slaves. — Mode of milking cattle. — Habit of taking
unmixed wine, and drinking very hard. — Contempt of trade. — Difficulty
in ascertaining the population of Scythia. — Cauldj-on made from an-ow-
heads, one being fm-nished by every Scythian. — Meagre remains of the
Scytliian language. — Barbarous customs of the Tauri.

EUROPE

CHAP. VII.

Difficulties
in Herodo-
tus's de-
scription of
Sej'thia.

Its identifi-
cation with
sovithern
Russia,
Moldavia,
and "Walla-
cliia.

Face of the
country.

OuE autlior's description of Scythia is fall of diffi-
culty. His meaning is so doubtixil tliat it cannot be
developed without a critical examination of almost
every statement ; and even when this progress is at-
tained, it will be found next to impossible to reconcile
his accounts with the real geography of the country.

The Scythia of Herodotus lay on the northern
coast of the Black Sea, or Pontus Euxinus, between
the mouth of the Danube (or Ister), and the Don (or
Tanais), and it stretched about 500 miles into the in-
terior. It thus included the stej^pes of southern
Russia, and it also extended westward to the river
Aluta and Carpathian mountains. Accordingly
Scythia Proper answers on modern maps to the
country of the Uki^aine, the Nogais, the Don Cos-
sacks, and the Tartars of the Crimea, together with
the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, as far as
the Aluta. The surface of all this region is chiefly
undulating, but in many places it extends in fertile
2:)lains. The higher land has a soil consisting of a
reddish clay, which is very barren. The lower tracts
consist of black mould and sand mostly covered with
grass, which supplies good pasture for cattle and
horses. Other portions towards the east are exceed-
ingly fertile, and produce excellent wheat and all
kinds of grain. Great quantities of rye are also
raised even from districts which have rather a poor
soil ; and flax and hemp are more extensively grown
than in any other part of Europe, and are to be found
in a Avild state on the steppes along the banks of the
river Don. Many parts of the country are marked
by salt lakes ; and salt marshes of some extent occur

SCYTHIA.

139

140

SCYTHIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. VII.

Crimea or
Taurica.

Kivers of
southern
Russia.

Heroclotus's
description
of Scythia.

Its form and
measure-
ment.

between the Dniester and the Danube. The great
granitic tract which traverses Russia between the
Pruth and the Don, lies to the north of the entire
region ; but is similar in soil and climate to the
country already mentioned, and only differs firom it
in the more hilly character of its surface.

The peninsula of Crimea, which is the Taurica of
Herodotus, projects south and east between the
Black Sea and the Sea of Azoff, and presents con-
siderable variety of surface. The northern part,
comprising three-fourths of its extent, consists of an
arid plain or steppe, occasionally diversified with
hollows. A mountainous tract covered with rich
pastures, and in some places enclosing delicious
valleys, extends along the southern coast.

The country of southern Russia is watered by
several rivers, which however are nob navigable at
any great distance from their mouths. From the
scarcity of rain and snow and the shallowness of
their beds, they possess but a comparatively small
volume of water ; whilst their course is interruj)ted
by rapids and cataracts where they break through
the granitic tract already mentioned. Amongst
these are the Danube, the Pruth, the Dniester, the
Bog, the Dnieper, and the Don, which we shall soon
find further occasion to describe.

We now proceed to develoj)e our author's de-
scription.

" Scythia," he says, '^ is four-sided, with two
joarts extending along the sea : that which stretches
into the interior and that along the coast are in
every respect of equal length. For from the Ister
to the Borysthenes is ten days' journey, and from
the Borysthenes to the lake Maeotis is ten days'
more ; whilst from the sea into the interior as far as
the Mclanchlaeni, who occupy the country above
the Scythians, is also a journey of twenty days.
Computing the day's journey at 200 stadia, the ex-
tent of Scythia transversely would be 4000 stadia,
and the direct route leading into the interior would
be the same distance." '

' iv. 101.

SCYTHIA. 141

" Scytliia begins at that part of the country europe.
where a bay is formed, and where the river Ister, chap. vn.
turning its mouth towards the east, discharges itself
into the sea. From the Ister it lies towards the ai-Ls."^'^ '
south as far as the city called Carcinitis. Next to
that the Tauric nation inhabits the mountainous
country, which projects into the Pontus as far as the
Chersonesus called Trachea, and reaches to the sea
towards the east. For the two parts of the bound-
aries of Scythia extend along the sea, one towards
the south and the other towards the east, as is the
case with Attica.^ . . . From Taurica, Scythians in-
habit the country above the Tauri, and the parts
along the eastern sea, and the parts lying to the
west of the Cimmerian Bosphorus and the lake Mae-
otis, as far as the river Tanais, which flows into the
farthest recess of that lake."^

We must now endeavour to ascertain om^ author's Extent of ^
actual knowledge of the regions he has thus de- pei'sonli°'^
scribed. The Grreek settlement of Olbia on the ^^^o^^ie^ige.
river Borysthenes, was apparently the farthest point
ever reached by Herodotus, and we may suppose
him to be stationed here when forming his views
concerning the shape and extent of the country.
We can trace him past the bay, (Lake Easselm,) and
where the Ister discharges its waters through five
mouths;^ next, to the river Tyras, where he was
shown the foot-print of Heracles ; ^ and then to the
river Hypanis, where he saw the fountain Exampeus,
and the huge brass vessel made from Scythian arrow-
heads.^ But beyond the Borysthenes his knowledge
was very vague ; he supposed the lake Maeotis to be
nearly as large as the Pontus Euxinus,*' and that
Crimea, which he calls Taurica, was not a peninsula,
but only an acte projecting into the Pontus, like
Attica or lapygia.^

Olbia, at the mouth of the Borysthenes, was, oibia,tiie
therefore, the centre of our author's observations. Srv.?^'^
The distance from the mouth of the Ister to this *^°'^-

1 iv. 99. 2 iv_ 100. 3 ly^ 47. 4 iv_ 82.

5 iv. 81. 6 iv. 86. ■> iv. 99.

142

SCYTHIA.

EUROPE,

CHAP. VII.

Explana-
tion of his
statements
respecting
the route
along the
coast.

Explana-
tion of his

point he calculated from positive experience as being*
ten days' journey, or 2000 stadia, which reckoned as
furlongs would be 250 English miles ; and this cal-
culation is not very far distant from the actual mea-
surement of a land journey along the coast between
these two rivers. Next he estimated that it was
exactly the same distance from the Borysthenes to
the lake Maeotis. Now to what point of the coast
bordering on the lake did he refer ? Certainly not to
the Siwash or putrid sea, which was -only two days'
journey off, nor to the mountainous point called
Trachea at the extremity of Taurica, which was oc-
cujiied by the Tauri, and was a continuation of the
Tauric range. I should rather fix it at the slave
trench which was dug from the Tauric mountains to
the lake Maeotis ; ^ and if we suppose that the line of
road extended from the Borysthenes through the
modern isthmus of Perkope, as far as the point
where the Tauric mountains approach the coast, —
say at the southern extremity of the Siwash and
near the town of Kaffa, — then we should find that
our author's calculation again very nearly ap-
proached the actual measurement. The southern
extent of Scythia, fr'om the Ister to the Maeotis, was
therefore, according to Herodotus's calculation,
twenty days' journey, a measurement equal to 4000
stadia, or 500 English miles. He characterizes the
entire route as ra eKiicdpaia, the oblique, or transverse,
which we shall presently find to have been used as
opj)osed to ra opQia, OT tlic direct, by which he de-
scribes the route into the interior ; and we may
therefore understand that he either alluded to the
coast route as being somewhat oblique,^ or else
merely used the word as signifying the extent of
Scythia crossways.

Having thus calculated the extent of the route

1 See iv. 3.

2 The entire coast is exceedingly indentecl, but Herodotus evidently
considered it to be much straightcr than it really was, being probably
misled by the bearings of places during the land journey, in the same
way that he makes a mistake when he supposes Megaris to have been
the most westerly point of Greece. See p. .57.

SCYTHIA. 143

along the coast, Herodotus notices what he calls the europe.
direct or straight route into the interior, viz. from chap. vn.
the sea-coast, probably at Olbia, as far as the Me- statements
lanchlaeni on the western bank of the upper course respecting
of the Tanais. It must be borne in mind, that the into the in-
caravan route from Olbia towards the Ural moun- *^"°^*
tains first passed through Hylaea, or the wood coun-
try, and then coasted the Palus Maeotis as far as the
Tanais, and at length crossed the river and entered
the steppe of Astracan.^ Our author probably gained
his information from caravan travellers, and he
readily supposed that this was the direct route into
the interior. He calculates it at exactly the same
distance as the road along the coast, viz. twenty
days' journey or 4000 stadia ; and that point of the
Tanais at which it is most likely the caravan crossed,
is as nearly as possible in accordance with his
measurement.

These then are the two sides, both reaching to Thefom--
the sea, which are described by Herodotus. One oAscytwr
crossways along the coast, the other stretching into explained.
the exterior. One extending towards the south, and
the other towards the east, as was the case with
Attica : by which last expression, I understand that
Herodotus did not suppose his four-sided Scythia to

be shaped thus, Q, but thus, <^. These two routes

or boundaries of Scythia were all that Herodotus
knew of its extent. He took it for granted that there
must be two other sides to the country, and there-
fore he called it r£7-|oaywj/oc, or "four-sided;" though
whether he imagined that all the four sides were
exactly equal, as Niebuhr supposes, is liable to
several objections. Our author evidently thought
that the western side was formed by the upper course
of the Ister,^ and that this river somewhat corre-
sponded with the eastern boundary along the lake
Maeotis and river Tanais. The northern side he
indicated by an imaginary line drawn from the

' Heeren, Asiatic Nations, vol, ii. 2 jy. 99.

SCYTHIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. VII.

Scythian
rivers.
The Ister
or Danube ;
its five
mouths and
equal
stream.

Five tribu-
taries flow-
ing into it,
viz. the Po-
rata, Ara-
rusNaparis,
Ordessus,
Tiarantus.

Difficulties
in the theo-
ry of Nie-
buhr and
Ideler.

upper corner of the Ister towards the east, and shut-
ting out the Agathyrsi, the Neuri, the Androphagi,
and the Melanchlaeni.' By reference to a modern
map, it will be readily seen that the four-sided figure
of our author was based upon a considerable mis-
conception of the course of the Ister on the west
and the Tanais on the east ; but before we attempt
to reconcile his notions with the real geography, it
will be necessary to examine further into his de-
scription of the numerous Scythian rivers.

The river Ister was the first amongst the Scy-
thian streams on the western side. It was the great-
est of all the rivers with which Herodotus had made
himself acquainted, being much enlarged by the
number of tributaries which discharged themselves
into it. It had five mouths, and its stream was al-
ways equally strong in summer and winter.^ After
flomng through all Europe, it entered the borders
of Scythia;^ and it would appear that Herodotus
regarded it as the boundary between the Scythians
and Thracians, on the banks of which the armies of
both nations encamped opposite each other.* Five
rivers flowing tlu'ough Scythia fall into the Ister ;
viz. the river called Porata by the Scythians, and
Pyretos by the Hellenes ; the Tiarantus ; the Ara-
ms ; the Naparis ; and the Ordessus. Of these the
Porata is large, and flows towards the east, and
the Tiarantus is smaller, and flows more to the
west; whilst the three other rivers flow between
them.^ This remark of Herodotus, that these rivers
flowed through Scythia into the Ister, some more
towards the east and others more towards the west,
cannot be reconciled with the theory of Professor
Ideler, which is followed by Niebuhr, viz, that, ac-
cording to our author's notion, the Ister, when it
reached Scythia, changed its direct easterly course,
and flowed exactly north and south, and thus formed
the western side of the Scythian square.^

1 iv. 101. 2 iv. 47, 48. ^ iv. 49. " iv. 80, 99. ' iv. 48.

" These five rivers are not delineated in Niebuhr's map to his Disserta-
tion on the Geog. of Herodotus.

SCYTHIA. 145

With respect to the identification of these rivers europe.
which fall into the Ister or Danube/ we have no chap. yh.
hesitation in following Eennell and D'Anville, who ^^^^^^^
recognise the Porata in the Pruth, the Ararus in the tion of the
Sireth, the Naparis in the Jalomnitza, and the Or- rilswYtiAhe
dessus in the Argisch. The Tiarantus cannot be f^^^JJ;
distinctly made out, but has, however, been generally "^j^}"^^^'^'
identified with the Aluta. andAiuta.

Beside the river Ister, Herodotus describes the seven inde-
Tyras, the Hypanis, the Borysthenes, the Panticapes, rhTerr*
the Hypacyris, the Gerrhus, and the Tanais. The The Tyras.
Tyeas was next the Ister, and came from the north,
flowing from a great lake which separated Scythia
from Neuris.^ The Hypanis was the third river. The Hypa-
and also flowed from a large lake, which was rightly
called the mother of the Hypanis, and around which
wild horses of a white colour were everywhere
grazing. This river flowed in a small and sweetly
tasting stream for a five days' voyage from its source.
Farther onwards, however, to the sea, which was
nine days' voyage distant, the water was exceedingly
bitter ; for though the Hypanis was here of a con-
siderable size, yet a small bitter fountain, called in
the Scythian language " Exampaeus," and in the
Hellenic, ''the sacred ways," discharged itself into
it, and completely impregnated its stream. The
Tyras and Hypanis almost approached in the coun-
try of the Alazones, but after that bent their course
away fr'om each other. ^

The fourth river was the Boeysthenes, which was The Borys-
the largest next to the Ister, and in the opinion of
Herodotus the most productive, not only amongst

^ It is said that Danubius was the Thracian and Ister the Celtic name
of this river ; but it seems most probable that Dan is the same word
which is foimd in Eridanus, Ehodanus, Tanais, and the more modem
names of Don, Dnieper, and Dniester, and signifies water. Adelung says,
that Dan-ubius means "the upper water," and Dan-ister " the lower water,"
and in the later Roman period it was common to apply the name of
Danubius to the upper course of the river, and the name of Ister to the
lower course. According to Klaproth the word " don," signifying water,
is still retained in the language of the Ossetes, in Caucasus, who are a
remnant of the Alans of the middle ages.

2 iv. 51. ^ iv. 52.

146 SCYTHIA.

EUROPE, the Scythian rivers, but of all others, excepting the
CHAP. VII. Aegyptian Nile. It possessed most beautiful pas-
tures, which were exceedingly nutricious for the cat-
tle, and contained abundance of the very finest fish.
Its waters were most sweet to drink, and its stream
flowed clear and pure in the midst of muddy rivers.
The best corn grew along its banks, and where the
land was not sown the grass grew to a great height.
Abundance of salt was crystallized spontaneously at
its mouth, and it also supplied for pickling great
water-animals without any spinal bones, which the
natives called Antacaei, together with much more
that was curious and wonderfal. As far as the region
of Gerrhus, which was forty days' voyage from its
mouth, this river was known to flow from the north,
and was also navigable,^ but beyond Gerrhus no
one was able to tell through what people it flowed,
though it appeared to come through a desert to the
country of the agricultural Scythians, who dwelt
near its banks, ^ for the space of a ten or eleven days'
voyage. The sources of the Borysthenes, as well
as those of the Nile, Herodotus was unable to de-
scribe, nor did he think that any Greek could do so.
It continued flowing near to the sea, where the Hy-
panis mingled with it, and discharged itself into the
same swamp. ^
The Panti- The fifth rivor was named the Panticapes, and also
capes. flowed from the north, and out of a lake, through the
woody region called Hylaea.* It discharged itself
into the Borysthenes.^
The Hypa- The sixtli rivcr was the Hypacyeis, which flowed
^^^^' from a lake through the Scythian nomades, and after
passing Hylaea and the place called the Course of
Achilles on the right, discharged itself near the city
of Carcinitis.^
The Gcr- Thc scvcnth rivcr was the Gerrhus, which was
^^"' separated from the Borysthenes near the place at

which the latter rivcr was first known. It had the
same name as thc country which was called Gerrhus.

1 iv. 71. 2 iy i8_ 3 iv. 53. 4 See page 152. ^ iv. 54,
'^ iv. 55.

SCYTHIA. 147

Subsequently it flowed towards tlie sea, dividing the Europe.
Nomad from the Eoyal Scythians, and at last dis- ^"^^- '^"-
charged itself into the Hypacyris.^

The eighth river was the Tanais, which flowed The Tanais.
from a large lake, and fell into the farthest recess^
of a still larger lake, namely, the Maeotis. It re-
ceived the waters of the river Hyrgis, and formed The Hyrgis.
the eastern boundary of Scythia, dividing the Royal
Scythians from the Sauromatae.^

Such, according to our author, were the celebrated Modem
rivers which watered the territory of Scythia Pro- the rivers.
per : it is now necessary to identify them on the
modern map.

The Tyras is evidently the river Dniester, and is The cnies'-
still called Tyral near its mouth. The lake from
which Herodotus says it takes its source may be
identified with a small lake on the Miedoborczek,
one of the north-eastern declivities of the Carpathian
mountains, lying in the circle of Sambor, in the
Austrian kingdom of Gallizia, and in about 49"
north latitude.

The Hypanis is the river Bog, which rises in the The Bog.
elevated plateau which extends from the Carpathian
mountains to the Russian province of Kieff, and dis-
charges itself into the aestuary or liman of the
Dnieper, about twenty miles below the river port of
Nicolaeff. Its current is extremely gentle, and the
waters of its lower course, between Nicolaeff and the
sea, are still of a saline taste. Our author must have
been well informed concerning this river. He de-
scribes it as nearly approaching the Dniester, but
afterwards turning away ; and it is certain that
these two rivers do approach near to each other in
the government of Podolia, whilst their lower
courses diverge considerably as they approach the
sea. The Bog is between 470 and 480 miles in
length, or, according to the computation of Hero-
dotus, nine days' sail down the stream.

The Borysthenes is the river Dnieper, and was TheDnie-

J X ^ / per.

known to Herodotus 40 days' sail from its mouth, a

1 iv. 56. 2 iv, 100. 3 iv. 57.

L 2

148 SCYTHIA.

EUROPE, measurement wliicli it is difficult to understand,
CHAP. VII. especially as we cannot form any estimation of tlie
rate of navigation against the stream.' The river
really rises in the northern part of the government
of Smolensk, and winds along with a prodigious
bend towards the east for about 1000 miles, until at
length it forms, in conjunction with the Bog, a
large liman or swampy lake, by which it discharges
itself into the Black Sea. In the upper part of its
course it is navigable from Smolensk to Kieff, but
below Kieff the navigation is interrupted for about
40 miles by thirteen cataracts. Below these cataracts
the river is again navigable, but the distance to the
sea is only 260 miles. This latter space is all that
could have been known to Herodotus.^ The river
abounds in fish, particularly the sturgeon, carp,
pike, and shad. Those without bones mentioned by
our author were undoubtedly sturgeons, which pos-
sess a cartilaginous skeleton.
Difficulty in The Panticapcs, the Hypacyris, and the Gerrhus,

identifying -tt, i i i

the Panti- cauuot bc rcconcilcd to modern geography ; and we
pacyrisf Ind are inclined to believe, with Rennell, that they were
^roShi ' ^^L^-ll branches of the Borysthenes, which have since
the Samara, bccn filled up by tlic dcpositious of its waters.^ No
and'xast-^ such scrics of rivcrs are represented in modern maps
in the like positions and under the like circumstances
as our author describes. The Panticapes, I would
suggest, may to some extent be identified with the
Samara, a small river which falls into the Dnieper
at the cataracts.'* The Hypacyris has been identified

1 Larcher wishes to read fourteen instead of forty, whilst Bobrik
reads ten. Scymnus of Chios and Pomponius Melas, however, have re-
peated Herodotus's statement, that the river was known and navigable
for 40 days' sail from its mouth, and it has therefore been thought ad-
visable to leave our author's calculation unaltered.

^ Strabo correctly describes its navigable course, (i. e. from its mouth
to the cataracts,) as 600 stadia, or 60 geographical miles.

^ Rennell, vol. i. p. 86.

* Heeren thinks that the Panticapes may be recognised in the Sula or
Pscl, and Gatterer would even look so far north as to identify it with the
Desna. It is however doubtful whether Herodotus knew the Dnieper as
far as the cataracts, and he certainly could not have known much of the
country above them. Sailing up the river the cataracts commence at
Alexandrofsk and end at EkaterinoslafT, and it is near this latter point

chenik.

SCYTHIA. 149

by Rennell with the small stream of Kalantchak, Europe.
which falls into the gulf of Perekop ; and the same "^^^- ^"-
learned geographer is also inclined to recognise the
Gerrhus in the Tastchenik, one of the small rivers
which fall into the lake Molotchna.^ I cannot how-
ever but think that we ought to look much farther
eastward.

The Tanais is the river Don, and the Hyrgis, The Don
which discharged itself into it, has been generally ^"^"^ ^^''^'^'
identified with the river Donetz, but without suffici-
ent reason. It evidently was an eastern tributary, as
Herodotus does not reckon it amongst the Scythian
rivers, and if we identify it with the Syrgis,^ we
must suppose it to have risen amongst the Thyssa-
getae. There are two or more rivers of the name of
Irgis in modern geography, but they flow east of

that the Samara falls into the Dnieper. See also account of the Scy-
thian Georgi, p. 153.

1 The tract in which we should look for these rivers seems to be full
of stagnant pools and lakes, in which the courses of brooks tenninate
from the north ; so that it may be suspected that the Borysthenes and
its branches have wandered through this space in different ages of the
world, and in consequence may have at times gained the sea by differ-
ent mouths, and occasionally by more than one at the same period of
time. Indeed nothing is more likely than that a great change should
have taken place in the course of so vast and rapid a river as the Borys-
thenes or Dnieper, and which also flows through a deep alluvial country,
formed doubtless either by its own deposits, or by the general subsi-
dence of the level of the Euxine. (Pliny, iv. 12.) It may be observed on
the modern map, what a vast elbow this river makes to the east, in the lower
part of its course. Hence, considering some other circumstances, it is pro-
bable that at some former period it ran straight from the cataracts into the
western part of the Maeotis ; and that, having in the course of ages raised
the ground too high for it to make its way through, it sought a lower bed
in the west, but left a branch in the former channel (which it might do,
although that channel could not contain the whole river) ; and this
branch may have been the Gerrhus, which, Herodotus says, was really an
emanation of the Borysthenes. Herodotus however seems to have made
one mistake, when he represents the Gerrhus, which discharges itself
into the Maeotis on the east of Taurica, as falling into the Hypacyris,
which dischai'ges itself into the gulf on the western side. A liver, or
rather several beds of rivers, whose courses fall in nearly together, are
found in the position where the Gen-hus may be looked for, but they
have at present to communication with the Borysthenes, and only one of
their branches with the Maeotis ; for they terminate in a long narrow
lake, named Molotchna, very near the western part of the Maeotis, and
opposite to a wide gulf which enters deeply into the land, and appears
in ancient times to have joined the lake ; when both together may have
formed an aestuary pointing to the north. Either of the above-men-
tioned branches may have been the Gerrhus. Rennell, vol. i. p. 87 — 93.

2 iv. 123. . . ,

150 SCYTHIA.

EUROPE, the Volga. Herodotus was acquainted with the Don
CHAP. VII. to its source at the lake Ivan, which however is now
so very small that it is not even marked in the Rus-
sian maps. This lake is in the Russian government
of Toola, and the river, which is very circuitous, is
about 1000 miles in length.
Boundaries We havo thus ascertained that the true figure of
on the mo- Scytliia, botli according to our author's own descrip-
dern map. ^^^^ ^^^ modem geography, was that of an irregular
oblong.^ The southern side was formed by the coast
of the Black Sea, from the mouth of the Danube to
the Sea of Azoff, which Herodotus calls the lake
Maeotis, or rather Maietis. The eastern side was
formed by the Sea of Azoff and the river Don, (or
Tanais,) from the point near the modern town of
Kaffa, where the slave-trench was dug to cut off the
Taurian acte, upward either to the lake Ivan, from
whence the Tanais had its rise, and which was evi-
dently known to Herodotus, or else only to that part
of the Tanais which was crossed by the caravan

^ Every remark of the learned Niebuhr ought to be received with the
utmost respect, and none of his theories ought to be set aside, unless
after the most severe investigation, and convincing proof to the contrary.
When however he supposes Herodotus to mean that Scythia was a per-
fect square, it will at once be seen, from what has gone before, that his
theory lacks foundation, for though Herodotus describes no Scythian na-
tion westward of the Pruth, yet we have proved that he considered the
country as extending to the Carpathian mountains and river Aluta. He
called Scythia a square in the same spirit that Gibbon calls Arabia a
triangle, and we have really no more authority for considering his Scythia
as a quadrate, than we should have for mapping out the Arabia of Gib-
bon as an equilateral triangle. We could almost suppose, that in
Niebuhr's eager adoption of the Ideler theory, that the Ister descended
from the north so very exactly the same as the Nile descended from
the south, he has been canied away somewhat by the same fondness
for symmetry which he ascribes to our author, and proceeds on the
same kind of arbitrary hypotheses which he attributes to Herodo-
tus. The latter was exceedingly fond of taking the geography of one
place as an illustration of the geography of another, but he must have
known, as well as any man, that no two places in this world are exactly
like. Basing a map upon his measurements, which are frequently very
loose, and given in round numbers for the sake of the memory of his
readers, to which indeed he paid particular attention, is at all times a
very unsatisfactory task ; and especially it is difficult to believe that an
honest old man like Herodotus, who is so decided in limiting geography
to actual observation, should nevertheless proceed like an empiric to
frame a map of the earth as fanciful as that of Hecataeus, whom he
most especially and emphatically condemns. Cf. also Bobrik, Geo(f.
des Herodotus, § 47.

SCYTHIA. 151

route. The northern boundary was formed by a Europe.
line drawn from this lake Ivan, or else from the ford ^"^^- ^"•
eastward to that lake, out of which the Dniester (or
Tjrras) flows, that is, to the circle of Sambor in Gal-
lizia, about the 49th degree of latitude.^ Lastly, the
western boundary was a line from thence to the
Danube.^ The modern countries included within
these boundaries we have already described at
page 138.

The map of Scythia with its boundaries and rivers Scythian
is now before us ; it only remains to fix the territo- ^^^^°^-
ries of the different tribes. Eight of these are men-
tioned by Herodotus, viz. Callipidae, Alazones,
Aroteres, Georgi, Nomades, Royals, Tirytae, and
Tauri ; ^ and it is to be noticed that our author
commences his description at the Grreek port of
Olbia,* at the mouth of the river Borysthenes, be-
cause he considered it to be the most central point
x)f the Sc5rthian sea-coast.^

The Scythian nations on the west of the Borys- west of the
thenes are first noticed, and then those to the east of or'Dnieper!
the river.

I. The Callipidae, or Hellenic Scythians," were i. Caiupi-
the first nation, after leaving the port. They occupied
the lower course of the river Hypanis, (or Bog,) and

^ Herodotus, as we have already seen, was acquainted with Lake
Ivan at the source of the Don, though the caravan route into the interior
crossed the river much nearer to its mouth.

^ By a rough measurement on a modern map, we find that this entire
tract of country was about 750 miles from east to west, and 300 or 400
miles from north to south, in straight lines : a very different result from
that based by our author upon the number of days occupied in the
winding route along the coast, and the caravan route towards the Ural
mountains. See p. 139.

^ For a description of the nations which surrounded Scythia, see
chap. viii.

* Olbia stood on the right bank of the Hjrpanis, (Bog,) about six miles
above the junction of that river with the Borysthenes, (Dnieper,) near
the village of Ilinsky, and about 70 miles from Odessa, which has suc-
ceeded to its commercial importance. The site of the ancient city is
called Stomogil, or the Hundred Mounds, from the numerous sepul-
chral tumuli scattered around. See Cooley's valuable edition of Larcher's
Notes, vol. ii. p. 10.

« iv. 17.
. ^ A decree of the Olbiopolitae has been found, in which allusion is
made to the Mi'Ci^\T)veg, or half-bred Greeks, dwelling in the vicinity.
Koppen, Nordgestdd. d. Ponttis, pp. 92 — 95, quoted by Cooley.

152 SCYTHIA.

EUROPE, followed the usages of the other Scythians ; only they
CHAP. Yii. sowed wheat, and also used it themselves for food, as
well as onions, garlic, lentils, and millet.^ Their
country, according to modern geography, appears to
have been included in the government of Kherson,
between the Bog and the Dnieper. They were ap-
parently a mixture of Greeks and Scythians. Eich-
wald changes their name^ to Callipidae, i. e. having
handsome horses.

II. Aiazones H. The Alazones lay above the CalHpidae, and led

the same kind of life.^ In their territory the rivers
Tyras and Hypanis (Dniester and Bog) inclined
towards each other : '^ they must therefore be placed
in the government of Podolia, and perhaps the south-
ern j)art of Kieff. Eichwald supposes that their
name was not a Scythian proper name, but a Greek
epithet signifying '' the wanderers."

III. Ara- III. The Aeatoees, or " tillers," dwelt above the

Alazones. They also cultivated wheat, but not so
much for the supply of their own wants as for the
sake of the profits they derived from its sale.^ As
the nation beyond them is stated to be the Neuri,
we may fix them on the Scythian frontier to the
north-west ; perhaps in the government of Volhy-
nia, and the northern part of Kieff.

Exampaeus. Bctwccn the Aratorcs and the Alazones was the
bitter spring Exampaeus, already mentioned, which
also appears to have given its name to the surround-
ing district ; ^ and between the mouths of the Hypa-
nis and Borysthenes (Bog and Dnieper) was a pro-
jecting j)iece of land called the promontory of

Hippoieon. Hippoleoii, upou wliicli was a temple of Demeter.'
Crossing the Borysthenes to its eastern bank near

Hyiaea. thc coursc of Acliillcs Hcs the woody district, called
Hylaea, which is full of trees and watered by the
river Panticapos.^ This tract is that part of the
steppe between the Dnieper and the Sea of Azoff
which the Nogai Tartars call Yambogluk.^

> iv. 17. 2 Eichwald, AUe Geograph. p. 299, note. ' iv. 17.

4 iv. 52. « iv. 17. " iv. 52, 81. ^ iv. 53. ^ ,>. 54, 7Q-
' The country is now quite destitute of wood, although the fact of its

SCYTHIA. 153

IV. The Geoegi, or agriculturalists, were named Europe.
Borysthenitae, by the Olbiopolitae Greeks settled on chap, yh.
the Hypanis, (Bog,) but called themselves Olbiopoli- ly. Geoegi.
tae. They occupied the country above Hylaea, and
extended three days' journey eastward as far as the
river Panticapes, and eleven days' northward along
the Borysthenes (or Dnieper).^ According to their
own account, they were descended from Milesians,
and we learn that their city had walls and gates and
a tower, together with suburbs outside the walls.
Here also the Scythian king Scylas built a large
and magnificent palace, surrounded by griffins and
sphinxes made of white marble ; but the building
was struck by lightning and burnt dovna.^ Beyond
the country of the Georgi was a desert.^

y. The NoMADES occupied a tract beyond the river ^^^^^
Panticapes, and both sides of the river Hypacyris ; *
stretching fom-teen days' journey^ eastward as far as
the river Gerrhus. They neither sowed nor plough-
ed. All their country, excepting Hylaea, was desti-
tute of trees. ^

VI. The Royal Scythians inhabited the parts J^-^^^^f
beyond the Gerrhus. Their country extended south-
ward to Taurica, (or Crimea,) then (through the isth-
mus of Perekop) eastward to the slave-trench; also to
the port on the lake Maeotis called Cremni ; and some
of them reached to the river Tanais. They were the
most valiant and numerous of all the Scythians, and
regarded all the other Scythians as their slaves.^

The country of these Georgi, Nomades, and Royal

having once existed is preserved in the popular traditions of the country.
Some old maps present the name of the Black Forest near the same
place, and this may have had a much wider extent in earlier times. The
wood country now does not occur imtil we come to the banks of the Don.
The forest commences near Tcherkask on the Don, and extends to the
Dnieper near TchernigofF, in 52" 30' north lat., having the appearance of
a long black line on the horizon ; it is here succeeded by a steppe, which
continues to the Black Sea, and presents a considerable number of
monumental mounds. Cf. Heeren, Asia, vol. ii. p. 8.

1 iv. 18. 2 iv. 7S, 79. 3 iv. 18. i iv._55.

' Here Herodotus contradicts his own statement, that Scythia only ex-
tended for ten days' journey from the Borysthenes eastward to the lake
Maeotis. Bobrik suggests that we should either change the 14 to 4,
or else for iiri read dvd, " they dwelt 14 days' journey along the Gerrhus."

« iv. 19. ^ iv. 20.

154 SGYTHIA.

EUROPE. Scythians may be included in the modern govern-

CHAP. Yii. nients of Taimda, Ekaterinoslaff, and a part of the

Don Cossacks ; but the impossibility of identifying

the rivers renders it equally impossible to fix the

boundaries.

VII. Tyri- VII. The Tyeitae ought scarcely to be reckoned

amongst the Scythian tribes, as they were an Hel-
lenic colony, who dwelt at the mouth of the river
Tp^as.^

VIII. Taiiii VIII. The Tauei, whose peculiarly barbarous cus-

toms we shall have hereafter to describe, occupied
the Cliersonesus called after them Taurica, and ap-
pear to have inhabited the mountains along the south-
ern coast. ^ This Chersonesus is the modern Crimea.
carciaitis. Hcrodotus also uoticcs the city of Carcinitis to the
right of Hylaea, and near the mouth of the Hypa-
cyris. In the vicinity was the district named the
Course of CouTSc of Acliilles,^ wliich is recognised in two long
and exceedingly narrow slips of land named Teutra,
which extend in opposite directions into the sea,
forming together the shape of a sword or scimetar.*
History of Wc shall now givc a brief sketch of the history of
AMientiy Scytliia. lu aucicnt times, according to the account
cSI-'^ ^^ most credited by Herodotus, Scythia was occupied
riaus. i)j the Cimmerians, whilst the Scythians^ dwelt in

Mv. 51. 2 iv. 20, 99. 3 iy. 55.

* Pliny, lib. iv. c. 12, quoted by Rennell, who identifies these slips
with the Course of Achilles.

^ That the Sc}i:hians were a Mongolian tribe is placed beyond a doubt
by the descriptions of the two great contemporaries, Hippocrates and
Herodotus. Hippocrates describes their gross and bloated bodies, their
joints buried in fat, their swollen bellies, and their scanty growth of hair.*
This is a picture of the native tribes of Northern Asia, for whom there is
no more generally suitable name than that of Mongols, The Chinese
Mongolian remedy of bvn'ning,t which the Scythians universally em-
ployed, the state of their bodies, as well as their mode of life and cus-
toms,— all point to this race of mankind. The adoration of the god of
war under the figure of a holy scimetar, (Herod, iv. 62,) which took
place at the time of Attila, and again at the elevation of Genghis Khan,
is a Mongolic custom ; the milking of mares, the huts made of skins, the
swinish filthiness, the paste with which the women plastered themselves
(Herod, iv. 75) in order from time to time to remove the filth which close-
ly adhered to their Ijodics, their sluggish listlessness, — all these are_ Si-
berian features, and neither Sclavonian nor Germanic. Again, intoxica-
tion from the vapour of hemp seeds placed on red-hot stones and confined

<> Dc Acre, Aquis, et Locis, p. 292, cd. Foes. t Ibid.

SCYTHIA. 155

Asia/ The Scytliians having been driven from their Europe.
abodes by the Massagetae, crossed the Araxes, (or chap. vn.
Volga, ^) and entered the Cimmerian territory. The scythian
Cimmerians then resolved on retreating, but their invasion.
kings were desirous of fighting to the last. Accord-
ingly they quarrelled amongst themselves, and a
battle was fought, in which the royal party were
defeated and slain. The Cimmerians buried their Sepulchre
kings near the river Tyras, where the sepulchre was merian '"^'
still to be seen in the time of Herodotus. They then ^'"^s-
abandoned their country to the invaders,^ and en- scythian
tered Asia pursued by a large army of Scythians, the cim-^
under their king Madyes. The Cimmerians entered merians.
Asia Minor by the shore of the Euxine, and through
the Colchian Gates, now called the Pass of Dariel, in
the western portion of the Caucasian range ; but the
Scythians missed their way, and after proceeding
eastward along the north side of Caucasus, they
passed through the defiles of Derbend, at the eastern
extremity between Caucasus and the Caspian, and
thus entered Media.* The Cimmerians entered Asia cimmeriaps
Minor in the reign of Ardys, king of Lydia, ravaged ^or, ^'^
the country, and established themselves on the pen-
insula where the city of Sinope ^ afterwards stood,
but were at length driven out by Alyattes.^ Mean-
under close coverlets (ibid.) is Siberian ; only Herodotus confounds this
with the vapoui'-baths which the barbarians in those parts enjoyed, and
perhaps carried to a luxurious excess. Moreover, Hypocrates remarks
that all the Scythians resembled each other, and this universal resem-
blance will apply neither to the Tartars nor to the Sclavonians or Ger-
mans. That the Scythians had no connexion with the latter nations is
proved by the Scythian words mentioned by Herodotus (iv. 6). Whether
these, or something like them, occur in any languages of Northern Asia,
Niebuhr cannot determine. He, however, ventures to affirm that in no
Tschudian dialect are there even apparent resemblances, which can fa-
vour the hypothesis, that the Scythians belonged to the Finnish race ;
and that there is no conceivable connexion between the name of Scy-
thians (which had perhaps belonged to an earlier people before it was
applied by the Pontic Greeks to the Scoloti, Herod, iv. 6) and Tschud,
a contemptuous name, arising from the hereditary hatred of the Russians
to the Fins. See Niebuhr, Researches into the History of the Scythians,
Getae, etc., pp. 46—48. Oxford, 1830.

1 iv. 11.

^ Three different rivers are mentioned by Herodotus under the same
name of Araxes, namely, the Volga, the Aras, and the Jaxartes. See
the account of the river Araxes in chap. viii.

3 iv. II. * i. 103, 104. 5 iv. 12. « i. 15, 16.

156 SCYTHIA.

EUEOPE. time the great Scytliian army under Madyes over-
CHAP. Tii. came the Medes, and became masters of all Upper
" — ^~~ Asia for twenty-eight years. From thence they ad-
nSteis'^f yanced upon Aegypt, but Psammetichus met them
piundetthe in Palestine and persuaded them to return. In their
ATrodi'te I'etreat some of them plundered the temple of the
at Askaion. heaveuly Aphrodite (or Astarte) at Askalon, for
which they and their descendants were punished by
the goddess with a feminine disease. Several so af-
flicted were still to be seen in the time of Herodotus :
the Scythians called them Enarees.^ The Medes, under
Cyaxares, at length expelled these invaders.^ Some of
them however were still retained at court, and after-

1 Notwithstanding the mass of commentaiy which has been written
upon this disease, it is best explained by the following passage of Hippo-
crates, which I shall give at full length from Larcher. " Their continual
exercise on horseback occasions to the Scythians acute pains in the
joints ; they then become lame ; and if the disorder augments, the hip
falls backwards. In the commencement of the malady, they cure them-
selves by cutting the vein which runs behind each ear. When the blood
ceases to flow, they fall asleep from exhaustion ; and on awaking, some
are cured, and some are not. This remedy appears to me fatal to the
Scythian people. If certain veins behind the ears are cut, impotency is
the result. The Scythians must experience this effect. When they
afterwards proceed to intercourse with their wives, and find themselves
incapable of enjoying it, they pay httle attention to the circumstance on
its first occun-ence ; but if after repeated efforts they find the same want
of power, they imagine that they have offended some god, and at-
tribute their deficiency to him. They then clothe themselves in a wo-
man's garment, acquire the habits of women, and join them in their
employments. They are the rich and powerful classes who are most
subject to this malady, which proceeds from excessive exercise on horse-
back; the lower orders, not using horses, are less subject to it." _Mr.
Cooley in his note upon this passage remarks, that " if we do not beheve
with Herodotus that the disease in question was the infliction of Venus,
neither need we beheve that it was hereditary in the famihes of those
who had violated the shrine of that goddess." We may therefore infer
that Herodotus and Hippocrates both refeiTed to the same malady. He-
rodotus describes it in the character of an historian, and attributes it to
the anger of Aphrodite ; whilst the prince of physicians has recourse to
natural causes, and explains it upon scientific principles.

Reineggs was the first, in modern times, to make known the existence
of this disease in the regions occupied by the ancient Scythians. He
asserts, that among the Nogais cases are frequent of males losing the
strength and physiognomy of their sex, and assiaming the dress and
habits of women. This account, which received httle credit, has been
confirmed in all essential points by Count Potocki, who saw one of those
metamorphosed individuals among the Turkmans at the Red Wells, m
the sands of Anketeri between the rivers Couma and Terek. Persons
so afflicted are called Kos; and the traveller adds, that the disease is^not
xmknown in Turkey. See Larcher's Notes, Cooley's edit. vol. i. p. 121.

2 i. 106.

SCYTHIA. 157

wards fled to Alyattes, king of Lydia ; ^ but the great Europe.
body returned to Scytliia, where they found them- chap. vh.
selves opposed by a race of youths who had sprung j^gtum to
from a union of the Scythian women and their scythia.
slaves. The youths threw up a broad trench from the
Taurian mountains to the lake Maeotis, but the
Scythians at last gained the ascendency, by attack-
ing them with whips instead of warlike weapons,
and thus overcoming their slave natures.^

That Scythia was really anciently occupied by ^"g^^J^.jfj^^
the Cimmerians, is proved by the many names of occixpation
places which were still preserved in the time of He- by th?cim-
rodotus. There was a district named Cimmeria, and gfg^^lctof
a Cimmerian Bosphorus,^- also a Cimmerian Fort cimmeria.
and a Cimmerian Ferry.^ The Cimmerian Ferry was FOTt^nT"^
probably the name of the place where the Bosphorus cfmmerian
might be crossed, and was situated at the narrowest Bosphorus.
part. The district called Cimmeria may therefore
be placed where Bobrik fixes it, namely, to the
south of the Scythian Nomades. Some have de- ^^^g^®*^®
clared that the Massagetae, like the Sacae, belonged of Scythian
to the Scythian race.^ The Sacae were indeed " ""
Amyrgian Scythians, but received their other name
of Sacae because the Persians applied it to the Scy-
thians generally.^

The climate of Scythia is thus described by He- ^^^"l^te of

.-, , -J I'jj 1 Scythia.

rodotus. All the country was subject to such a Eight
severe winter, that during eight months of the year wiSer^dur-
the cold was intolerable ; and if at this period a [^| ^J'''^
person poured water on the ground, it would not freezes.
make mud, but would freeze ; whereas if he lit a fire
mud would be made. Even the sea froze, and the
whole Cimmerian Bosphorus ; and the Scythians
who dwelt within the slave-trench, led their armies
and drove their waggons over the ice to attack the
Sindians on the other side, i. e. the country south
of the river Kuban, at the western extremity of Cir-

1 i. 73. 2 iv. 3^ 4 3 iv, 12.

* The Cimmerian Fort is supposed to have occupied the site of
the modern Eski-Krim : the Ferry was near the mouth of the Maeotis.
« i. 201. 8 vii. 64.

race.

158

SCYTHIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. VII.

Four
months of
cold sum-
mer, con-
stant rains,
and violent
thunder-
storms.

Effects of
cold on the
horses and
cattle.

cassia. The remaining four months were also
very cold. The Scythian winter however differed
in character from the winter of all other countries.
No rain worth mentioning fell there in the usual
season, whilst during the summer it never ceased.
There were no thunder-storms in the winter, but in
the summer they were violent ; and an earthquake
there, whether in summer or winter, was accounted
a prodigy.

The Scythian horses endured this cold, whilst the
asses and mules could not hold out ; and yet else-
where horses that were exposed became frost-bitten
and wasted away, whilst the asses and mules were
able to withstand the cold.^ Herodotus thought that
it was this cold which prevented any horns from
growing on the Scythian cattle, and he quotes the
following line from the Odyssea of Homer in proof
of his opinion :

"Kat Aij3vr)v, oS^i t apvse a^ap Kspaiot reXiSfovai."

— " And Libya, where the lambs soon shoot their
horns." ^ And here he says Homer is quite correct
in saying that the horns of cattle shoot out very
quickly in hot climates ; but in these very cold
countries the cattle either do not produce horns at
all, or else very slowly.^

With respect to the feathers which the Scythians
said filled the air and prevented their seeing the coun-
try in the interior, or even their passing through it,
Herodotus entertained the following opinion. He
believed that it continually snowed there, only less
in summer than in winter ; and he adds, that who-
ever has seen snow fall very thick and near will
know what is meant, for snow is like feathers ; and
that it is the severity of the winter which prevents
the more northern j^arts of the country from being
inhabited.*
Tradition of As to the Hypcrborcans, or ''people beyond the

Scythian
story of the
air filled
with fea-
thers.

1 iv. 28.

2 Homer, Odyssea, lib. iv. 85.
^ iv. 31.

3 iv. 29.

SCYTHIA. 159

north wind," neither the Scythians said anything, europe.
nor any other people of those parts, excepting per- chap, yh.
haps the Issedones ; though Herodotus does not the Hyper-
thinli that even they said anything, or otherwise the Koreans.
Scythians would have repeated such relation, as
they did the story of the one-eyed people.^ Hesiod
however mentions the Hyperboreans, as well as
Homer in the Epignoni, if indeed Homer composed
that poem.^ But if there were Hyperboreans, or
" people beyond the north wind," Herodotus thinks
that there must also have been Hypernotians,^ or
''people beyond the south wind."^ Scythia itself
possessed nothing remarkable beyond the great
rivers, excepting the footprint of Heracles, two Footprint of
cubits long, in a rock near the river Tyras,^ and the marsof
pillars of Sesostris.' Sesostris.

Concerning the natural productions of Scythia we Natural
gather the following particulars. The grass was orsljythiT
more productive of bile than that of any other coun- ^^'^^^•
try ; and this might be easily proved by opening
the stomachs of the cattle.^ The hemp was like Hemp.
linseed, but surpassed it in thickness and height,
and the Thracians made garments from it which
could scarcely be distinguished from those manu-
factured from flax.^ It grew wild and was also
cultivated, and was used by the Scythians both for
sweating-baths and for smearing over the body.^
Mention is also made of wheat, onions, garlick, J^ons'
lentils, and millet.^'' Cranes were found during the Gariick.
summer, but migrated to Aethiopia for winter quar- Mmet!'
ters.^^ Swine were never used, nor suffered to be ^""^.^f-
reared. ^^

The national traditions and characteristics are re-
corded at some length. The Scythians still pre- National
served a myth of their own, that the first man born xargitaus
in their country was Targitaus,^^ son of Zeus by a thit^sons;

1 iv. 27. 2 iv. 32.

^ I do not here agree with Mr. Bobrik in supposing that Herodotus
entirely disbelieved in the existence of Hyperboreans, Geog. § 51.

* iv. 36. 5 iy. 82. 6 ii. 103. ^ iv. 58. ^ iv. 74

^ iv. 75. " iv. 17. " ii. 22. '^ i^, (33^

^^ Identified by Von Hammer with Turk, the supposed ancestor of the
Turkish race, and with the Togarmah of Scripture, Gen. x, 3.

160 SCYTHIA.

EUROPE, daughter of the river Borysthenes. Targitaus had
CHAP. Yii. three sons, LijDoxais, Arpoxais, and Colaxais. In
Lipoxais, their reign a plough, a yoke, an axe, and a bowl, all
^^dCdix- ^^^6 of gold, fell from heaven upon the Scythian
ais. territory. The oldest of the brothers wished to

take them away, but as he di^ew near the gold be-
gan to burn. The second brother approached them,
but with the like result. The third and youngest
then approached, upon which the fire went out, and
he was enabled to carry away the golden gifts. The
two eldest then made the youngest king,^ and hence-
forth the golden gifts were watched by the kings
with the greatest care, and annually approached
with magnificent sacrifices.^ From Lipoxais, the
The Aucha- oldcst, wcro desccudcd the Auchatae ; from Arpoxais,
andTrS"' ^he sccond, were descended the Catiari and Tras-
pi^s- pies ; and from Colaxais, the youngest, came the

General royal racc, which were called Paralatae. But all
scXti! the hordes were called Scoloti, from the surname of
their king ; the Greeks however called them Scy-
thians.^ *

^ iv. 5. ^ iv. 7. ^ iv. 6.

* Wesseling remarks that they were not called Scythians because the
name was Greek, but because the Hellenic colonists on the Pontus
Euxinus observed that they were very much distinguished for their
archery, and therefore gave them the name Scjrthae, having learnt that
in the language of the country this word denoted archers. Efforts have
been made to connect the Scythians with some modern race by means of
this derivation. The old Norse word "skyta,"the Swedish " ski uta,"
and the English " shoot," all point out, according to this etymology, the
meaning of the name Scythian, given to the inventors of the bow and
arrow. "But the resemblance," says Mr. Cooley in his additions to
Larcher's Notes, " between ' skyta ' and XkvQtjq^ is more apparent than
real. The letter k in the northern languages is generally softened be-
fore e, i, and y : thus, in our language, the word ' skirt ' was originally
pronounced ' shirt ;' ' skiff,' in like manner, was identical with ' shipf,' or
' ship ; ' and ' kirke ' with ' church.' There is no reason for believing
that the Greek k ever lost its hard sound, whatever may have been the
case with the x- To derive ^KvQric fi'om ' skyta,' is to reason, therefore,
on as false an analogy as we should exhibit in deriving ' Scot ' from,
' shot.'

" Eichwald identifies Scythian, or Scyth, with Tschude, or Chude,
which is the name given by the Russians to the ancient possessors of
Siberia, or to a supposed gi-eat people, the reputed authors of the barrows
and other rude monuments found throughout that country. A people of
Finnish race called Tscluid still exist in the north-west of Europe ; but
the Russian epithet Ijeing of comparatively modern date, might be sus-
pected of being derived from the ancient name of Scythia." Compare
also note to page 1.54.

SCYTHIA. 161

■ The Hellenic colonists on the Pontus preserved a Europe.
myth of a very different character. Whilst Heracles ^"^^- ^i'-
was driving away the herds of Geryon from the ©reek my-
island of Erytheia beyond the Pillars, he reached JJ^^^^J*^®
Scythia and there lost his mares. The serpent of Heracles,
maiden Echidna offered to restore them on condi- pentSaiden
tion of becoming his mistress, and three sons were Echidna.
the result, Agathyrsis, Glelonus, and Scythes. The
youngest alone was subsequently able to bend the
bow of his father, and was therefore made king of
Scythia, and also received the belt of Heracles, upon
which hung a golden cup at the extremity of the
clasp. The royal dignity was afterwards held by
the descendants of Scythes, and the Scythians wore
cups in their belts down to the time of Herodotus.^
A third tradition, referring to the expulsion of the
Cimmerians by the Scythian nomades of Asia, has
already been noticed.

All the nations bordering on the Euxine were ignorance
grossly ignorant, and Herodotus is unable to men- tions on the
tion a single nation on the European side^ that had ^^^^^•
any pretensions to intelligence, excepting the Scy-
thians and the unfortunate Anacharsis.^ Though
he does not admire the customs of the Scythians wise device
generally, yet he considered them to have contrived thians
a most wise and important device, by which no one ^fs/^n! ''^V
who attacked them could escape, and no one could
overtake them unless they pleased. They were a
people who had neither cities nor fortifications ; but Their
were all mounted archers, carrying their houses with ried with
them, dwelling in waggons, and living not upon the ^^^'^'
fruits of the earth, but upon the cattle which they
grazed : * how then was it possible for them to have
been otherwise than invincible, and unapproachable?^
Tt was the fitness of the country that led them

^ iv. 8 — 10. A small statue or figure of amber was found at Kertch a
few years ago, representing a man in the Scythian dress, holding in
one hand a quiver full of arrows, and in the other a drinking-cup shaped
like a horn. M. de Blaremberg, " Notice sur quelques Objets d'Antiq.,"
quoted by Cooley.

^ iv. 46. Herodotus merely says evrbg row ttovtov, on this side of the
Euxine. He must therefore have written this passage at Thurium.

3 iv. 7G. * iv. 2. 5 iv. 46.

162

SCYTHIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. Yll.

Scythian
deities :
Hestia,
Zeus, Ge,
Apollo,
Aphrodite,
Heracles,
and Ares.

Poseidon.

Mode of
sacrifice.

to practise this device, and the rivers aided them in
it ; for the land was a steppe rich in grass and well
watered ; and the rivers that flowed through it were
almost as numerous as the canals of Egypt. ^

The Scythians worshipped only the following
deities : Hestia, whom they propitiated most of all ;
then Zeus, and Ge whom they deemed to be his
wife ; and lastly, Apollo, the heavenly Aphrodite,
Heracles, and Ares. These were acknowledged by
all the Scythians, but the Royals also sacrificed to
Poseidon. In the Scythian language,

Hestia was called Tahiti,

Zeus . . . Papaeus,

Ge . . . Apia,

Apollo . . . Oetosyrus,

Aphrodite . . Artimpasa,

Poseidon . . . Thamimasadas.

They built no altars, images, and temples, ex-
cepting to Ares.^ They all sacrificed in the same
way to each deity. The victim stood with its fore-
feet tied. The sacrificer was placed behind the
animal, and threw it down by pulHng the rope. As
it fell he invoked the god to whom he was sacri-
ficing. He then twisted a halter round the neck
and tightened it with a stick until the beast was
strangled. He kindled no fire and performed no
preparatory ceremonies or libations, but directly
after the flaying he proceeded to cook the meat.^
This was managed by the following contrivance,
which the people had invented because their coun-
try was wholly destitute of wood. Having drawn
off the skin from the sacrificed animal, they stripped
the flesh from the bones and placed it in large
cauldrons, which very much resembled the Lesbian
mixing- vessels, only they were much larger ; and
they cooked this flesh by making a fire underneath
with the bones of the victim. If they had no caul-
dron at hand they crammed all the flesh into the
belly of the beast, then poured in water and burnt

iv. 47.

iv. r)9.

iv. 60.

SCYTHIA. 163

the bones underneath/ These bones burnt exceed- Europe.
ingly well, and the belly easily contained the flesh, chap. vn.
After the cooking the sacrificer consecrated the first
pieces of the flesh and entrails, and threw them be-
fore him. Grazing cattle were generally selected
for these sacrifices, and especially horses.^

The sacrifices to Ares were conducted in a differ- Enormous
ent manner. At each of the places appointed for gotT sacref"
the magistrates to assemble in the several districts, *° ^'■'^^•
there was a sanctuary to Ares of the following kind.
Bundles of faggots were heaped together to an ex-
tent of 3 stadia in length and breadth, but less in
height. On the top was a square platform. Three
of the sides were perpendicular ; the fourth was suf-
ficiently sloping to admit of persons getting up.
Every year 150 fresh waggon loads of faggots were
heaped upon it to compensate for the continual sink-
ing brought about by the weather.^ Upon this heap
each tribe placed an ancient iron scimetar, which
was the sacred symbol of Ares.* Cattle and horses
and the hundredth man of all the prisoners taken in
war were sacrificed annually to these scimetars. The Human

T • , • fc ^ ' ^' cc 1 r sacrifices.

human victims were oiiered m a diiierent way irom
the cattle. A libation of wine was poured on their
heads, and their throats were cut over a bowl, which
was carried up the heap, and the blood poured over
the scimetar. The right arm was then cut off and
thrown into the air, and after the performance of the
remaining sacrifices the people departed, leaving the
body and arm remaining at the spot where they

^ Wesseling remarks, that before the invention of pots and kettles,
barbarous people used skins in which to cook their food ; and that the
Bedouin Arabs, the Greenlanders, and several tribes of Tartary, still con-
tinue the same custom. It may be added, that in countries where wood
is very scarce, they use the bones of animals for fuel. " Take the choice
of the flock, and burn also the bones under it, and make it boil well,"
Ezek. xxiv. 5.

2 iv. 61.

3 The reader will readily agree with Wesseling, that a pile of small
wood, 3 stadia in length and in width, and little less in height, is quite
inconsistent with the general scarcity of wood which our author himself
mentions.

* Ammianus Marcellinus says of the Huns : " Nee templum apud eos
visitur aut delubrum . . . sed gladius barbarico ritu humi figitm- nudus,
eumque ut Marteno . . . colunt."

M 2

164 JSCYTHIA.

EUROPE, fell.^ Ill all their sacrifices this people abstained!
CHAP. Tii. from the use of swine.^
Enemies' ^ Scjthian drank the blood of the first enemy he
Std^"^^ conquered, and presented the king with the heads
the king, of all those whom he slew in battle, for if he brought
Mode of pre- no head he received no share of the booty. The head
skunj and w^s flayed by maldng a cut near the ears all round,
other tro- and sliakiuff out the skull. The operator then scraped
off the flesh with the rib of an ox, and softened the
skin with his hands. When he had made it supple
he used it as a napkin, and hung it over the bridle
of his steed as a trophy ; for he who had the greatest
number of these skin napkins was regarded as the
most valiant man. Many made mantles of the skins
by sewing them together like the skin clothes worn
by shepherds. Many also drew off the skin together
with the nails from the right hands of their slain
enemies, and used it as coverings for their quivers ;
and many indeed flayed their enemies whole, and
stretched the skin on wood and carried it about on
horseback.^ The skulls of their bitterest enemies
they used as drinking-bowls, first cutting away all be-
low the eyebrows, and then cleansing them and cover-
ing the outside with leather ; and sometimes they
gilded the inside, if they were rich enough. They
also treated the skulls of their relatives in the same
way, if they had quarrelled and one had overcome
the other in the presence of the king. When they
received visits from honoured guests, the host placed
these skulls before his visitors, and related how he
had been attacked, and how he had gained the vic-
tory.* Once, also, in the year, every monarch, each
in his own district, mixed wine in a bowl, from
which all the Scythians drank who had previously
killed an enemy. Those who had not been success-
ful in so doing were not allowed to taste the wine,
but remained seated in dishonour at a distance off,
and this was accounted to be the greatest disgrace.
On the other hand, those who had killed a great
many men, drank from two vessels at once.^

1 iv. 02. 2 iv_ p,3_ 3 iv. CA. " iv. 65. ^ jy, gg.

SCYTHIA. 165

bootlisayers were very numerous amongst the Europe.
Scythians. They brought large bundles of willow chap. vn.
rods, which they laid on the ground and shook to- soothsayers
gether. They then placed each rod apart, and at ^^ '^^{^j!^''';
last uttered their predictions whilst they gathered up
the rods again one at a time. This was the national
mode, but the Enarees, or Androgyni, who have been
already alluded to, say that Aplu-odite has given to
them the power of divining. Accordingly, they
split the bark of a linden tree into three pieces, twist-
ed it round their fingers, and tlien untwisted it,
whilst they uttered their prophecies.^

As often as the king of Scythia fell ill, he sent for Ceremonies
tln-ee of the most famous soothsayers, who thereupon ness of a
prophesied in the way described. Upon this occa- ^''^•
sion they usually declared that some Scythian, whom
they named, had sworn falsely by the royal hearth,
an oath which was regarded as the most sacred of
all. The person accused was then brought forward
and charged by the prophets with having sworn
falsely and caused the king's illness. The prisoner
of course denied it, and complained bitterly. Six
more soothsayers were then summoned, and if they
also taxed him with perjury, his head was immedi-
ately cut off, and the first three prophets divided his
property between them. If, however, the six pro-
phets acquitted him, others were called in, and others
after them, and if the majority still acquitted him,
the first prophets were put to death themselves,^ after
a peculiar fashion. A waggon was filled with fag-
gots and oxen yoked to it. The prophets were next
gagged and tied hand and foot, and placed in the
midst of these faggots, which were set on fire, and
the oxen being terrified were suffered to run where
they pleased. Many of the oxen were therefore
burnt with the prophets, and others only escaped
after the pole had been burnt asunder and they had
been very much scorched. The king also executed
the male children of all whom he put to death, but
preserved the females.^

1 iv. 67. 2 iv. 68. . » iv. 69.

166 SCYTHIA.

EUROPE. Solemn contracts were made amongst the Scythi-
CHAP. Tii. £^ns in tlie following manner. Wine was poured into
Manner of ^ l^rgo cartlicn vosscl and mixed with blood, taken by
making a bodMn or dagger from the parties contracting. The
parties then dij)ped a scimetar, some arrows, a battle-
axe, and a javelin into the vessel, and made many
solemn protestations, and at last drank it, together
with the most distinguished of their followers.*
Repuichres Tlic sopulclires of the Scythian kings were in the
thiln'^kinls. couutry of tlio Gcrrlii, on the Borysthenes, as far as
Funeral that rivor was navigable. There, when the king
ceremomes. ^q^^ q^ large squarc grave was prepared. Meantime
the corpse was covered with wax, and the stomach
cut open and emboweled, and filled with bruised
cypress, incense, parsley, and anise-seed, and sewn
up again. The body was then placed in a chariot
and carried from one tribe to another, the people of
each following it as it was brought them, and wound-
ing themselves in the same way that the Royal
Scythians did, namely, by cutting off part of their
ear, shaving off their hair, wounding their arm, la-
cerating their forehead and nose, and driving arrows
tln*ough their left hand. When the corpse had been
thus carried through the several provinces, it was at
last taken to the burying-place amongst the Gerrhi,
who were the most remote people under the Scythian
rule. Here the Scythians placed the body in the
square grave on a bed of leaves ; and fixing spears
on each side of the corpse, they laid pieces of wood
Favourite Qvcr it and covered it with mats. In the remaining
servants? ' spacc of tlic cxcavatiou they buried one of the king's
burie^d with concubines, whom they strangled ; also his cup-
theking. bcarcr, cook, mastcr-of-horse, body-servant, mes-
senger, and horses; together with golden goblets,
and the firstlings of all his other property, except
silver and Ijrass, which, indeed, they never used.
Over the whole they heaped up a large mound, which
Fifty at- they tried to make as big as possible.^ Wlien a
kiUed and ycar had elapsed, tliey took fifty of those of the re-
placed on jj^aining servants who had been the most closely

1 iv. 70. 2 iv. 71,

SCYTHIA. 167

attendant upon the departed monarch, and who were Europe.
all native Scythians ; for the king had no servants ^"^^- ^n-
bought with money, but was served by whoever he horseback
chose to select. These fifty they strangled, together ^'°^^^^ tiie
with fifty of the finest horses. They then emboweled
both men and horses, and stuffed them with chaff,
and sewed them up again ; and a stake was run
through each horse from the tail to the neck, and
another through each man. The men were placed
upon the horses, the stakes inside them fitting into
a hole made in the horses' stakes. The figures were
at last mounted on the insides of two half-wheels,
and elevated on posts, so that the legs were all sus-
pended in the air. The two half-wheels supported
the horse's stomach, one under his shoulders, and the
other under his hinder parts. Each of these figures
was fastened to another post, and all were thus ar-
ranged round the tumulus.' ^

The common people were buried in a somewhat Buiiai of
different manner. The corpse was laid in a chariot thllns! ^^^'
and carried about by the nearest relatives amongst
their friends, who each in turn entertained the at-
tendants, and set the same things before the dead
body as before the others. This was done for forty
days, after which the body was buried, and the rela-
tives and friends purified themselves in the follow-
ing manner. Having first washed and thoroughly Manner of
cleansed their heads, they made a tent by stretching ti^n.^''^'
thick woollen cloths over three sticks fixed in the
ground, and inclining towards each other. They
then threw red-hot stones into a vessel placed un-
derneath this tent,^ and creeping under the woollen
covering, which was kept very tight and close, they
placed some hemp seed on the hot stones. A smoke
and steam now arose, which no Greek vapour-bath
could surpass ; and the Scythians, intoxicated with

' iv. 77.

2 BaiTOws or tumuli are found all over New Russia, but are most
numerous in the neighboiu-hood of the Sea of AzofF. The Tartar name
for them is Kurgan. The Calmucks are still in the habit of bm-ying
horses, arms, etc. with their chiefs.

3 iv. 73.

168

SCYTHIA.

EUROPE.

CHAP. Yll.

Hatred of
foreign cus-
toms.

Costume.

Blinding of
slaves.

Mode of
milking cat-
tle.

Habit of
taking un-
mixed wine
and drink-
ing very
hard.

the vapour, soon began to shout aloud ; and this
served them in the place of washing, as they never
bathed their bodies in water. The women, on the
other hand, used to pound pieces of cypress, cedar,
and frankincense against a rough stone, and smear
tliis paste over their face and bodies, and this
not only gave their sldn a pleasant odour, but
when taken off the next day left them clean and
shining.^

The Scythians most studiously avoided all foreign
customs, and especially those of Hellas, and both
Anacharsis and Scylas lost their lives in endeavour-
ing to introduce Hellenic usages.^ As to their cos-
tume, they appear to have carried a bow and horse-
whip,^ and to have worn a girdle with a small cup
attached/ The Sacae, who were a Scythian nation,
and whom Herodotus calls Scythian Amyrgians, wore
loose trousers, and felted caps terminating in a point ;
they also carried the bows which were peculiar to
their country, together with daggers, and battle-axes
called sagares/ The Scythians were accustomed
to blind their slaves, to prevent their skimming off
the best of the milk. This milk was their chief
drink, and in milldng they operated in a very pecu-
liar fashion ; for they inserted bone tubes lilce flutes
into the vulva of the animal, and one blew up this
tube whilst another milked. They themselves de-
clared that they adopted this method because, by
inflating the veins of the mare, the latter become
filled, whilst the udder is depressed. The miUi was
directly afterwards poured into wooden measures,
and the blind slaves stirred it ; and the cream which
settled on the top was afterwards skimmed off,
and considered to be the most valuable.^ The Scy-
thian nomadcs, Herodotus says, used to take un-
mixed wine and drink hard. The Spartans said that
thcii' king Cleomenes learnt this habit fr-om the Scy-
thians, and became insane : hence it was usual in
Lacedaemon, when they wished for stronger drink, to

iv. 75.

2 iv. 76—80.
' vii. 64.

' iv. .3.
iv. 2.

* iv. IQ.

SCYTHIA. 169

say, '' Poirr out like a Scythian.^ " The people re- Europe.
sembled the Aegyptians, inasmuch as they held those ^«^^- "^'"•
citizens in the least respect who carried on trade or contempt
handicraft.-. of trade.

The population of Scythia Herodotus could never Difficulty m
learn with accuracy, for he heard very different the'^po^'puk?
accounts. Some thought the Scythians were very ^^p- °f ^'^y-
numerous, and others the contrary. Near the bitter
spring Exampaeus, however, he saw a large brazen Cauldron
cauldron, six digits in thickness, and capable of ™rowhe°a^s,
holding 600 amphorae, which was said to have been furnSlby
entirely made of arrow-heads ; for King Ariantas, every scy-
wishing to know the number of his subjects, com-
manded every Scythian, upon pain of death, to bring
him one point of an arrow, and these he melted to-
gether, and left in the shape of this vast cauldron as
a monument behind him.^

Of the Scythian language only a few trifles can Meagre re-
be gathered. The Scythian names of their deities scythial*^^
are already given at p. 162. Besides, Arima in the language.
Scythian language signified '' one," and Spou, "the
eye:" thence the Arimaspi, or ''one-eyed men."*
Also Aior, " a man," and Pata, '' to kill: " hence
Aiorpata, '' manslayers," which was the name by
which the Greeks called the Amazones.^

The Tauei, who inhabited the acte of Taurica,^ Barbarous
practised the following customs. They sacrificed to the Tami.
the virgin Iphigenia, the daughter of Agamemnon,
all who suffered shipwreck on their coasts, not ex-
cepting the Hellenes. According to some, after per-
forming the preparatory ceremonies,'' they struck the
victim on the head with a club. According to others,
they threw the body down the precipice upon which
their temple was built, but impaled the head upon
a stake. Others, again, agreed as to what was done
to the head, but said that the body was not thrown

1 vi. 84. 2 ii. 167. ^ iv. 81. * iv. 27. ' iv. 110.

6 iv. 99.'

■^ The preparatory ceremonies consisted in sprinkling the victim with
the lustral water, cutting the hair from his head, which was burned, and
scattering on his forehead the sacred barley mixed with salt. Eurip.
Iph. in Tauris, 40.

CHAP. VII.

170 SCYTHIA.

EUROPE, from the precipice, but buried in the earth. When
these people had subdued any of their enemies, each
one cut off a head and stuck it ujoon a long pole,
and placed it above his house, usually above the
chimney ; and these heads they said were to be the
guardians of their whole household. The Tauric
nation lived by war and pillage.^ This account of
the Tauri completes Herodotus's geography of Scy-
thia.

1 iv. 103.

CHAPTER VIII.

REMAINDEE OF EUROPE.

Character of Herodotus's knowledge of the remainder of Eiu-ope. —
Divisions. — I. Western Exjrope. — Region beyond the Pillars of
Heracles. — Tartessus. — Erytheia. — Gadeira. — Celtae. — Cynetae. — Ac-
count of the river Ister or Danube. — Causes of its equal stream. — Ex-
planation of Herodotus's description of the Ister, and account of the
Cynetae and Celtae. — The Iberi, Ligyes, and Elisyci. — Italy, singular
omission of Rome. — Northern Italy, the Ombrici and T}Tseni.— South-
ern Italy, occupied by Greek colonies, viz. Rhegium, Taras, Agylla,
Hyela in Oenotria, Croton, Metapontium, Sybaris, Siris, lapygia, Brun-
dusium, Hyria, and Epizephyrian Locrians. — II. Northern Europe. —
Region impracticable from bees or frost. — The Sigynnes, a Medic colony
fond of chariot-driving. — Nations bordering on Scythia. — 1. Agathyi-si,
occupying Transylvania. — 2. Nemi, occupying Poland and Lithuania. —
3. Androphagi, occupying Smolensk. — 4. Melanchlaeni, occupying Or-
lofF. — 5. Sauromatae, occupying the country of the Don Cossacks and
part of Astracan. — 6. Budini and Geloni, occupying SaratofF. — III.
Eastern Europe. — Great caravan route. — Character of the commerce.
— Olbia, the emporium.- — Trade in corn. — Slaves. — Furs. — Gold from
the Ural and Altai mountains. — Route northward from the Budini. —
Desert of seven days' journey, occupying Simbirsk and Kasan. — Route
towards the east. — Thyssagetae, occupying Perm. — Jyrcae on the Ural
mountains.- — Scythian exiles occupying Tobolsk. — Argippaei at the foot
of the Altai mountains.— Identification of the Argippaei with the Cal-
mucks. — Unknown region north of the Argippaei occupied by men with
goats' feet, and people who slept for six months at a time. — Identification
of the Altai. — Eastern route continued. — Issedones. — Arimaspi. — Gold-
guarding griffins. — Nations on the frontier towards Asia.— General de-
scription of Mount Caucasus. — Herodotus's account of the mountain and
people. — The Massagetae. — Herodotus's description of the river Araxes.
Explanation of the apparent contradictions. — Manners and customs of
the Massagetae.

The countries of Europe which we have already Europe.
noticed include all that was really known to Hero- chap. vm.
dotus, and answer to the modern kingdom of Greece, character of
the provinces of Em-opean Turkey, and the govern- Herodotus's
ments oi southern Kussia. Beyond these limits his of the rest
information loses his distinctness ; and if he himself "^^"''"p^-
could be supposed to have ever arranged his geogra-

Tartessus

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REMAINDER OF EUROPE. 173

phy upon a similar principle, and under similar Europe.
headings to those adopted in the present volume, chap.viu.
the words '' Traditionary Europe" would most pro-
bably have been affixed as the title to the present
chapter ; for his knowledge of the countries therein
described was derived, not from personal experience
and travel, but from hearsay and tradition. A glance
at the modern map of Europe will be sufficient to
show how vast a proportion of this great continent
was thus veiled from his mental vision. On the
other hand, a careful consideration of his statements
will strike the reader with astonishment, not only at
his knowledge of regions which are even now but
imperfectly known, but also at his ignorance of
. countries whose future inhabitants have taken such • •

an important part in the history of the world.

The territories thus characterized naturally se- Divisions.
parate into three divisions, viz. 1. Western Eu-
rope, including Spain, France, and Italy, which
were but very little known, for the Celtae are merely
named, and no mention whatever is made of Rome.
2. Northern Europe, including the countries border-
ing on Scythia, which our author knew by the light
of such information as he could gather whilst re-
siding at the Greek port of Olbia at the mouth of
the Dnieper. 3. Eastern Europe, which extended
far away over the Ural chain to the foot of the Al-
tai mountains and banks of the Jaxartes. This last
division is the most important, if not the most inter-
esting ; for the description of the country is apparent-
ly derived from Greek merchants, who had opened a
line of communication between Olbia and the golden
regions of the far east, and it evidently included a
description of the nations traversed by the caravan
route, which passed northward through the interior
of Russia in Europe, and then eastward through the
steppes of Russia in Asia and Independent Tartary.^

I. To begin with Western Europe. The Pillars of ^^^J^^^;

KOPE.

^ It has already been seen that the river Phasis (or Rhion) and the
Araxes (or Jaxartes) formed, according to our author, the Une of division
between Europe and Asia.

174

REMAINDER OF EUROPE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. Till.

Region be-
yond the
Pillars of
Heracles.

Tartessus.

Erytheia.
Gadeii-a.
Celtae.
Cynetae.

Account of
the riyer
Ister or
Danube.

Heracles — or the rocks of Calpe and Abyla, upon
wliicli Gibraltar and Ceuta now stand — formed by
no means the most extreme western point of the
Europe of Plerodotus. Beyond lay the rich port of
Tartessus/ which was most probably situated on the
island of Isla Major, at the mouth of the Guadalqui-
Also the island Erytheia near Gadeira, where

Causes of
its equal
stream.

ver.

Geryon dwelt ;^ and lastly, the Celtae, and be-
yond them the Cynetae, who were the most westerly
people of Euro|)e. Amongst the Celtae, and near
the city of Pyrene,'' the river Ister took its rise.
This was the greatest of all rivers, and flowed
equally strong in summer and winter. It was
greater than the Nile, from the number of its tribut-
aries ; for though the Nile surpassed the main stream
of the Ister in quantity, yet it was enlarged by no
additional streams. The general equality of the
Ister waters in winter and summer is thus accounted
for by Herodotus. During the winter its stream,
he tells us, is very little swollen, because the coun-
try is very little moistened by rain, but entirely
covered with the snow. On the other hand, during
the summer, the vast quantities of snow dissolve on
all sides and flow into the river, whilst frequent and
violent rains fall into it ; and these additions com-
pensate for the increased mass of water which the
sun draws up to him during the summer season.
The Ister flowed through all Europe and entered
the borders of Scythia,* and at last discharged itself
into the Pontus through five arms,^ between Thrace
and Scytliia, having its mouth turned towards the
east.^ It thus fell into the Pontus near the Milesian
colony at Istria,'' and somewhere opposite to Sinope.^

» iv. 152.

2 iv. 8. Gadeira was probably the island now called I. de Leon, on
which stood the city bearing the same name of Gadeira or Gades, and
situated on or near the site of the modem Cadiz. Erytheia has been
identified with the smaller island of S. Sebastian, or Trocadero, between
the I. de Leon and the main-land.

3 ii. 33. * iv. 47—50. « iv. 47.

* iv. 99. We have already, in chap, vi., described the modern state of
the mouths of the Ister.
-> ii. 33. 8 ji. 34_

EEMAINDER OF EUROPE. 175

Here, as iBobrik properly remarks, we must not be Europe.
too exact about the word '' opposite ;" for Herodotus, chap. vm.
in another place, calls the Messenian Asina " oppo-
site" to the Laconian Cardamyle,^ and yet we surely
may presume that the true position of both places
must have been well known to him.^

Herodotus's description of the Ister is partly based ^^p^^^^^
upon conjecture. He had but little means of know- rodotus's
ing anything of its source, and readily adopted the JftSster,
notion of its rising near the city of Pyrene, by
which he doubtless referred to the neighbourhood of
the Pyrenees, in order to place the fountain of the
Ister somewhat over-against the spot where he con-
sidered that the Nile took its rise.^ His knowledge
of the Celtae and Cynetae seems to have been de- and account
rived from some Phoenician Peripius oi tne coasts tae and
of France and Spain.* The Celtae, or Grauls,' may ^'^*^^-
have crossed the Alps, and Celtic tribes might have
been found in the heart of Spain ; yet they had no
connexion with the civilized or commercial world,
nor did they join the Carthaginian armies, like the
Elisyci, the Ligyes, and the Iberi. It was probably
from the Phoenicians, who navigated the Atlantic
and Bay of Biscay on their way to the tin mines of
Britain, that Herodotus derived his knowledge of
their name and situation. The Cynetae must have
lived ill the extreme west, on the coasts of Portugal,
Gallicia, and Asturias; whilst the Celtae occupied
the whole northern coast eastward of the Cynetae.

1 viii. 73. 2 Geog. des Herod, § 58.

3 The Ister (or Danube) in reality originates in two streams, Brigen
and Pregen, which have their sources on the eastern dechvity of the
Black Forest in the grand duchy of Baden. These streams unite at
Danaueschingen, and some have endeavom-ed to connect their names
with that of Pyrene.

* See Arnold, Hist, of Home, vol. i. p. 491.

' The Celtae and Galatae are undoubtedly only different forms of the
same name. The first was the form with which the Greeks were earliest
acquainted : the second and more correct form, " Galatae," was intro-
duced by the great Gaulish migration of the fourth century before Christ.
Many subsequent writers however continued to use the old orthogi'aphy,
and in fact, with the exception of the Galatians of Asia Minor, the other
Gauls in all parts of the world are generally called by the Greeks accord-
ing to their old form of the name, not Galatae, but Celtae. See Arnold,
mst. of Rome, vol. i. p. 522.

176 REMAINDEE OF EUROPE.

EUROPE. Iberia and tlie Iberi ^ seem to have extended
CHAP. VIII. along tlie south-eastern coasts of Spain. The Ligyes
rpj^g ji3~ dwelt above Massalia,^ which was situated on the
ri; site of the modern Marseilles. Between these and

Eifs/ci. the Iberi we ought to place the Elisyci.^ These
three nations appear in the Carthaginian army
against the Sicilian Grelon.*
Italy, singu- Herodotus is more communicative respecting
of^R^e!'""^ Italy/ though he knew but little beyond the south-
ern portion, and, singular to say, makes not the
slightest mention of Rome. It is difficult to account
for this omission. We have already seen that he
joined the colonists who migrated to Thurium about
B. c. 444. And though Rome was at that time the
scene of continued internal struggles between the
patricians and plebeians, yet her arms were kept in
constant activity by the wars with Fidenae, and
with the Aequians and Veii.^
Northern Qf uorthem Italy, Herodotus mentions the Om-

piecibythe brici and the Tyrseni. From the Ombrici flow-
Tj^rsenT.'''"^ cd tlic rivors Carpis and Alpis,'' towards the Is-
ter.^ The Tyrseni were colonists from Lydia,
who embarked at Smyrna under the guidance of
Tyrsenus," and at last settled amongst the Ombri-
ci. Here they built many to^^ms,^" and carried on

1 i. 163. 2 V. 9,

3 Niebuhr places the Elisyci in the middle of Italy, but Herodotus
only mentions them in connexion with the Iberi and Ligyes, whilst
Hecataeus (Hecat. fragm. 20, ed. Klausen) mentions Narbo (the modern
Narbonne) as their chief town. Cf. Bobrik, § 59.

* vii. 165. 5 I 24.

^ It is doubtful whether the Roman name was generally known
amongst the Greeks prior to the expedition of Alexander, a century after
the period of our author. Cf. An-ian, Exped. de Alex. lib. vii. c. i.

'' These two rivers cannot be identified on the modern map. They
may refer to the Drave and the Save, but if so the Ombrici must
have extended beyond Lombardy and the Julian Alps, which seems
doubtful.

s iv. 49.

" Atys king of Lydia had two sons, Lydus and Tyrsenus. The former
remained in Asia Minor, and gave his name to Lydia. The latter
migrated to Italy and gave his name to Tyrsenia.

'" Herodotus throws a very doubtful light upon the origin of the Etrus-
can race. A review of the subject would be out of place here, but a
summary of the more important ]iy[)otheses that have been advanced,
and derivations that have been found, for this remarkable people is in-
cluded in the article on " Etruria," in Dr. Smith's Diet, of Geog.

EEMAINDEE OF EUROPE. 177

a considerable trade witli the Phocaeans, and were Europe.
dwelling liere in tlie time of Herodotus.^ ^^^^- ^'"i-

Many Grreek colonies are mentioned as occupying southern
the more southern coasts of Italy. There were the ^-^Jf i^"'^'^^'
towns of Rhegium,^ and Taras, afterwards called Greek coio-
Tarentum.^ Agylla, which joined the Carchedonians Rhegiuni.
and Tyrsenians in devastating the Phocaean terri- ^^y^;^
tory in Cyrnus. Subsequently the inhabitants of
Agylla inquired at Delphi how they should atone
for the deed, and were told to institute gymnastic
and equestrian contests, which they observed with
great magnificence down to the time of Herodotus.

In the country of Oenotria some Phocaeans from Hyeia in
Rhegium had colonized the town of Hyela by the ^^'^''^'■'^•
advice of a certain Poseidonian.* The town of Cro- Crotoa.
ton was the native place of Democides,^ the cele-
brated physician, through whom the Crotonian doc-
tors were considered to be the best in all Hellas,
and even to excel those of Gyrene.*' The Crotonians
were the only Hellenic peoj^le, westward of the
Thesprotians, who joined the allied fleet at Salamis,
and they only sent one ship. They were Achaeans
by extraction.

In Metapontium a statue of Apollo was erected in Metapon-
the market-place, and next to it was another of ^^"^
Aristeas, the author of the Arimaspea; and laurel
trees were planted around the two statues. The
Metapontines said that Aristeas himself appeared in
their country, and commanded them to erect an
altar to Apollo, and to place beside it a statue bear-
ing the name of Aristeas of Proconnesus ; for he said
that theirs was the only country of all Italy that had
been visited by Apollo, and that he himself had
then accompanied the god in the form of a raven.
After this communication Aristeas was said to have
vanished. The Metapontines sent to inquire at
Delphi what was meant by the apparition, but were
merely ordered to obey it, and accordingly they ex-
ecuted the orders of the poet.^

1 i. 94, 163. 2 i. 166. M. 24. * i. 167. ' iii. 125.

« iii. 131. ' viii.47. » iv. 15,

178

REMAINDEE OF EUROPE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. VIII.

Sybaris.

Sii-is.

lapygia.
Brundusi-

Hyria.

Epizcphyi'i-
an Locrians,

II. NOHTII-
EHN Eu-
ItOPE.

The town of Sybaris was in a very flourisliing
condition in the time of Cleisthenes of Sicyon, and
was the native place of Smindyrides, the most
voluptuous man that ever lived. ^ It was situated on
the river Crathis, Avhich derived its nameffom a stream
in Achaia which flowed near Aegae.^ In the time of
Herodotus the Sybarites were settled in Laos and
Scydrus,^ for their town had been destroyed by the
Crotonians. The Sybarites said that the Crotonians
were assisted by Dorieus, the Lacedaemonian ad-
venturer ; * and in proof of their assertion they point-
ed to the sacred precinct, and temple near the dried-
up course of the Crathis which was erected by
Dorieus, and dedicated by him to the Crastian
Minerva after he had assisted in taking the city.
On the other hand, the Crotonians said that no
foreigner assisted them excepting Callias the Elean
seer, and proved their statement by pointing to the
several pieces of public land which were given to
Callias in return for his assistance, and which were
in the possession of his descendants in the time of
Herodotus, and of which a great deal more would
have been given to Dorieus had he joined them
in the war.^

From the town of Siris, Damasus went as a suitor
to the court of Cleisthenes at Sicyon.^ It was to
this place that Themistocles threatened the S]3artan,
Eurybiades, he would sail with all the Athenian
fleet, if the other left him at Salamis.^

Besides the foregoing we have notices of la-
pygia ** with the joort of Brundusium;^ and of the
city Hyria, which was founded by some Cretans
who were shipwrecked on the coast. These Cre-
tans changed their name to Messapian lapygians^
and from this point founded other cities which
are not named.'" The Epizephyrian Locrians" are
also mentioned, and that is all.

II. Northern Europe, or the region north of the

■ vi. 127. ' i. 14.5. 3 vi. 21. <■ v. 44. ^ v. 45.

« vi. 127. ' viii. G2. « iii. 138. » iv, 99.

"> vii. 170. " vi. 23.

EEMAINDER OF EUROPE. 179

upper course of the Ister, was unknown to Herodotus. Europe.
According to the Thracians, [tlie parts beyond the ^^ap. vm.
Ister were so infested with bees, that no one could Region im-
penetrate them. This however appeared impossible ^^^^^^^g^^^
to Herodotus, as bees were known to be very im- or frost.
patient of frost. He was more inclined to believe
that those regions were uninhabitable through the
extremity of the cold,^ and therefore he described
them as an endless desert. Of one people, how- Tiie sigyn-
ever, beyond the river Herodotus was able to learn Medic co-
a little. These were the Sigynnes, and their ter- chSiSariv-
ritory extended nearly to the Eneti on the Adri- i»s-
atic. Their horses were shaggy all over, having
hair five digits long ; at the same time they were
small, flat-nosed, and unable to carry men, but
when harnessed to chariots were very fleet, and
therefore the Sigynnes were in the constant practice
of chariot-driving. The people wore the Medic
costume, and said that they were a colony of the
Modes, which Herodotus could not comprehend,
but, as he says, anything might happen in the
course of time.^ The Ligyes who lived above Mas-
salia called traders Sigynnes, whilst the Cyprians
gave the same name to spears.^ The Hyperboreans
in the far north, and the river Eridanus from whence
amber came, have already been noticed.^

We now reach the nations bordering on Scythia, Nations
namely, the Agathyrsi, Neuri, Androphagi, Me- on^scythfa.
lanchlaeni, Budini and Geloni, and the Sauromatae.

1. The Agathyrsi, from whose country the river \ Agathyr-
Maris (or Marosch) flowed into the Ister, ^ were a in'g Tran-
most luxurious people, and wore a profusion of gold. ^^^^^''''''■
They had a community of wives, in order that all
the people might regard each other as brethren, and
being all of one family, might not entertain hatred

1 V. 10.

^ Some have supposed that the Sigynnes were the forefathers of the
modern Zingani or gipsies, called by the Germans, Zigenner. The ac-
count of their horses answers to the description of the Swedish ponies,
which are still found wild in the woods of Gothland. Cooley, Hist, of
Maritime and Inland Discovery, vol. i. p. 29.

3 V. 9. * See pages 16, 22, 159. ^ iv. 49.

N 2

180

REMAINDER OF EUROPE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. Till,

2. Neuri,
occupying
Poland and
Lithuania,

3. Andro-
phagi, occu-
pying Smo-
lensk.

against each other. In other respects their customs
resembled those of the Thracians.^ Herodotus evi-
dently regarded them as being closely related to the
Sc}7thians, and according to a tradition which he
preserves, they seem to have been descended from
Agathjn-sus, the eldest son of Heracles and Echidna .^
We may place this people in modern Transylvania,
which is watered by the upper course of the Maris,
(or Marosch,) and not very distant from the Thra-
cians. Being separated from Scythia on the east
by the Carpathian mountains, they were enabled to
refuse the Scythians, who were retreating from be-
fore Darius, an entrance into their country.^ They
probably obtained their gold from the Carpa-
thian mountains, but we need not suppose that they
were at the trouble of working mines, as the metal
was most likely found in the sand washed down by
the rivers.

2. The Neuri observed Scythian customs. One
generation before the expedition of Darius their land
produced so many serpents, and so many more came
down fr-om the desert region above, that they were
compelled to leave their dwelling and settle amongst
the Budini, but appear to have subsequently re-
turned. The men appeared to Herodotus to be
magicians, for the Scythians and the Hellenic settlers
in Scythia both said, and even supported their
assertion by an oath, that once a year every Neu-
rian became a wolf for a few days, and then re-as-
sumed his former shape. Herodotus however re-
fused to believe it.* North of the Neuii was a desert.^
Their territory may be placed in the centre of Po-
land and Lithuania," bounding the Agathyrsi on
the north-east, and separated from them by the
Carpathian mountains.

3. The Andro2')liagi followed the most savage cus-
toms, and were without justice and without law.
They were nomades, and wore the same costume as

1 iv. 104. ^ iv. 7—10. 3 iv. 125. * iv. 10.5. » iv. 17.
•■' Lithuania comprises the modern Russian governments of Grodno,
Wihia, and Minsk.

EEMAINDER OF EUROPE. 181

the Scythians, hut they spoke a peculiar language, Europe.
and were the only people amongst these tribes who chap. vm.
were accustomed to eat human flesh. ^ They were
se23arated from Scythia by a desert, and beyond
them was another desert.^ Heeren fixes them as far
north as the Russian government of Smolensk ; and
though Herodotus was prevented by the cataracts
from being acquainted with the upper course' of the
Dnieper, yet this is no reason why he should not
refer to a people dwelling even beyond its sources.

4. The Melanchlaeni wore black garments and fol- 4. Meiancii-
lowed Scythian usages.^ Above them were lakes p^ngOiioff
and an uninhabited desert as far as Herodotus' s
knowledge extended.* They may be placed in the
government of Orloff, between the Dnieper and the

Don. The names of both the Androphagi and the
Melanchlaeni were evidently not the peculiar appel-
lations of the tribes to which they belonged, but
were derived fr^om their customs and dress — An-
drojDhagi, or '' men-eaters," and Melanchlaeni, or
" black-clothed."

5. The Sauromatae dwelt eastward of the Tanais 5. Sauro-
(or Don). Their territory commenced three days' cupjingthe
journey eastward from the Tanais and three days' the Don°^
journey northward fr-om the Maeotis,^ and occupied ^TTartof
the country northward for fifteen days' journey, Astmcan.
reckoning from the farthest recess of the Maeotis.

The country was completely destitute of trees.*' The
people were said to have been descended from the
offspring of Amazons and Scythian youths, of which
Herodotus relates an account evidently amplified
from some old tradition.^ The women in his time
still retained their ancient customs, such as hunting
on horseback either with or without their husbands,
and joining in the wars and wearing the same dress
as the men.^ The Sauromatae spoke the same lan-
guage as the Scythians, but always corruptly, because
the Amazons never learnt it correctly. According to
their matrimonial laws, no virgin was permitted to

1 iv. 106. 2 iv_ is_ 3 iv, 107. * iv. 20.

5 iv. 116. 6 iv, 21. ' iv. 110— 115. « iv. 116.

182 EEIVIAINDER OF EUROPE.

EUROPE, marry imtil she had killed an enemy, and conse-
CHAP. VIII. quently some lived munarried all tlieir days be-
cause tliey could not satisfy the law.^ It is clear
fi.'om our author that the Sauromatae occupied the
steppe which is now inhabited by the Cossacks of
the Don, and perhaps a part of Astracan besides ;
and they probably extended northward to the point
where the Don and the Volga approach the nearest
to each other.
6. Budini 6. The Budini dwelt above the Sauromatae, in a
oc^K^Sg'' country very thickly covered with all sorts of trees.^
saratoff. Tlicy wcro a great and numerous people, with clear
blue eyes and red hair.^ In their country was a square
wooden town called Grelonus, surrounded by a high
wooden wall, which was thirty stadia long on every
side. The houses and sanctuaries were also made of
wood ; and the town contained temples of the Helle-
nic gods, adorned after the Hellenic manner with
wooden images, altars, and shrines.^ The Geloni ce-
lebrated a festival to Dionysus with Dionysiac accom-
paniments every three years. Herodotus considered
them to have been originally Greeks, who having been
expelled from the Hellenic trading marts, had subse-
quently settled amongst the Budini ; and indeed their
language was partly Scythian and partly Hellenic.^,
On the other hand, the Budini spoke a different lan-
guage, and led altogether a different kind of life.
They were aborigines of the country, and nomades,
and were the only people in those regions who
were accustomed to eat lice ; whereas the Ge-
loni were tillers of the soil, fed upon bread, and
differed from the Budini both in form and complex-
ion. In spite however of these points of difference,

1 iv. 117. - iv. 21.

* Commentators hold difierent opinions upon this passage. Baehr
and others understand that the Budini painted their bodies a vivid blue
and red. Others, amongst whom are Mannert, Heeren, and Bobrik,
suppose that the blue eyes and red hair, characteristic of the north, are
referred to; and this latter opinion I have followed.

* This establishment was no doubt founded by the Hellenic colonists
on the Pontus as a staple for the fur trade. Cf. Heeren, Asiat. Nat. vol.
ii. p. 28.

s iv. 108.

caia-
oute.

EEMAINDEK OF EUKOPE, 183

the Budini were still called Geloni by the Greeks.' europe.
The country, as already said, was covered with trees, chap^vih.
and in the thickest wood* was a large and spacious
lake surrounded by moorland and reeds. Otters and
beavers were caught here, and other animals with
four-sided faces, ^ whose skins were sewn round the
borders of cloaks, and whose testes were useful in
curing diseases of the womb.^

The settlements of the Budini evidently began
where the territory of the Sauromatae ended, and
we may therefore place them in the government of
Saratoff, and they may have extended to the river
Don at Voronez. Herodotus calls them a great and
numerous people, and there is no doubt but that
their territory was very considerable.^

III. On entering Eastern Europe we find our- m- |ast-
selvesin the track of the caravan route, which proba- kope.
bly commenced at Olbia, and went over the Tanais ^^n k
into the country of the Budini on the banks of the
Volga ; and perhaps a preliminary sketch of the pro-

^ Ritter refers back their Hellenic customs, and their worship of Dio-
nysus, to their Asiatic originals ; and deriving their name from Buddha,
boldly brings them to the support of his theory respecting the great pri-
meval migi-ation from India and central Asia to the shores of the Maeo-
tis, and to northern Europe.

* Sea-dogs (phocae vitulinae) inhabit the lakes of Siberia, and Heeren
has no doubt but that these are the animals which Herodotus had in
view, as the surprising size of their heads justifies the expression he has
employed in defining them. There is however no more occasion for our
here making rtTpaydjvog to signify a quadrate than in the case of Scythia.
Some people wear peculiarly fashioned boots, which earn for them the
title of " square toes ; " in the same way possibly that the angular expres-
sion of these animals induced om* author to describe them as rerpayojvo-
TrpocrwTra.

3 iv. 109.

* Heeren remarks, that if we admit it to have been equal in extent to
the ten-itory of the Sauromatae, it will comprise the present governments
of Penza, Simbirsk, Kasan, and a part of Perm, and terminate in the
vicinity of the southern branch of the Ural mountains. These provinces
now abound in forests of oak, which are the magazines of Russian naval
architecture ; but the lake cannot be discovered, though, as he describes
it almost as a morass, it may be observed that the place where we should
expect to find it, is occupied by marshy grounds, which at certain periods
tm*n the land into a vast lake. (Heeren, Asiat. Nat. vol. ii. p. 12.) This
learned author however appears to be himself doubtful whether the
Budini extended so far north, and would rather place their northern con-
fines, as I have done, at 54 deg. north lat., so as to leave room for the
seven days' journey across the desert, and then for the country of the
Thyssagetae between the Budini and the Ural chain. See p. 185.

184

REMAINDER OF EUROPE.

Olbia the
emporium.

Ti-aclo in
corn.

Slaves.

EUROPE, bable character of tlie commerce, may throw addition-
CHAP. Yin. al interest around the geography of these regions.
Character of '^^^^ Grreck colonics on the Black Sea had, by their
the com- bold enterprise and commercial activity, opened a
line of commmiications with the distant interior, and
at length monopolized all the productions of the
north and east. The city of Olbia, situated at the
mouth of the Dnieper, (or Borysthenes,) near the site
of the modern Kherson, was the most considerable
settlement, and probably the emporium of trade. The
Scythians of the Ukrain, of whom Herodotus especial-
ly mentions the Alazones, cultivated corn not only
for food, but for the purposes of commerce,^ and this
necessary commodity would be in great demand at
Athens, whose territory was over-j^opulated for its
means of supply. Again, the countries on the north
and east of the Euxine were inexhaustible maga-
zines for the slave trade. The name of Scythian
became synonymous with the word slave, and
amongst the nations of Mount Caucasus prisoners of
war were invariably sold in the Greek markets.
Another lucrative branch of commerce was the trade
in furs. The use of fars was nearly general amongst
the Thracian tribes and the nations bordering on
the Euxine,^ and a considerable trade was likewis e
carried on amongst the people east of the Caspian,
and inhabitants of northern Asia. Furs have indeed
been considered in all times as articles of necessity
in the inclement regions of the north, and as articles
of luxury and ornament in the warmer climes of the
voluptuous south. Cloaks of fur were worn in Ba-
bylon, and furs are to be seen amongst the presents
of the Persian governors to the great king, as repre-
sented on the relief of Persepolis. The Budini, whom
we have already noticed, and the Thyssagetae and
Jyrcac, whom we have yet to mention, are all de-
scribed as nations of hunters, and from them, with-

Furs.

1 iv. 17.

^ The Thracians wore caps of fox-skin and boots of fur (iv. 17)- The
Scythians and Melanchlaeni used cloaks of the same material. Cf. Hee-
ren, Asia, vol. ii. p. 23.

EEMAINDEE OF EUROPE, 185

out doubt, the Greek merchants obtained this com- Europe.
modity. But the traffic in corn, slaves, or fars, would chap. ym.
never alone have induced the Greeks to take such long
and perilous journeys into the interior as are de-
scribed by our author. There was another article. Gold from
which in all ages has excited the cupidity of man- aid aiL
kind, and exercised the most potent rule. Gold was mouutains.
procured in great quantity and with little difficulty
from the Ural mountains and those of Altai ; and we
find many of the barbarous nations possessing this
metal in great abundance.

The OTcat caravan route will be best described by Route

& . . - , p /I 7 northward

exactly following m the order ot our author s narra- from the
tive, first recording his observation, that the Scy- ^^'^"^'•
thians who performed the journey carried on their
affau-s in seven different languages, and therefore
required the same number of interpreters.^

Further north beyond the Budini was first a de- Desert of ^
sert of seven days' journey in extent,^ which we may Joumey^^
presume extended through the governments of Sim- g^Sk^
birsk and Kasan as far as the southern confines of andKasan.
Viatka.

Beyond the desert the route turned somewhat ^°^':'^g *^'J;
towards the east, and entered the country of the east.
Thyssagetae, a numerous and distinct people who '^^y^^
lived by hunting.^ Four great rivers rose amongst Perm.
the Thyssagetae, and flowed into the lake Maeotis,
namely, the Lycus, Oarus, Tanais, and Syrgis.* ^
On the river Oarus Darius commenced building eight
large forts,^ each sixty stadia distant from the other,
but he left them half finished, and there the ruins

1 iy. 24. ^ iv. 21. ^ iy. 22. * iv. 123.

5 It is impossible, with the exception of the Tanais or Don, to identify
these rivers in modern geography. The Oarus was perhaps the Volga,
and perhaps one of the others was the Ural, but then both of these rivers
discharge themselves into the Caspian, and not into the Maeotis, which
Herodotus distinctly states, though he could not have been so well ac-
quainted with the coast and with the lower courses of the rivers as he was
with the upper courses. Mannert supposes the Lycus, Oarus, and Syrgis to
be respectively the Volga, Uzen, and Ural : Rennell supposes the Oarus
to be the Volga, and the Lycus and Syrgis to be the Medveditza and Kho-
per, which fall into the Don.

^ Dahlmann has pointed out the difficulty in believing that Darius
really advanced as far as the river Oarus, and whether we identify this river

getae
iiig

186

EEMAINDER OF EUROPE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. VIII.

Jyvcae on
the Ural
mountains.

Scj-thian
exiles occu-
pying To-
bolsk.

remained until the time of Herodotus.' The country
of the Thyssagetae must have been included in the
government of Perm.

Contiguous to the Thyssagetae, and in the same
region, which was very thickly wooded, dwelt the
Jyrcae, a nation who lived by hunting, and practised
it in the following manner. The huntsman climbed
a tree, and stood there in ambush, whilst his horse
and dog were ready beneath, the horse having been
trained to lie on its belly so that it might not be
seen above the ground. When the man saw any
game he shot an arrow, threw himself upon his horse,
and followed the game with his dog.^ Eastward of
the Jyrcae were some Scythians who had revolted
from the Royal Scythians, and settled here. The
whole country is described as level, and possessing
a deep soil ; but beyond the region becomes stony
and rugged.'' This '' stony and rugged " country of
the Jyrcae and Scythian colonists seems to have ex-
tended into the interior of the Ural mountains, and
perhaps comprehended part of the government of
Perm on the western side, and of Tobolsk on the
eastern. The whole territory has been always cele-
brated for those animals which furnish the most
valuable furs, and these are found in the greatest
numbers on the eastern slopes.*

After passing through a considerable extent of this
pf the Altai mountaiiious country, the caravan would reach the
mountains, ^rgippaei, wlio livcd at the foot of lofty mountains,^

with the Volga or the Uzen, it seems impossible for the Persian army in
sixty clays to have twice marched, and by the worst possible road, from
the mouths of the Ister to the province of Saratoff, a distance of certainly
not much less than a thousand English miles. The fortresses may have
been standing in the time of Herodotus, but it is a very great question
whether Darius built them. The Scythian accounts of this expedition,
which Herodotus probal)ly collected at Olbia, and upon which he based
his own naiTative, must have led him into considerable exaggeration upon
the subject. This however would only affect the history of the expedi-
tion, and not the geogi-aphy of the country. Cf. Dahlmann, Life of
Herod, chap. vii. sect. .5.

' iv. 124. 2 iy_ 22. 3 iv. 23.

■* Heeren, quoting fi-om Lchrberg, furnishes some useful and interest-
ing jiarticulars concerning the Jyrcae. Asiat. Nat. ii. p. 2S.

^ The caravan route now appears to have turned towards the south or
south-east along the Ural chain as far as the Kirghis steppe.

Argippaei,
at the foot

REMAINDER OF EUROPE. 187

and were all, both men and women, bald from their Europe.
birth, and had flat noses and large chins. They ^»^^- ^"^-
spoke a peculiar language, but wore the Scythian
costume. Their diet chiefly consisted of the fruit of
a tree named Ponticon, which was about the same
size as the fig tree. The fruit it produced was simi-
lar to beans, only with a stone inside. Wlien this
fruit was ripe the natives beat it through cloths,
upon which a thick black liquor was strained out,
called Aschy. This they sucked, or took mixed with
milk; and from the mass of fruit remaining after
this process they made a sort of cake, which formed
their principal food. They had very little cattle,
for their pastures were not good. Each man dwelt
under a tree, over which, in the winter-time, he
spread a white and thick covering of felt cloth.
This tribe was accounted sacred, and no one would
do them any injury, and they themselves possessed
no implements of war. They arbitrated in the dis-
putes of the neighboming nations, and whoever took
refage amongst them had nothing to fear from any
one.^

Herodotus is here so explicit that we have no dif- identmca-

. r, -n . -FT 1 ji • • 1 j_*i!_ tion ot the

ficulty m following Heeren and others m identity- Argippaei
ing the Argippaei with part of the Calmucks, a prin- cawL.
cipal branch of the Mongols. Their abodes must
have been in the western part of Great Mongolia,
probably in the northern part of the Khirgis steppe,
between the Ural and Altai mountains. The descrip-
tion— " lofty mountains," scarcely suits the Ural, but
we can hardly expect an author, when dealing in
loose hearsay information, to be very exact in par-
ticulars of this kind. Indeed, the expression, "at
the foot of lofty mountains," seems like a little poetic
feeling, or fancy painting, thrown in to assist the
reader in his conception of a sacred race with bald
heads, a venerable tribe of peace-makers, whose pri-
mitive homes beneath the trees could afford shelter
and safety to the darkest criminal. The fruit which
formed their diet was probably the birds' cherry, the

1 iv. 23.

188

REMAINDER OF EUROPE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. VIII.

Unknown
region
north of the
Argippaei,
occupied by
men with
goats' feet
and people
■who slept
for six
mouths at a
time.

Identifica-
tion of the

Altai.

Eastern
route con-
tinued.
The Isse-
dones.

Prunus Padus of Linnaeus, wliicli the Calmucks still
eat in almost tlie same manner that Herodotus de-
scribes. They dress the berries with milk, then
press them in a sieve, and afterwards form them into
a thick mass, which is called "moisun chat;" a
small piece of which, mixed with water, makes a
nutricious and palatable soup. The people still live
in tents, or moveable huts, called kybitkas, but make
them in a more artificial manner ; and, indeed, it
would almost appear that Herodotus had made some
mistake about the trees which supported the felt cover-
ing, as there are very few to be found in this region.

The country and nations as far as the Argippaei
were well known to Herodotus, and he acknowledged
that he found it easy to obtain his information, both
from the Scythians who went there and from the
Greeks on the Pontus.^ But of the region north of
the Argippaei no one, he says, can speak with cer-
tainty ; for lofty and impassable mountains (the Al-
tai) formed their boundary. The Argippaei, how-
ever, said that these mountains were inhabited by
men who had goats' feet, and that beyond them were
2oeople who slept for six months at a time ; but all
these stories our author rejected as incredible.^

The inaccessible mountains are evidently the Altai
chain which bounds southern Siberia. The tradi-
tion of men with goats' feet is one of those stories
which are often told of distant countries, and espe-
cially of Siberia;^ whilst in the other tradition, of
the men who slept for six months in the year, we
can perceive a glimmering of real truth, inasmuch
as we know that the polar regions continue for six
months without the light of the sun.*

But to return to the caravan route. Eastward
from the Argippaei dwelt the Issedones, who ob-
served the following customs.^ Wlien a man lost
his father all his relations brought small cattle, Idlled

' iv. 24. '^ iv. 2.5.

^ Proljahly the furs by which the Siberians secure their joints, and
especially their knees, a^^ainst the frost, may have procured for the moun-
taineers of the Ural the epithet " goat-footed."

* Cf. Hceren, Asiaf. Nat. vol. ii. p. 15. ' ' iv. 25.

REMAINDER OF EUROPE. 189

them, and cut up the flesh, together with the dead Europe.
body of the parent, and then mingled the whole to- chap, vm.
gether and had it served up for a dinner. The head
of the corpse, however, was stripped, cleaned, and
gilded ; and the relatives afterwards regarded it as a
most sacred object, and performed great sacrifices to
it every year; for the Issedones, like the Greeks,
celebrated the anniversary of their father's death.
The people generally were accounted to be just in
their dealings, and they gave to their women equal
power and authority with the men.' The Issedones Arimaspi.
said that above them were the jDCople with one eye,
called the Arimaspi, which account was repeated by
the Scythians, and from them adopted by the Greeks,
who called these one-eyed people by the Scythian
name of Arimaspi : arima being Scythian for " one,"
and spou for "eye." There also were the gold-
guarding grypes, or griffins.^ Herodotus here takes Ooid-
occasion to remark, that towards the northern part friffins?^
of Europe there was certainly a great quantity of
gold, but how it was procured he was unable to
state with certainty, though some people said that
the Arimaspi stole it from the griffins. Herodotus,
however, did not believe that there were men born
with one eye and yet in other respects resembling
the rest of mankind.^ The Hyperboreans in the far
north we have already noticed.* ^

1 iv. 26. 2 iv. 27. 8 iii. 116. * See p. 159.

^ Heeren places the Issedones in that part of Mongolia now occupied
by the Sungarees, and extends them to the ancient Serica. On the other
hand, the recent discoveries of gold in the Ural mountains have induced
some commentators to follow the opinion of Reichard, that the seat of the
Issedones must be refen-ed to the Ural and not to the Altai. A disquisi-
tion on this subject would, however, lead to no satisfactory result. Doubt-
less a vast quantity of gold must have been obtained both from the Ural
and the Altai, for how otherwise are we to account for the prodigious quan-
tities of this precious metal which have existed in central Asia both in
ancient and modern times. The thrones of princes, the furniture of pa-
laces, the vessels for the royal table, have all been fashioned of massive
gold, fi-om the days of Solomon downwards ; and we might almost sup-
pose that monarchs must have bought up the gold in every part of their
dominions to dazzle the eyes of their subjects, did we not find satraps
and inferior officers, together with private individuals, possessed of im-
mense wealth (Herod, i. 192 ; vii. 27). We shall presently find that a
pastoral nation of eastern Asia (the Massagetae) made its utensils chiefly
of gold. (i. 215. Cf, also Heeren, Asiat. Nat. vol. i. pp. 26 — 31.)

190 REMAINDEE OF EUROPE.

EUROPE. Such then is the information we can gather con-
cHAP. Tin. cerning this ancient route. We now approach the
Nations on Continental frontier towards Asia. Here were set-
SwSds*'^^ tied two nations, namely, the people of Mount Cau-
Asia. casus north of the river Phasis, or Rhion, and the

Massagetae on the northern bank of the river Araxes,
or Jaxartes, and over-against the Issedones. A de-
scription of these barbarous tribes will conclude the
geograj^hy of the Europe of Herodotus.
General dc- Tlic Caucasus is au cxtensivc mountain range
Mount ^° running fr^om the north-eastern shore of the Black
Caucasus. Q^^ ^^ x|^g westcm coast of the Caspian. It is 750
miles in length, and therefore about as long as the
Alps, and its breadth varies from Q5 to 150 miles.
The central portion forms some of the highest moun-
tains in the world. The huge rocky mass of Elburz
rises to an elevation of 16,800 feet, whilst that of
Kasbek, which is nearer the Caspian, is about 14,400
feet in height. The snow line varies from 10,000
to 11,000 feet above the sea. One-third of Elburz
is therefore always covered with ice and snow, and a
considerable portion of the other summits and ridges.
Glaciers are common, as in the Alps, and there is a
strong resemblance between the scenery of both
mountain systems, excepting that the Caucasus does
not possess the great mountain lakes which distin-
guish the Alpine range. Two roads traverse the
Caucasian chain, namely, the Pass of Derbend and
the Pass of Dariel, which were both known to Hero-
dotus.^
Hcrodotus's Mouut Caucasus was the largest and loftiest of
the°mmin- all tlic mountaius known to Herodotus. It was in-
pS)k '^ habited by numerous tribes, who mostly lived on the
produce of wild fr-uit trees. Other trees grew there
whose leaves, if ruljbed and mixed with water, served
for dyeing. The natives used the dye for painting
figures on their garments; and the colours could never
be washed out, but were as fast as if they had been
woven in with the woollen material. Their man-
ners must have been Ijrutalized in the extreme, for

' Sec the account of the Scythian pursuit of the Cimmerians, p. 155.

REMAINDER OF EUROPE. 191

we are told that they were as insensible as cattle to Europe.
all laws of decency or morality.^ chap. vnf.

Eastward of the Caspian Sea was the vast plain or The Mas-
steppe at present inhabited by the Kirghis Tartars, ^agetae.
The greatest portion of this steppe belonged to the
Massagetae,^ a tall and valiant people, who lived to-
wards the east beyond the river Araxes, (or Jaxartes
— ^the modern Sirr-deria,) and over-against the Isse-
dones.^ Under this name of Massagetae our author
seems to include all the nomade tribes of Independ-
ent Tartary eastward of the lake Aral, and extend-
ing into Mongolia southward of the Issedones.

By some persons the Araxes was said to be larger, Herodotus*s
but by others to be smaller, than the Ister. Persons ofthe^riTCr
said also that it surrounded many islands, of which ^^^^^^s.
some were nearly as large as Lesbos,* and that these
islands were inhabited by men, who during the sum-
mer fed upon roots which they dug out of the
ground, and at the same time gathered the ripe fruits
from the trees, and stored them up for winter con-
sumption. One species of this tree fruit possessed
wonderful qualities, which were thus exhibited. The
people used to assemble together in parties, and
kindle a fire, and sit in a circle round it ; they then
threw the fruit into the flames, and became as in-
toxicated with the fumes as the Grreeks were with
wine, and finally begun to dance and sing.^ The
river rose from forty springs in the mountains of
Matiene, all of which lost themselves in fens and
swamps, except one that flowed on to the Caspian,
in the direction of the rising sun.*^ These swamps
were said to be inhabited by men who lived upon
raw fish and clothed themselves in the skins of sea-
calves.^

1 i. 203. 2 i. 204. 3 1. 201.

* The Araxes v/as probably considered larger than the Ister, because
it contained such large islands ; but smaller, because Herodotus appa-
rently thought that it did not flow through so great an extent of countiy
as the Ister. See Niebuhr, Diss, on the Geoff, of Herod, p. 26. I would
suggest that it was the western Araxes, or the Aras, which was thought
to be smaller than the Ister, and the eastern and northern Araxes, or the
Jaxartes'and Volga, which were supposed to be larger than the Ister.

5 i. 202. 6 iv. 40. ' i. 202.

192

REMAINDER OF EUROPE.

EUROPE.

CHAP. VIII.

Explana-
tion of the
apparent
contradic-
tions.

Manners
and customs

The term Araxes was probably a general appella-
tion, meaning simply any "rapid" stream. The de-
scription seems in most cases to apply to the river
now called Aras, which rises in the momitains of Ar-
menia, and flows in an easterly direction into the Cas-
pian. Two other rivers are also evidently noticed
by Herodotus mider the same name of Araxes. The
Massagetae, are described as living with the Araxes
on their southern frontier, and Cyrus had to cross
this river before he could invade their country.^ At
the same time this people had another river called
Araxes, to the north of their territory, for when they
drove out the Scythians who had anciently occupied
this region, the latter had to cross the Araxes, on
their way round the northern shores of the Caspian,
before they could reach Cimmeria, afterwards Scy-
thia Proper.^ The southern Araxes is therefore ge-
nerally identified with the Jaxartes, or modern Sirr-
deria, whilst the northern Araxes may be suj)posed
to be the Volga. The confasion which always at-
tends the use of any general name, unless some dis-
tinguishing mark is adopted, has not only perplexed
many modern commentators, but also probably led
to some confusion on the part of Herodotus himself,
for his description, already given at length, although
generally applying to the Aras, would yet seem, fr-om
its being included in the geography of the coun-
tries east of the Caspian, to apply to the river Jax-
artes. E-ennell thinks that Herodotus has confounded
the Jaxartes with the Oxus, as he applies the parti-
culars to one river, which refer to botli.^ We are, how-
ever, more disposed to think that the confusion lay
between the Aras and Jaxartes, especially as Heeren
has pointed out that Herodotus distinctly refers to
the river Oxus under the name of the river Aces."*

The Massagetae were said by some to be a Scy-

' i. 201,205. - iv. 11.

■■^ Renncll, Geoc/. of Jlcrod. vol. i. p. 270. The Jaxartes certainly did
not discharge itself into (he Caspian, but into the Aral, whilst, at that pe-
riod, the Oxus did perhaps cmi)ty itself into the Caspian, as described by
Herodotus. This part of the descrijjtion may however refer to the Aras.

^ iii. 117. Cf. ITccren, Ania, vol. ii. p. 20.

EEMAINDER OF EUROPE. 193

thian nation, ^ wliom they resembled in their dress and europe.
manner of living. They had both cavalry and in- chap. vm.
fantry, archers and spear-men ; and also carried ^TthTn^
battle-axes. They employed gold and brass, of which sagetae.
they had great abundance, for everything they used.
Spears, arrow-heads, and battle-axes, they made of
brass, but they decorated their helmets, belts, and
shoulder-pieces with gold. The breastplates on
their horses were also made of brass, but the bridle
bit and cheek pieces were ornamented with gold.
Silver and iron they never used, for neither of these
metals could be found in their country.^ Each man
married a wife, but they all totally disregarded the
marriage tie. The custom which the Greeks incor-
rectly attributed to the Scythians, was practised by
this nation without shame. Whenever a Massagetan
desired the company of a female, he merely hung up
his quiver in front of a chariot or waggon, to prevent
any interruption. The people fixed no prescribed
limit to the extent of human life, but when a man
grew to be very old, his kindred assembled and sa-
crificed him, together with cattle of various kinds ;
and having hashed the whole together, they boiled
the flesh and feasted upon it.^ This death they uni-
versally accounted to be the happiest, and those who
died of disease were buried in the earth, lamenting
in their dying hour that they could not live long
enough to be sacrificed. The Massagetae sowed no
grain, but entirely subsisted upon their own herds of
cattle, and upon the fish which the river Araxes
abundantly supplied. Their principal, if not their
sole, drink was milk. Of gods they worshipped only
the Sun, to whom they sacrificed horses, thinking it
right to offer the swiftest of creatures to Helios, the
swiftest of gods.*

The Massagetae and Issedones both belonged to
the great Mongol race, and were undoubtedly Scy-

1 i. 201. 2 i. 215.

3 This custom seems to have been nearly the same as that followed by
their neighbom's the Issedones, only it is diflFerently described. The
Issedones ate their fathers, who however died a natm-al death ; but the
Massagetae killed and then feasted upon all their old men. * i. 216.

194 REMAINDER OF EUROPE.

EUROPE, tliians. The princi^oal points of similarity between
CHAP. viii. the Massagetae and the Scythians, so called by
Herodotus, were their di-ess and living ; ' their abode
in waggons or carriages ; ^ their fighting on horse-
back ; ^ and their sacrifices of horses to their

deities.^

1 i. 215. 2 i, 216. Comp. iv. 46, 121.

3 i. 215. Comp. iv. 46, 136. * i. 216. Comp. iv. 61.

ASIA.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL SURVEY.

Two gi-eat mountain ranges of Asia : the Altai, and the Taurus or plateau
of Iran. — Rivers of Asia. — Separation of the continent into three divisions.
— Extent of the Asia of Herodotus. — Discoveries of Scylax of Caryanda.
— Herodotus's own map of Asia.^ — The fom- central nations.- — The two
western Actae : Asia Minor ; Syria and Libya. — Ancient division of Asia
between the Lydians, Babylonians, and Medes. — Establishment of the
Persian empire of Cyrus. — Division into twenty satrapies by Darius Hys-
taspes. — Extent of Herodotus's travels in Asia. — His general acquaint-
ance with Phoenicia and Asia Minor._ — Visit to Babylon. — Travels along
the great highway between Sardis and Susa. — Visit to Ecbatana very
doubtful. — Examination of the list of twenty satrapies. — Reasons for in-
cluding distant tribes in the same satrapy. — General want of geographi-
cal order arising from Herodotus's ignorance of the more distant satrapies.
— Catalogue of nations in the army and navy of Xerxes.— Value of a
comparison of the catalogue with the list of satrapies. — Catalogue to be
further digested in a future chapter. — Topography of the languages of
Asia. — Languages of Asia Minor from the Aegean to the Halys. — Se-
mitic dialects between the Halys and Tigris, — Persian dialects between
the Tigris and Indus. — Conclusion.

The continent of Asia, according to the division asia.
of modern geographers, comprises an area five times '="^^'- ^•
greater than that of Europe, and nearly a fourth Two great
larger than that of Africa. It is divided into three mountain
parts by two vast mountain ranges, which stretch Asia.
across it from west to east, and form by their ramifi-
cations to the north and south the skeleton of the
whole country. The first of these ranges is called The Altai.
the Altai chain, and begins at the sources of the
rivers Sirr-deria and Irtish,^ and traverses southern

^ Heeren thought that the Altai was connected with the Ural {Asia,
vol. i. p. 4) ; but an immense mass of low country separates the western
extremity of the former from the southern ranges of the latter.

o 2

196 GENERAL SURVEY.

ASIA. Siberia to the shores of the Pacific, becoming wider
CHAP. 1. and sending out more considerable ramifications
The Taurus ^^ it approachcs the east. The other range, under
or plateau the general name of Taurus, was far better known
to the ancients.^ It commences in Asia Minor,
and stretches through Armenia and the countries
south and south-east of the Caspian, until it ap-
proaches the sources of the Indus. Here it divides
into two princii^al branches, one running towards
the north-east, and the other towards the south-
east, thus enclosing the great sandy desert of Gobi or
Shamo.^ The northern branch formed part of the
ancient Imaus, and now goes by the name of Belur-
tagh,^ or mountains of Kashgar, and at length unites
itself with the Altai chain on the borders of Siberia.
The southern branch was comprehended by the an-
cients, as far as known, under the general name of
Paropamisus, and was probably also considered as a
part of the Imaus ; at present it is known as the
Hindoo Koosh and Himalayas. It protects Hindos-
tan on the north, and, passing through Thibet, loses
itself in central China near the shores of the Pacific.
Rivers of Tlic couTscs of thcsc great chains also determine
those of the rivers. From the southern slopes of
Taurus the Euphrates, Tigris, and Indus flow to-
wards the Persian and Indian Oceans ; whilst from
the northern declivities the Jihoon or Oxus, and the

1 Strabo says that the Taui-us chain extended through the whole con-
tinent from west to east, with a breadth in many places of 3000 stadia.
This seems to indicate the great plateau of Iran, which we shall have
occasion to describe in the third chapter of the present division ; the
courses of the Tam-us Proper and the Anti-Taurus will be distinguished
in the chapter on Asia Minor.

2 Gobi in the Mongolic language signifies "a desert:" Shamo is the
Chinese for " sand-sea."

3 The name of Eolor or Belur Tagh is a corruption of the Turkish
words Beloot Tagh, or " cloudy mountain." The writer in the Penny
Cyclopaedia (art. liolor) says that it is called by the natives Tartash
Tagh ; but Elphinstone, in his account of Cabul, says that he knows of
no general name applied by the people of Turkestan to this range. The
name of Belur-Tagh rests on the authority of Marco Polo, and the Ara-
bian geographer Nasir Eddin, but an examination of the passages in
which it is refeiTed to, renders it evident that the name is imperfectly
applied, and it is uncertain whether it can be applied to any mountain
range at all.

Asia,

GENERAL SURVEY. 197

Sirr-deria or Jaxartes, take a westerly direction asia.
through Independent Tartary into the Sea of Aral, chap. i.
though it is certain that the Oxus, and perhaps the
Jaxartes also, formerly reached the Caspian.

The two mountain chains separate Asia into three Separation
grand divisions. First, the northernmost portion, tinentinto
under the name of Siberia, extends from the back of ^^^^^ ^^''''
the Altai ridge to the Arctic Ocean, and was un-
known to the ancients, except by the dim light of tra-
ditionary legend.^ Secondly, the vast and elevated
tract of level steppes enclosed between the Altai
and Tauric ranges, and partly filled up by those
mountains, extends from the Caspian to the Pacific
under the names of Mongolia and Tartary.^ Third-
ly, the great southern division, comprehending the
plateau of Iran, and including Asia Minor, extends
in the form of a vast continent as far south as the
tropic of Cancer, and then terminates in the three
great peninsulas of Arabia, Hindostan, and Malacca.

The Asia of Herodotus comprised but little more Extent of
than a fourth of the entire continent. The northern Herodotus.
half was assigned to Europe, and the eastern half of
the remainder was totally unknown. On the north,
as"]we have already seen,^ it was bounded by the
river Phasis, the Caspian Sea, and the eastern Araxes
or Jaxartes ; * and on the east by the great desert of
Gobi, and the sandy waste stretching from Moultan
to Guzerat.^ On the south it was washed by the
Erythraean. The western boundary, which separ-
ated it from Libya, or rather from the modern con-

1 The story of the men who lived on the Altai mountains and had
goats' feet, (Herod, iv. 25,) and the tradition of the people who slept for
six months in the year, (ibid.) evidently refer to this Siberian region.
The former story possibly referred to the warm boots of fm- and extra-
ordinary activity of the mountaineers of the Altai ; whilst in the latter
we can perceive a ray of truth, inasmuch as we know that the polar re-
gions continue for six months, more or less, without having the light of
the sun.

2 The confusion between the names of Tartars and Mongols has been
already pointed out by Heeren. They are distinct races. The principal
tenitory of the former lies to the north, and that of the latter to the
south, of the Sirr-deria or Jaxartes, which thus forms the proper limit of
the two races.

3 See pp. 16, 17. * iv. 45. « iv. 40.

198 GENERAL SUEVEY.

ASIA, tinent of Africa/ requires some little explanation.
CHAP. I. ]3y r^ reference to the geography of Arabia in tlie
present volume, it will be seen that Herodotus con-
sidered the Arabian Gulf to be little more than a
river, being probably misled by supposing that the
entire gulf was nowhere broader than at the western
arm, or Gulf of Suez*, which was the only part with
which he was apparently acquainted. Judging,
therefore, fr'om the physical character of the soil, he
considered Arabia to include a territory on both
sides of the Arabian Gulf, and to embrace the moun-
tainous ridge which extends from north to south
along the eastern side of the valley of the Nile.
The western boundary of Asia would thus be formed
by the Aegyptian frontier, near Suez, and the Ara-
bian fi'ontier, along the eastern edge of the Nile
valley.
Discoveries The discovories in eastern Asia were the results
caiyLda." of an exploring expedition sent out by Darius Hys-
taspes. This monarch was desirous of knowing the
sj^ot where the river Indus, the second river that
j)roduces crocodiles,^ discharges itself into the sea.
He accordingly fitted out some ships, and sent some
scientific men, on whom he could rely for bringing
back a true report. Scylax of Caryanda appears, fi'om
the especial mention of his name, to have been at the
head of the expedition. Scylax and his companions
embarked at the city of Caspatyrus (or Cabul) and
the country of Pactyica. They sailed from the river
eastwards until they reached the open sea, at which
point they changed their course, and proceeded in

^ It w\\\ be seen in the introduction to the geography of Africa, that
the name Libya appears to have two significations : 1. Libya Proper^
or the nations of northern Africa westward of Aegypt. 2. The Libyan
continent, which embraced all that was known of the continent of Afiica,
and included Aegypt and Aethiopia as well as Libya Proper.

2 The Nile was considered to be the first river that contained croco-
diles. It is related that when Alexander the Great saw crocodiles in the
Indus, he conceived a notion that this river was connected with the
Nile, and that its navigation downwards would conduct into Aegypt.
This anecdote however is hardly credible, though frequently repeated.
The general arrangement of his plans both in Aegypt and India bespeak
a share of geographical infoi-mation totally irreconcilable with such a
blunder. Cooley, Hist, nf Maritime and Inland Discovery, vol. i. p. 59.

GENERAL SURVEY. 199

a westerly direction, and at length, in the thirtieth asia.
month of their voyage, reached the port from chap. i.
whence the Aegyptian Neco despatched the Phoe-
nicians to circumnavigate Libya. ^ This city of
Caspatyrus, Heeren considers to be the same as
Cabul, which is situated on a western tributary of
the Indus, ^ and this tributary does really flow in an
easterly course for some distance, as Herodotus de-
scribes. We need scarcely add that our author was
mistaken in supposing that the Indus itself flowed
from west to east. Perhaps Scylax reported that
the entire river took this course for the sake of en-
hancing the merit of his voyage by increasing its
supposed distance. How the ships were carried to
Caspatyrus Plerodotus does not inform us.

Our author's notions of Asia generally may be Herodotus's
best derived from the following survey. Between IliL™^^
the Erythraean on the south and the Pontus Euxinus
of the north, he describes four great nations, which The four
he evidently regarded as the kernel of Asia, viz. the tfons.
Colchians on the north, then the Saspeires, next the
Modes, and lastly the Persians.^ From this central
territory two actae* projected toward the west. One

1 iv. 44.

2 Heeren, Asia, vol. i. p. 189. This author also considers that the
name of Pactyica is preserved in that of Pokua, though he thinks that
the limits of the ancient territory may have extended northwards as far
as Budakshan, and southwards as far as Pakholy. The writer of the
article on Caspat}Tus in Dr. Smith's Diet, of Gr. and Rom. Geog. follows
the opinion that this city refers to Cashmere ; because the Sanscrit name
of Kashmir is Kasyapa pur, which, condensed to Kaspapur, gives us the
form Ka(nrcnrvpoQ, which is found in Hecataeus ; and in this case Scylax
would have started on the Jelum tributary, and probably at the lake
Ooller. If, however, we were to adopt this view we should find no por-
tion of the river flowing from west to east; but perhaps the most fatal ob-
jection to this theory would lie in the extreme improbability that Scylax
should not have stopped at the Indus, but have crossed over the main
stream, and still held on his journey over-land to the Jelum.

3 iv. 37.

4 An acte is a piece of land jutting out a considerable distance into
the sea, and having only one side joining the main-land. A chersonesus
is a peninsula properly so called. This is Niebuhr's definition, but
Dahlmann makes some exceptions to it. The peninsula of Athos, which
is joined to the continent only by a narrow strip of land, is commonly
called Acte (Thucyd. iv. 109). But Herodotus calls that mountain Cher-
sonesus (vii. 22). The Thracian peninsula on the Hellespont (in what
respect different fi-om the other ?) is commonly called Chersonesus.

The two
■vvestein

200 GENERAL SURVEY.

ASIA, acte, tlie modern Asia Minor, began on the north at
CKAP. 1. the river Phasis, and stretched along the Euxine
and Hellespont to the Trojan Sigaemn ; on the south
it commenced at the Mariandrian Gulf, now called
Asia Minor, the Gulf of Scandcroon, near Phoenicia, and stretch-
' ed into the sea, as far as the Triopian promontory.
This tract was occupied by thirty different nations.^
It was almost divided from the great central terri-
tory by the river Halys, (or Kizil-Irmak,) which
flowed nearly across the isthmus or neck of the acte,
between the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, oppo-
site Cyprus, and the Pontus Euxinus. Herodotus
calculates the isthmus to be five days' journey across
if taken by a well-girt man,^ or about 1000 stadia,
reckoning the day's journey at 200 stadia.^
Syria and Tho othor acto rcaclied to the Erythraean Sea,
^'^^*" and comprised Persia, Syria, and Arabia, and then,
according to one statement, it terminated at the
Arabian Gulf; * but if it is extended farther it may
be made to include Libya also.^ From Persia as far
as Phoenicia this acte was wide and open, but at
Phoenicia it began to stretch out into the Medi-
terranean.*' ^

The following little ground plan will perhaps
serve to illustrate the idea of Herodotus.

1 iv. 38. 2 i. 72.

3 iv. 101. Herodotus (ii. 34) repeats this assertion, and supposes a
straight line to be drawn from Cilicia to Sinope, which is by no means
the naiTOwest part. But the distance across Asia Minor from sea to sea
is at least 300 English miles : a very long distance to be walked over in
five days. Ukert, Niebuhr, and others accordingly represent the Hero-,
dotean Asia Minor as very narrow at the part where it joins the main-
land. Niebuhr, however, cannot but be surprised that Herodotus should
make so great an error respecting a country which lay so near his native
city ; and he thinks it not improbable that, in order to unite the Euxine
with the commercial stations on the Cilician shore, a post of couriers, like
that of the Tartars in Turkey, was established between these sea-ports
and Sinope ; and that the regular conveyance of letters in five days was
mistaken for the speed of a common foot messenger. Dahlmann thinks
it probable that the journey was once achieved in five days by a trained,
pedestrian as an experiment. It is more satisfactory to take the plain
statement of Herodotus, and treat it as an error,

^ iv. 39. s iv^ 41, 6 iv, 39,

'' The Arabian Gulf was but very little regarded by Herodotus, and in
his present description he is inchned to overlook it altogether.

GENEEAL SURVEY.

201

Asia Minor,

Colchians.

occupied by

30 nations.

Saspeires.
Medes.

■/■ .

Persians.

Libya.

Aegypt.

Arabia .

Previous to the conquests of Cyrus three great asia.
powers existed in Asia, who had compelled the re- _chap. i.
maining nations to pay tribute; namely, the Ly- Ancient di-
dians of Asia Minor, and the Babylonians and Medes y^?°^,°^

, ^ <J -,.-,. Asia, be-

01 central Asia. The Lydians, under their king tween the
Croesus, had extended their conquests over all Asia BabyTo-'
Minor westward of the river Halys, (or Kisil-Irniak,) Medes ^"'^
with the exception of the mountainous territory occu-
pied by the Lycians and Cilicians. The Babylonians
and Medes, at a much earlier period, had swept away
the ancient Assyrian empire over central Asia, and
divided it between themselves. The river Tigris be-
came the boundary line between these two powers.
The dominion of the Babylonians extended west-
ward from the Tigris to the Mediterranean ; whilst
that of the Medes extended eastward from the Ti-
gris to the river Indus.^ This general territorial

1 The Babylonians included the Chaldaeans : Herodotus calls them
Assyrians, but the old Assyrian empire of Nineveh had been long before
destroyed by a powerful combination of the Babylonians and Medes.

'^ The river Tigris certainly bounded Media on the west, for it was for-
tified by a hne of strong places, of which Mespila and Larissa are men-
tioned by name. (Xenoph. Anah. Op. pp. 308, 309.) At the same time

202 GENEEAL SURVEY.

ASIA, arrangement was upset by the revolutions wliicli at-
CHAP. I. tended tlie establishment of the Persian empire.
Establish- The mountainous territory of Persis had originally
meut of the belono^ed to the old Assyiian empire, but had sub-
pireofCy- scquentlv bocu subjugated by the Modes. It was in-
"^^' habited by nomad hordes, who, with the celebrated

Cyrus at their head, rushed from their native fast-
nesses, and overwhelmed all the nations of southern
Asia, except the Arabians. The empires of the
Modes, the Babylonians, and the Lydians were in
their turn swept away. Cyrus was succeeded by
Cambyses, and Aegypt was subjected to this new
dominion. Darius Hystaspis at length ascended the
throne. His rule extended over all the Asiatic
nations known to Herodotus, with the exception of
the Colchians in the north, the Indians in the east,
Division in- and tho Arabians in the south. This immense em-
satrapS^by pire he divided into twenty satrapies for the purposes
Sspir^^^ of taxation; nineteen being included in Asia, and one
in the continent of Libya. ^ A list of the satrapies,
with the amount of tribute paid by each, has been
]3reserved by Herodotus,^ and was probably taken
from the Persian archives ; but before we examine
this valuable document, it will be necessary to in-
quire into our author's own actual knowledge of the
countries therein noticed.

Fii'st of all, v/e may state boldly that the regions

it is plain from the lamentations of contemporary Jewish writers, (Isaiah
xiii. 17, 18,) and from a passage in Herodotus, (i. 103,) that the Medes
sometimes advanced their conquering armies beyond the Tigris, and even
as far westward as the Halys ; and it does not seem probable that the
Chaldee Bbaylonians ever extended their conquests so far to the north
in this quarter. The eastern boundary of Media is uncertain; ap-
parently it was of different extent at diflerent epochs. From the books
of the Zcndavesta it would appear that the Medes anciently possessed
Aria and Bactiiana, as far as the Oxus and the Indus. Cf. Heeren, Asia,
vol. i.

^ In the book of Esther (i. 1) it is stated that there were 127 provinces
of the Persian empire, which extended from India to the Libyan Aethio-
pia. There is no occasion however for su2:)posing that these provinces
were satrapies, but tribes or nations, of which several were included in
each sati-apy ; and by a comparison with chap. viii. verse 9, this would
appear to be the case.

2 iii. 90—93.

GENERAL SUEVEY. 203

beyond the cities of Susa and Ecbatana' were cer- asia.
tainly unknown to Herodotus. Westward of these chap, i,
limits he was more or less acquainted with the Extent of
country by ocular observation. He resided some serodotus's
tnne at the city oi Tyre m riioemcia/ and was not Asia.
only well informed respecting the western coast of quSntanct
Asia Minor, which he so minutely describes,^ but n'icS^ancr
had apparently penetrated the interior. Lydia and Asia Minor.
its city of Sardis were undoubtedly known to him.*
He saw also the Euphrates and Tigris, and visited ^J^^*^J^
Babylon in its reduced splendour.^ That he reached Travelled
Susa seems certain, for he mentions the so-called gi°eathi|h-
Indian ants preserved in the royal palace,^ and ^^l^'^^^_
evidently saw the curious well at Ardericca, which disandsusa
was only 210 stadia/ or about 26 English miles,
distant from the city. Probably he travelled along
the royal high-road which led from Ephesus by Sar-
dis to Susa, for he was well acquainted with all its
stations, and describes the distance as being exactly
ninety days' journey.^

Whether he got as far as Ecbatana is doubtful, visit to ec-
Dahlmann seems to think that he must have visited doublfui."^
this city, or he would not have so minutely de-
scribed the fortifications, or have said that the outer-
most wall was as large in circumference as the city
of Athens.^ It must however be confessed that the
tone of the narrative, and especially the vagueness
of the description of the site and dimensions of the
city, seem all to imply that Herodotus derived his
information from others, and not from a personal
survey. One thing seems positive, that he did not
travel beyond these two cities ; otherwise he would
have spoken of the Persian Gulf and river Araxes in
a different manner, and especially would have done
greater justice to the actual extent and size of Asia.

^ Herodotus calls this city Agbatana. Its site has been identified by
Col, Rawlinson with the niins of Takhti-Soleiman in northern Media, or
Atropatene. This subject however will be further discussed in a future
chapter.

2 ii. 44, 104. -^ i. 142—149. * iii. 5. ^ j, 178— 193.

« iii. 102. ^ vi. 119. « v. 52—54.

^ i. 98. Comp. Dahlmann, Life of Ilerod. chap. iv. sect. 5,

204

GENERAL SUEVEY.

ASIA.

CHAP. I.

Examina-
tion of the
list of
twenty sa-
trapies.

Reasons for
including
distant
tribes in
tlie same
satrapy.

This then is all we can learn of our author's per-
sonal knowledge of Persian Asia ; it now remains
for us to ascertain how far these results will illustrate
or explain the list of satrapies.

In the document preserved by Herodotus we see
an attempt made, apparently for the first time, to
provide for the regular collection of tribute through-
out the Persian empire. In the reign of Cyrus in-
discriminate plunder probably supjjlied the place of
systematic taxation, and even at a later period taxes
were arbitrarily imposed under the name of offer-
ings or presents, which were not the less oppressive
fi.'om being indefinite. Darius Hystaspes was the
first to institute a regular system, and to divide the
empire at large into provinces or satrapies, but his
arrangement is not a geographical division of dis-
tricts, but merely a rude classification of the differ-
ent subject nations. Herodotus even tells us that
remote tribes were occasionally included under the
same satrapy,^ and this in some instances is most
certainly the case, though it is next to impossible to
divine the reasons for it.^ Great difficulty however
must have been experienced in mapping out cor-
rectly large masses of territory, which in many
cases could have been only half explored, and we
may wonder that Herodotus did not notice more
serious errors.^ Particular attention was also most
likely paid in the classification to the easiest mode
of collecting the tribute ; and the arrangement may
therefore to some extent have depended upon the
situation of defiles through mountains, or roads
along valleys or the banks of rivers. This seems
the more likely, as it is certain that several of the
mountain tribes often made themselves independent,
and were enabled to defy or avoid the collectors of
tribute, and therefore the getting at them would be

^ iii. 89. ^ Heeren, Asia, vol. i.

^ We need not for a moment suppose that Herodotus was himself able
from his own geographical knowledge to detect the en'ors in the classifi-
cation of the tribes into satrapies, hut it is most probable that he was
made acquainted with them by the officers who had the care of the Per-
sian archives.

tant satra-
pies.

GENERAL SURVEY. 205

considered of more importance than geographical asia.
exactness. A more minute and correct knowledge "^"^p. i.
of central Asia will probably explain many a dis-
crepancy.

Another difficulty in the list is the order of the General

T , • •' T . T • n • 1 wantofffeo-

several satrapies, which is even less m accord- graphical
ance with actual geography than the satrapical ar- °ng ftom*'
rangement of tribes. Many unsuccessful attempts f ^'^rancrof
have been made to explain this difficulty : it can thembrecii:
however only be solved by a consideration of our
author's actual knowledge of the country. In this
case there is no reason for supposing that Herodotus
copied his list exactly from one original document,
but we may believe that he compiled and abridged
it from a variety of authorities. Accordingly those
countries with which he was acquainted he placed
in tolerable geographical order, beginning at the
western coast of Asia Minor ; but those of which
he was ignorant he put down indiscriminately.^
The relative situations of Asia Minor, Syria, and
Aegypthe knew perfectly well, and accordingly we
find the first six satrapies, which embraced those
countries, given in exact order. His journey to
Susa however, and even his notions respecting the
four great nations of central Asia, could but little
assist him in forming any definite notions of the re-
lative bearings of the other satrapies. He considered
the city of Susa to lie to the south of Babylon, and
therefore the 8th, 9th, and 10th satrapies come in

^ Herodotus catalogues the twenty satrapies in the foUowdng order.
1. lonians, Asiatic Magnesians, Aeolians, Carians, Lycians, Milyans,
and Pamphylians. 2. Mysians, Lydians, Lasonians, Cabalians, and
Hygennians. 3. Asiatic Hellespontines, Phrygians, Asiatic Thracians,
Paphlagonians, Mariandynians, and Syri-Cappadocians. 4. Cilicians.
5. Phoenicia, Palestine, and Cyprus. 6. Aegypt and Libya. 7- Satta-
gydae, Gandarians, Dadicae, and Aparytae. 8. Susa and the rest of
the Cissians. 9. Babylon and the rest of Assyria. 10. Ecbatana and
the rest of Media, and Paricanians and Orthocorybantes. 11. Caspi-
ans, Pausicae, Pantimathians, and Dareitae. 12. Bactrians as far as the
Aeglae. 13. Pactyica and Armenians, and neighbouring people as far
as the Euxine. 14. Sagartians, Sarangae, Thamanaeans, Utians, Myci-
ans, and islands of the Erythraean. 15. Sacae and Caspians. 16. Par-
thians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, and Arians. 17- Paricanians and Asiatic
Aethiopians. 18. Matienians, Saspeires, and Alarodians. 19. Moschi-
ans, Tibarenians, Macrones, Mosynoecians, and Marsians. 20. Indians.

206 GENERAL SURVEY.

ASIA, sometliing like order ; though why he should place
CHAP. I. ii^e nations wearing the same armoiu* as the Bac-
trians in the seventh satrapy, and the Saspeires in
the eighteenth, instead of the satrapy immediately
after the Medes, defies all attempts at explanation.
As to the others, they seem to have been put down
just as they came, with the exception of the Indians,
who being regarded as the farthest nation towards
the east, are accordingly included in the twentieth
satrapy. In the following chapters we shall classify
the satrapies of Persian Asia under three separate
heads, viz. 1. Lower Asia, or Asia Minor, including
Sat. i. — iv. 2. Upper Asia as far as was personally
known to Herodotus, including Sat. v., ix., andviii.
3. Unexplored Asia, including Sat. vii., x. — xx., or
regions north and east of the second division.

For convenience of reference we append the fol-
lowing table, with the diagram on the accompan3ring
page, of the nineteen satrapies of Persian Asia in
geographical order, but numbered according to He-
rodotus's OAvn arrangement; and for the sake of
clearness we have embodied many of the results of
the following chapters, so far as they give geogra-
phical precision to the localities of the satrapies.

I. ASIA MINOR.

1. Western and south-western Asia Minor, or
Aeolis, Ionia, Doris, Caria, Lycia, and Pamphylia.

2. Lydian Asia Minor, or Lydia and Mysia.

3. Northern Asia Minor, or Hellespont, Phrygia,
Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Ca^opadocia.

4. South-eastern Asia Minor, or Cilicia.

II. UPPER ASIA.

5. Syria Proper, or Phoenicia, Palestine, and
Cyprus.

9. Assyria, including Babylon.
8. Cissia [and Persis].

III. UNEXPLORED ASIA.

19. Euxinc districts, answering to Trebisonde,

208 GENEEAL SURVEY.

ASIA, and comprising the Mosclii, Tibareni, Macrones,
CHAP. I. Mosynoeci, and Mares.

13. Armenia and Pactyica, answering to Erzromn.
and Km'distan.

18. Matieni, on the moiuitains of Kurdistan;
Saspeires in the valley of the Aras ; and Alarodii.

10. Media, including the Paricanii and Ortho-
corybantii.

1 1 . South-Caspian districts, comprising the Caspii,
Pausicae, Pantimathi, and Dareitae.

16. Parthia, Chorasmia, Sogdia, and Aria.

15. East-Caspian districts, comprising the Sacae
and Caspii.

12. Bactria, including the Aeglae.

7. Grandara, or eastern Afghanistan, comprising
the Sattagydae, Gandarii, Dadicae, and Aparytae.

14. Carmania or Kerman, comprising the Sa-
gartii, Sarangae, Thamanaei, Utii, Myci, and Ery-
thraean Isles.

17. Asiatic Aethiopia, or Gredrosia, including the
Paricanii.

20. Northern India, or the Punjab.

Catalogue The gcograpliy of the twenty satrapies will re-
^a the army ccivc still furtlicr illustration from another valuable
xe'i "es^ ^^ docmn.ent preserved by Herodotus. This is no less
than a catalogue of all the nations who served in the
army and navy of Xerxes, with a description of their
various dresses and arms, and the names of their
leaders. Our author himself tells us, that when
Xerxes reviewed his army he passed through the
ranks in his chariot, and inspected the several bat-
talions in person ; and that especially he made
a variety of inquiries of each separate nation, and
all the answers he received were written down by
his secretaries. In a similar manner also he re-
viewed the different ships in his fleet, asking ques-
tions and having the replies committed to writing.^
Now, unless all historical probability bo a delusion,
Herodotus was enabled to obtain a sight of these

1 vii. 100.

GENERAL SURVEY. 209

writings, and from tliem lie drew up his account of asia.
the numbers and equipment of the Persian forces, chap. i.
Heeren, who first made this suggestion, seems also
to think that the catalogue in Herodotus is an actual
copy of the Persian muster-roll ; but this seems
impossible, for it includes none of the Orientalisms
or vivid colouring which would inevitably have
found their way into a translation from a Persian
original, and in fact merely consists of a plain and
straightforward statement of the equipments of each
nation, to which Herodotus himself has added an
account of the traditionary origin of each people as
far as he knew it.

A comparison of these two documents is exceed- Vaiue of
ingly interesting, and enables us to give life and parson of
colouring to our author's picture of Persian Asia. wuTwith
The nations march before us in every variety of the list of
costume, which in most cases is strikingly illustrative ^^ ^^^^^ '
of their different modes of life and geographical posi-
tions. We shall therefore now endeavour to classify
the satrapies under the three great divisions of the
country already laid down, and incorporate under
each head such information as can be derived from
the catalogue of nations ; but in a subsequent chap- catalogue
ter, when we have completed our geography of Asia, therciigest-
we shall return to this catalogue, and endeavour to future^chap-
arrange it in such order as may be considered best t^r.
adapted for the requirements of the student.^ Such
a digest before the reader is familiarized with the
geography of the several races would only confuse ;
when, however, the satrapies are fairly mapped out
before his view, it will throw a renewed light upon
the entire history and geography of the almost un-
known nations of ancient Asia.

In concluding the present chapter, we would take a Topography
brief survey of the topography, as it may be termed, guages of
of the different languages of the Asia of antiquity, ^*''''
in which we shall be greatly assisted by the re-
searches of the learned Heeren.^ First of all we

1 See chap. vi.

2 Cf. Heeren, (Asiat. Res. vol. i.,) to whom I must refer the student
as my authority for the following statements.

210 GENEEAL SURVEY.

ASIA, may remark, that small mountainous or maritime
CHAP. I. districts frequently embraced several languages, be-
cause the former were occupied by numerous inde-
pendent tribes, and the latter by foreign settlers of
various origin. On the other hand, throughout the
vast plains of central Asia extensive regions might
be traversed where a single language was spoken,
with only occasional variations in its dialects. We
may also notice that the same mountain chains, or
mighty rivers, which formed the boundaries of differ-
ent kingdoms, became also the boundaries of differ-
ent languages. One speech prevailed from the
Aegean to the Halys ; another fr^om the Halys to
the Tigris ; and again, another from the Tigris to
the Indus and the Oxus.
Languages In the interior of Asia Minor, as far as the Halys,
Minor^from tlic prevailing speech seems to have been the an-
toth^Haiy"^ cient Plirygian, which was probably a branch of
the Armenian. In the Greek colonies which lined
the western coast the Grreek language was habitually
spoken, but the original speech of the country
was apparently the Carian and its dialects, the
Lydians, Mysians, and Carians all speaking dialects
of the same general language. The ncrthern half
of the peninsula was occupied by colonies from
Tlirace, who settled in Bithynia and spoke their na-
tive tongue ; their territory extending as far as the
river Parthenius, (or Chati-su,) which separated
them fi^om the Paphlagonians, who spoke a language
of their 0T\m, if indeed it were not a dialect of the
Phrygian. In the southern half a still greater
variet}^ of languages appears to have prevailed, but
with respect to these we possess no accurate in-
formation.
Semitic dia- Eastward of the Halys commenced the empire of
twccnthe a mighty language, which was spoken as far to the
i?^us ""'"^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ Tigris, and from the heights of Caucasus
to the most southern coasts of Arabia. This was
the Semitic. Its dialects were, the Cappadocian, on
the right bank of the Halys ; the Syrian, between
the Mediterranean and the Euphrates ; the Assyrian,
on the farther side of the Tigris in Kurdistan, or the

GENERAL SURVEY. 211

ancient Adiabene ; ' the Chaldaean, in Babylonia ; asia.
the Hebrew and Samaritan, in Palestine ; the Phoe- chap. i.
nician, in the ports and colonies of Phoenicia ; and "
lastly, the Arabic, which extended not only oyer
the whole of the Arabian peninsula, but also over the
steppes of Mesopotamia, which in all ages have
been traversed by wandering hordes of Arabs.
Thus we cannot doubt but that at some period an-
terior to recorded history, " one mighty race pos-
sessed these vast plains, varying in character ac-
cording to the nature of the country they inhabited ;
in the deserts of Arabia pursuing a nomade life ; in
Syria applying themselves to agriculture and taking
up settled abodes ; in Babylonia erecting the most
magnificent cities of ancient times ; and in Phoe-
nicia opening the earliest ports, and constructing
fleets, which secured to them the conunerce of the
known world."

Lastly, between the Tigris and the Indus were Persian dia-
spoken the Persian dialects, which differed from the tweL the
Semitic not only in their vocabulary and phrase- Jlf^l ^^^
ology, but also in their elements and construction.
Of these we may mention the Zend, or language of
ancient Media, in which the books of Zoroaster were
originally composed ; the Pehlvi, spoken in the
southern districts bordering on Assjrria and Baby-
lonia ; and the Parsi, or ancient Persian, which ap-
pears to have swallowed up the others.

Here then we finish our general survey of Asia, conclusion.
and now proceed to develope in detail the geogra-
phy of its several divisions, devoting the next three
chapters to an examination of Persian Asia, and
then concluding the description of the continent by
an account of those nations who were independent
of the Persian rule.

^ This must not be confounded with the Assyria of Herodotus, who
apphes the name of Assyria to Babylonia. Herodotus included Assyria
Proper, or Kurdistan, in the satrapies of Armenia and Matiene. See
chaps, iii. and iv.

p 2

CHAPTER II.

ASIA MINOE.

ASIA. Physical geography of the peninsula. — Different political divisions. —

CHAP. II. Natiu'al separation into an eastern and western division by the river

Halys. — Divided into four satrapies by Darius Hystaspis. — Difficulty

in dividing the towns. — L Aeolis, Ionia, Doris, Caria, Lycia, and
Pamphylia. — Aeolians, their eleven cities on the continent, and seven
on the islands. — lonians, their twelve cities. — United in the Panionian
confederacy. — Mixture of the lonians with other races. — Worship of
the Heliconian Poseidon in the Panionium. — Miscellaneous notices.
— Asiatic Magnetes. — Dorians, their five cities of the Triopian con-
federacy. — Worship of Apollo at Triopium. — Exclusion of Halicar-
nassus. — Carians, originally expelled from the islands by the lonians
and Dorians. — Their inventions. — Believed themselves to be autoch-
thones. — United with the Lydians and Mysians in the worship of
the Carian Zeus. — Topography of the interior. — Labranda, Termera,
Cnidus, Pedasus. — Caunus, its inhabitants really autochthones. — Topo-
graphy of the coast. — Priene, Myus, Miletus, Limene'ion, Assesus, Sanc-
tuaiy of the Branchidae, river Maeander, Caryanda, Halicarnassus,
Cnidus, the Isthmus, Catydna the Carian town, and Calydna the Dorian
town. — Lycians, sprung from Crete. — Anciently named Termilae. — Their
customs. — Heroic resistance to the Persians. — Oracle at Patara. — Phase-
lis. — Lycian costume. — Milyans.^ — Pamphylians. — 2. Mysia and Lydia.
— Mysians, also named Olympieni.- — Extent of the Mysia of Herodotus.
— Topography of Mysia. — River Caicus, Mount Canae, Atarneus, Ma-
lene. Carina, Adramyttium, Thebes, Antandrus, Lamponium, Cape
Lectos, river Scamander, Cape Segeium. — lUum, inhabited by the Aeo-
lians and Gergithae, Rhoetium, Ophryneium, Dardanus, Abydos, Per-
cote, Lampsacus, Paesus, Parium, Placia, Scylace, Dascyleium, Cius,
islands of Cyzicus and Proconnesus. — Lydians, their ancient empire. —
Sardis, the capital. — Rivers Hyllus and Hermus. — Gold-dust brought
from Mount Tmolus by the river Pactolus. — Tumulus of Alyattes. —
Roads from Caria and Lydia to Phrygia. — Beautiful plane tree on the
Lydian road. — Depraved manners of the Lydians. — Invented the art of
coining money, retail dealing, and games of dice, knuckle bones, and
ball. — Topography of the coast. — Phocaea, its maritime enterprise and
heroic resistance to Cyrus. — Magnesia, Smyrna, Clazomenae, Erythrae,
Teos, Leljedos, Colophon, Ephesus, Coressus, Mycale. — Sculptures of
Sesostris found in Ionia. — Identification of the monument between Sar-
dis and Smyrna by modern travellers. — Its Aegyptian origin doubted. —
Lasonians, Caljalians, and Hygennians. — 3. Hellespont, Phrygia,
Bitiiynia, PAPliLAfJONiA, and Cap]'Adocia. — Hcllespontines. — Phry-
gians, more ancient than the Acgyptians. — Called Bryges when dwelling
in Macedonia. — Topography of Phrygia. — Tract occupied by the Paeo-
nians.— Gordium, Cclaenae, sources of the Maeander and Catarrhactes

ASIA MINOE. 213

river Marsyas, white columns. — Course of Xerxes from Celaenae to
Lydia. — Anana, salt lake, Colossae, river Lycus, Cydrara, boundary
pillar between Phrygia and Lydia, Conium, Alabanda. — Thracians '

from the Strymon called Bithynians.— Mariandynians. — Paphlagonians.
—Syrians or Cappadocians.— River Halys.— Extent and limits of the
Cappadocia of Herodotus.— Canal of Thales. — Pteria. — Critalla.— 4.
CiLiciA.— Cilicians, anciently named Hypachaeans. — Extent and limits
of the Cihcia of Herodotus.

The great peninsula of Asia Minor is bounded on asia.
the north by the Euxine, west by the Aegean, and ^^ap. n.
south by the Mediterranean, and we may extend its physical
eastern frontier to Armenia and the river Euphrates. ^1°!^^^^.
The interior is a high plateau, bounded on the south insula.
by the chain of Mount Taurus,, and on the north by
ranges of hills which, under the name of Anti-
Taurus, extend along the southern shores of the
Euxine ; and thus two mountain walls connect the
plateau with that of Armenia. On its western side
the plateau descends gradually to the shores of the
Archipelago, forming several long and narrow val-
leys, watered by the Maeander, Caicus, Scamander,
Hyllus, and Hermus, and tliese are the most beauti-
ful and fertile portions of the peninsula. The western
coast is as jagged and irregular as the opposite shore
of Grreece, and bold projecting promontories run out
in the same manner far into the sea, and re-appear
in nmnerous islands of more or less importance. On
the other hand, the northern and southern coasts are
characterized by few indentations, but present irre-
gular outlines formed by huge semicircular sweeps.
The western coasts were studded with Greek colo-
nies, and included the territory of the luxurious
Lydians; whilst the central highlands were occu-
pied by a number of distinct nations, who, as con-
trasted with the Greeks, may be regarded as abori-
gines of the country.

Few subjects in ancient geography are more per- Different
plexing than the divisions of Asia Minor at different divisions.
periods. Under the Persians it was separated first
into four satrapies, and subsequently into ten. The
later Greeks however divided it into fourteen pro-
vinces. And as this arrangement has been generally

ASIA MINOR.

ASIA.

CHAP. II.

followed by geographers, it will be necessary to use
it for the illustration of the division into four satra-
pies made by Darius Hj^staspes. The names and
relative positions of the fom-teen pro^dnces will be
best learnt from the following diagram.^

R. Halys.

Paplilagoiiia. .

Bithynia.

^ (

^ ^"^"^^Pontus.

Mysia.

Galatia.

^ ______ -""""^^

• "^

Cappadocia,

Caria.

I Pisidia.

\ I Lycaonia.

Lycia.

' Pamphylia.

) ( Cilicia.

Natural se-
paration in-
to an eastern
and western
division by
the river
Halys.

Divided in-
to four sa-
trapies by
Darius Hys-
taspes.

Asia Minor as thus described may be separated
into an eastern and western division by the river
HalySj (or Kizil Irmak,^) which we have already
seen was supposed by Herodotus to flow through
nearly the entire breadth of the peninsula.^ Prior
to the Persian conquest, the eastern division was
included in the empire of the Modes, whilst the
western division, as far as the shore of the Aegean,
formed the Lydian empire of Croesus. The Lycians
in the south however still remained unsubdued, toge-
ther with the independent kingdom of Cilicia.*

This entire country was divided by Darius Hys-
taspcs into four satrapies, and is said by Herodotus
to have been occupied by thirty different nations.''

^ This diagram has been taken, with some shght alteration, from that
of D'Anville.

2 The Greek name of 'AXwc is derived from the salt country through
which the river passes. Strabo says that its waters are of a salt and
bitter taste. The Turkish name is Kizil, (Red,) such being the colour of
the soil throughout much of its course. See Col. Chcsney's Survey of the
Euphrates and Tigris, to which I shall have frequent occasion to refer
in developing the geography of Persian Asia.

3 See page 200. * i. 28, 74. » iv. 38.

ASIA MINOE.

215

The first satrapy embraced tlie slips of territory
along the west and southern coasts, which were colo-
nized by the AeoHans, lonians, and Dorians, and "
also included the later provinces of Caria, Lycia,
and part of Pisidia and Pamphylia. The second
embraced all the territory afterwards known as the
provinces of Lydia and Mysia, with the exception
of the maritime district on the west, occupied by the
Aeolians and lonians of the first satrapy, and that
on the north held by the Hellespontines of the third.
The third satrapy included the coast territory of
these Hellespontines, and extended eastward to Ar-
menia, thus embracing the northern provinces of
Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus, and the central
ones of Phrygia and Gralatia, and that part of Cap-
j)adocia which was northward of the Halys. The
fourth satrapy included Cilicia, and that part of
Pisidia and Pamphylia left out of the first satrapy,
and extended eastward to the Euphrates. The ex-
tent of the Cappadocia and Cilicia of Herodotus,
in comparison with the later provinces bearing the
same names, will be pointed out in the separate geo-
graphy of the satrapies. The following diagram
will perhaps explain the satrapical division of
Darius.

R. Halys.

ASIA.

CHAP. II.

Hellespontines.

Mysia.
(2)

Lydia.

Bithynia.

Phrygia.

(1)

Caria.

Lycia.

But though we have thus pointed out the probable
frontiers of each satrapy of Asia Minor, yet in the

216 ASIA MINOE.

ASIA, first tliree another difficulty presents itself in the
CHAP. II. topography. Herodotus distinctly catalogues the
^.^ 1^. eleven cities of Aeolia, the twelve cities belonging to
ciividing"the the Panioniau confederacy of lonia, and the ir^enta-
polis belonging to the Triopian confederacy of Do-
ris, yet he mentions several other towns without
stating in which satrapy they are to be included,
and we do not know whether to call them Lydian
or Ionian, Mysian or Aeolian. It is however ne-
cessary, for the sake of a clear comprehension of the
satrapical arrangement, to draw a sharp line of di-
vision between each satrapy, and this can be done
as far as the races are concerned, but not if all the
towns are to be taken into consideration. We shall
therefore describe the three satrapies according to
the several races mentioned in the catalogue of He-
rodotus, but shall include the entire topography of
these districts in the geography of Mysia, Lydia,
and Caria, without reference to the satrapy to which
we might fancy the towns would strictly belong.
We shall thus be able to give due prominence, first,
to the accounts of the several races, and secondly, to
the topography of western Asia Minor.
I. aeolis, I. Aeolis, Ionia, Doels, Caeia, Lycia, and Pam-
do'ms, phylia were included in the first satrapy, which thus
Lycia' and composcd the lonians, the Asiatic Magnesians, the
pamphy- Aeolians, Carians, Lycians, Milyans, and Pamphyli-
ans : ^ the Dorians also evidently belonged to it, as
they are not mentioned anywhere else. The sa-
trapy paid a yearly tribute of 400 talents.^ We
shall describe the nations in geographical order as
follows ; viz. Aeolians, lonians, Magnesians, Do-
rians, Carians, Lycians, Milyans, and Pamphylians.
Acoiian-s, Thc Aeolians Originally possessed twelve cities
cities on the on thc contincut, but Smyrna having been taken by
an?icven ^^^^ lonians, tlicrc only remained eleven, viz. Cyme,
on the (also called Phriconis,) Larissae, Neon-teichos, Tem-
isiands. ^^^^ Cilia, Notium, Aegiroessa,^ Pitane, Aegaeae,

' iii. 90. 2 Ibid.

3 This Aeolian town of Acgiroessa is not mentioned anywhere else ;
but a small town named Aegeirousa is named by Strabo as being situated

ASIA MINOE. 217

Myrina, and Gryneia. The country was more fer- asia.
tile than the Ionian territory, but not equal to it in chap. u.
climate.^ The Aeolians also possessed some settle- ~
ments on Mount Ida, but these were altogether dis-
tinct. Also some cities on the islands, viz. five in
Lesbos, where there were originally six, but the
sixth, named Arisba, was enslaved by the Methym-
naeans, although the latter were of kindred blood ;
another city in Tenedos, and another in what were
called the Hecatonnesi, or " hundred islands." ^ The
Aeolians furnished 60 ships to Xerxes, and were equip-
ped in the Hellenic costume. According to the Hel-
lenic traditions they were of Pelasgian origin.^

The loNiANS possessed twelve cities, which were lomans,
built under the fairest sky and in the finest climate cities.
of all the known world. Their language included
four varieties of dialect, and Herodotus names the
twelve cities according to these points of difference,
beginning from the south. One dialect was spoken
in the cities of Miletus, Myus, and Priene, which
were situated on the coast of Caria ; a second in the
towns of Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus, Teos, Clazo-
menae, and Phocaea, on the coast of Lydia ; ^ a third
in the island town of Chios and the continental one
of Erythrae ; and a fourth in the island town of Sa-
mos only.^ When Cyrus was preparing to subvert
the Lydian empire, he sent heralds to persuade the
lonians to revolt from the Lydian rule.^ Miletus,
however, was the only city which accepted the in-
vitation and made an alliance with Cyrus, being, as
Herodotus says, well aware of the weakness of the
Ionian race, which at that time was the least power-
ful of all the Hellenic nations,'' and possessed no city

in Megaris. Some, therefore, have conceived that Elaea was meant, for
Herodotus leaves that out, whilst Strabo and Steph. Byz. mention it.
Schweighauser wished to write Arginoessa, one of the Arginusae islands,
but Herodotus says, and the passage does not escape Schweighauser,
that that town was a continental one. See Baehr's note to i. 149, quoted
by Bobrik.

1 i. 149. 2 I 151. 3 vii. 95.

* A description of these towns will be found in the geography of Lydia
and Caria.

5 i. 142. « i. 76. ^ i. 143.

218

ASIA MINOR.

ASIA.

CHAP. II.

United in
the Panio-
niau con-
federacy.

Mixture of
the lonians
with other
races.

of note excepting Athens. After the downfal of
Croesus, all the lonians tendered their submission
to Cyrus, but tliis was now rejected, and accordingly
they surrounded their cities with walls and prepared
for the desolating war which followed.^

The inhabitants of the twelve cities were the only
members of the Ionian race who gloried in the name ;
for all the others, not excepting the Athenians, shun-
ned the title, and refused to be called lonians. They
founded their great common sanctuary, called the
Panionium, and after the secession of Miletus, re-
ceived Smyrna in her place, for they appear to have
been very exact in always having twelve cities in
the Panionian confederacy. Herodotus thinks that
their reason for this was, because in ancient times,
when they lived in that part of the Peloponnesian
territory afterwards called Achaia, they occupied
exactly twelve towns or districts, being the same as
those which were held by the Achaeans at a later
period.^ No other town but Smyrna was therefore
ever admitted into the Panionium ; and in the same
way the Dorians of the Pentapolis, previously called
Hexapolis, refused to admit any of the neighbouring
Dorians into the Triopian confederacy.^

The inhabitants of the twelve Ionian cities were,
however, by no means of purer blood than the other
lonians. A great many from other tribes were
mingled with them, such as the Abantes from Eu-
boea, the Minyae from Orchomenus, the Cadmeians,
the Dryopes, the Phocians, the Molossians, the Pe-
lasgians of Arcadia, the Dorians from Epidaurus,
and many others. Even those who set out from the
Prytaneium of Athens, and who considered them-
selves to be the most noble of all the lonians, car-
ried no wives with them to Asia, but seized a num-
ber of the native Carian women, after first killing
their husbands and fathers ; and from this massacre
the women took an oath never to eat with their hus-
bands, and handed down the same custom to their

i. 141.

2 i. 143. See also page 44,

•^ i. 144.

ASIA MINOK. 219

daughters.^ The real lonians, properly so called, asia.
were tliose who derived their origin from Athens, chap. h.
and celebrated the Apaturian festival.^

The sanctuary of Panionium was a sacred spot at worship
the northern extremity of Mycale, and consecrated nian Posei-
by the lonians in common to the Heliconian Posei- PaniraSm.
don ; ^ and here the lonians assembled from the
twelve cities and celebrated the Panionian festival.
Mycale itself is a tongue of land stretching west-
ward towards Samos/

The lonians were always reproached by the Scy- Misceiiane-

• -w t OUS UOtlCGS

thians for not having loosened the Ister bridge and
cut off the retreat of Darius at the close of his Scy-
thian expedition ; indeed, the Scythians regarded
them as either the most base and cowardly of free-men,
or else as the meanest and most faithM of slaves/
The Ionian females wore a costume evidently bor-
rowed from that of the native Carians ; for in ancient
times all the women of Hellas wore the Dorian cos-
tume.*' It is curious that the crocodiles, which in
Aegypt were called champsae, should have been
named crocodiles by the lonians, because they ap-
peared to resemble a species of lizard of that name
which was to be found under the hedges of Ionia.''
The lonians furnished 100 ships to Xerxes ; and
were equipped in the Hellenic fashion. Whilst they
inhabited that part of the Peloponnesus named
Achaia, they were called Pelasgian Aegialees, or
Pelasgian "coast-men," but subsequently lonians,
from Ion the son of Xuthus.®

The Asiatic Magnetes are only named by Hero- ^^^'^^'g^gg
dotus in his catalogue of satrapies, and we find no
farther mention of them. They appear to have
formed part of the ancient inhabitants of the moun-
tainous territory of Magnesia in Thessaly, between
Ossa and Pelion, from whence they migrated to

1 i. 146. 2 i, 147^

3 So called from Helice in Achaia. The lonians had originally built
there a temple of Poseidon, and at their migi'ation had carried his wor-
ship with them and built the sanctuary here referred to.

* i. 148. s iv_ 142. 6 V. ,s7_ 7 ii. 69. ^ vi"i. 94.

220

ASIA MINOR.

ASIA.

CHAP. II.

Dorians,
tlieir five
cities of the
Triopian
confederacy

"Worsliip of
Apollo at
Triopium.

Exclusion
of Halicar-
nassus.

Carians
originally
expelled
fr<jm the
islands by
the lonians
and Do-
rians.

western Lydia, and founded two cities^ each bearing
the name of Magnesia.

The Dorians possessed a confederacy which
originally included six cities, and was therefore
called Hexapolis, but in Herodotus's time it only
embraced five cities, and was therefore named Pen-
tapolis. This confederacy was connected with the
worship of Apollo in the sanctuary at Triopium, in
the same way that the Ionian confederacy was con-
nected with the worship of Poseidon at the Panio-
nium. The Dorians woidd not admit any of tlieir
neighbours into this temple, and excluded such of
their own community as violated the sacred laws.
In the games in honour of the Triopian Apollo brazen
tripods were formerly given to the victors, not how-
ever to be carried away, but to be dedicated in the
temple. Agasicles, a native of Halicarnassus, having
obtained the victory, disregarded this custom, and
carried away the tripod to hang up in his own house ;
and for this offence the city of Halicarnassus was ex-
cluded from participation in the Triopian worship,
and only five cities (the Pentapolis) remained, viz.
Lindus, lalyssus, Cameirus, Cos, and Cnidus.^^ These
Dorians famished 30 ships to Xerxes and wore Hel-
lenic armour. They originally came from the Pelo-
ponnesus.^ Their ancient kings were, according to
the more correct genealogy of the Hellenes, of Aegyp-
tian descent, but on the maternal side included the
ancestors of Perseus.^
san in the Dorian dialect.^

The Carians originally came from the islands to
the continent, being driven out by the lonians and
Dorians. They were anciently subjects of Minos,
(of Crete,) and called Leleges, but paid no tribute,
as far as Herodotus could discover, but manned the
fleet whenever they were required. In consequence

The Ionian sigma was called

1 i. 144.

2 Cnidus and Halicarnassus were on the continent; Cos, on the small
island of the same name ; and Lindus, lalyssiwi, and Cameirus were in
the island of llhodes,

3 vii. 9.3. * vi. 5.3. " i. 139.

ASIA MINOE, 221

of the successful conquests of Minos, the Carians asia.
became the most famous nation of the time. They chap. n.
introduced three inventions, which were also adopted ^~7^
by the Hellenes, namely, the crests upon helmets, ventions.
devices upon shields, and shield handles ; for pre-
viously shields had been fixed with leathern straps
round the neck and left arm. This however was
the Cretan account ; the Carians themselves said JJ^^j^^^^J^^^^gg .
that they were autochthones, or original inhabitants to be au-
of the continent, and that they always bore the ^''iit^o^e^-
later name of Carians.^ A part of them were settled
in Aegypt.^ As a proof of their being autochthones United with
they pointed to an ancient temple of the Carian and MysT-'^^
Zeus in Mylasa, which was also shared by the Lydi- ^^^ip^^f
ans and Mysians, as relations to themselves, Lydus ttieCariaa
and Mysus being the brothers of Car. Many how-
ever, who spoke the same language, were not admit-
ted because they belonged to a different race.^

The Carians furnished Xerxes with seventy ships,
and were armed in the Hellenic fashion, only they
carried falchions and daggers.^

The towns of Caria, Labranda or Alabanda, con- '^°f°f^^^
tained a sacred grove of plane trees, in which was a teiior.
sanctuary to Zeus Stratius, where the Carians, who xermTr?'
were the only people who sacrificed to this deity, ^"if^^^
took refuge after being defeated by the Persians on
the river Marsyas.^ Termera*' and Cnidus^ are also
named. Likewise Pedasus, which was situated
above Halicarnassus, but more in the interior. The
priestess of Athene at Pedasus had a long beard
on two different occasions, and a third time in the
reign of Cyrus. The Pedasians were the only
people in Caria who offered a protracted resistance
to the Persian general Harpagus, and they gave
him some trouble by fortifying Mount Lyda.^ They
subsequently occupied the mountainous parts round
Miletus which were assigned to them by the Per-
sians.^ The Pass of Pedasus is also mentioned as

1 i. 171. 2 ii. 62. 3 i. 171. * vii. 93. « v. 119.

« V. 37. ' V. 118. Cf. via. 195. M. 175; viii. 104. » vi. 20.

ASIA MINOR.

ASIA, leading to the city, where the Persians were cut to
lAP. II. pieces by an ambuscade of Carians.^

The city of Caunus^ and its inhabitants are

Cauniis

Its inhabit- especially noticed by Herodotus. The Caunians he
autoch-'^^ considered to be really autochthones, but they
thones. themselves said that they came from Crete. They
either spoke the Carian language, or else the Carians
spoke the Caunian. Their customs were totally
different from those of all other nations, not except-
ing the Carians. Thus, for instance, they accounted
it a great pleasure to assemble together, both men,
women, and youths, in order to get drunk. In an-
cient times they built sanctuaries to foreign deities,
but afterwards determined upon restricting them-
' selves to their own national gods. Accordingly
they all, old and young, armed themselves, and
fighting the air with their spears marched to the
Calyndian confines, and said they were expelling
the stranger deities.^
Topography We will uow traco the principal Hellenic towns
of the coast. ^^ ^-^^^ Cariau coast, beginning at the north.
Priene. Pricne'^ sent twelve ships to Lade^ and Myus ^ sent

isiiietas. three. ^ Miletus in the time of Darius was at the height
of its prosperity, and accounted the jewel of Ionia.
Previously throughout two generations it had been
distracted by sedition, but at length, having chosen
the Parians as arbitrators,^ the latter surveyed the
whole country, and then gave the government of
the city into the hands of those who had kept their
estates in the best order, and thus the different fac-
tions became reconciled.^ The power and exten-
sive commerce of the Milesians is shown in their
furnishing eighty ships at Lade ; ^^ their colonies on
the Pontus, at Istria," and on the Borysthenes ; ^^
and in their building for themselves a separate sanc-
tuary to Apollo in the Aegyptian city of Naucratis.^^
They were the only people of Ionia who did not

1 V. 121.

-^ V. 103.

■' i. 172. ' i. 15, 142.

5 vi. 8.

« i. 142.

-> vi. 8.

** V. 2S. '■» V. 29.

I" vi. 8.

>' ii. 3.3.

12 iv. 7s.

'3 ii. 178.

ASIA MINOR. 223

surround their city with walls when Cyrus refused asia.
to accept the submission of lonians ; and they even chap. h.
contrived to conclude an alliance with him.^ At a
later period, after the suppression of the Ionian re-
volt, the city was taken by the Persians, and its in-
habitants were transplanted by Darius to the city
of Ampe on the Erythraean Sea, and near the banks
of the Tigris.^ The Persians retained in their pos-
session the lands in the neighbourhood of the city,
but gave the mountain tract to the Carians of Pe-
dasus.^ In the Milesian territory were Limeneion* LimeneVon.
and the town of Assesus, where the temple of Assesus.
Athene was burnt down by Alyattes, who in a sub-
sequent illness rebuilt two new sanctuaries in its
place ; ^ also the sanctuary of the Branchidae, or of Sanctuary
the Didymaean Apollo, "^ an ancient oracle which all Branchidae.
the lonians and Aeolians were in the practice of
consulting, and which was situated above the port
of Panormus.'^ Croesus sent to consult this oracle
before the Persian war,^ and dedicated there offer-
ings of similar weight to those he gave at Delphi.''
Neco also consecrated to Apollo the garments he
wore at his victory over the Syrians, and sent them
to this sanctuary.^" The temple and oracle were
plundered and bu.rnt by the Persians at the taking
of Miletus.^^ Near the city was the river Maeander, ^'^g^'^'"'''
(called Buyulc Mendereh by the Turks,) together
with the plain called the Plain of Maeander, which
appeared to Herodotus to have been formerly a bay
of the sea.^^

The other towns in Caria must now be described, caiyanda.
Caryanda was the native place of Scylax.^^ Hali- Haiicamas-

«/ X «/ sus

carnassus was inhabited by Dorians from Troezen,'*
and the native place of Herodotus, ^^ and also of that
Phanes who assisted Cambyses in the invasion of
Aegypt.^^ Cnidus was inhabited by Lacedaemonian Cnidus.
colonists, who settled on the Triopian promontory,

1 i. 141. 2 vi 20. 3 Ibid. M. 18. ^ i. 22.

« vi. 19. ' i. 157. ® i. 46. » i. 92. i" ii. 159.

" vi. 19. Cf. i.92, 158; v. .36. i^ jj. jq; i. 18.

" iv. 44. » vii. 99. ^^ i_ i_ le jji. 4.

224 ASIA MINOE.

ASIA, wliich commences at tlie peninsula of Bubassus, and

CHAP. ir. runs out into the sea. All the Cnidian territory

therefore, excepting the narrow isthmus which joins

it to Bubassus, was surrounded by water, for on the

north it was bounded by the Ceramic Grulf, and on

the south by the sea in the direction of Syme and

The isth- Rhodus. The narrow isthmus which united Cnidia

""''■ with Bubassus was only five stadia broad, ^ and the

Cnidians wished to cut it through and make their

territory insular as a protection against Harpagus.

During the excavation the workmen were wounded

in greater numbers and in a stranger manner than

usual, particularly in the eyes, by the chips of the

rock. Accordingly the Cnidians consulted the Py-

thia, which replied,

" Dig not the isthmus thi'ough, nor build a tower !
Zeus would have made an island had he wished it ; "

and fi'om that time they gave up the work.^ The
caiydnathe Calyduiaus or Calyndians were Dorians from Epi-
and'caijT' daurus, and so also were the Nisyrians.^ The
natkeDori- Dorian Calvdnians however are not to be identified

an town. J •tt»ii/-ni t ;

With those people who mhabited the Calyndian ter-
ritory which bordered on Caunus,'^ for this latter
Caljrnda was apparently a Carian town east of
Caunus, whilst the Calydna occupied by Dorians
must have been the island off the Carian coast be-
tween Leros and Cos, which formed the principal
island of the group which Homer calls Calydnae.^
Lycians, Tlic Lycians Originally sprang from Crete, but

ci™te.^^™™ the civil war between Sarpedon and Minos, which
resulted in the ascendency of the latter, drove Sar-
pedon and his partisans (the later Lycians) to the
land of Milyas in Asia, whose inhabitants were
Anciently ancicutly termed Solymi. The Lycians were pre-
mike!^ ^°'"' viously named Termilae, and they retained that
name in tlie new country so long as Sarpedon
reigned over them, and were still called so by the

^ A narrow neck of land at some'distance to] the east of the town of
Cnidus. It has been identified by Captain Graves with a narrow isth-
mus at the head of the gulf of Syme. Smith, Diet, of Geog. art. Bu-
bassus.

2 i. 174. ' vii. 99. ' i. 172. ' II. ii. CilT.

ASIA MINOE. 225

neighbouring states in the time of Herodotus. But asia.
when Lycus, son of Pandion, was driven from chap. n.
Athens by his brother Aegeus and settled in the
same country, these Termilae obtained the name of
Lycians. Their customs were partly Cretan and Their cus-
partly Carian, but they had one peculiarity : they
took their name not from their fathers, but from their
mothers, and always traced their ancestry through
the female line ; ^ the children of a free-born woman
by a slave were therefore considered to be of pure
birth, but those of a citizen, even of high rank, by a
foreign wife or a concubine, were regarded as ille-
gitimate.^ The Lycians fought Harpagus with very Heroic re-
inferior numbers and displayed the utmost valour.^ thePe^ians
Being defeated in the plain of Xanthus and driven
within their city, they collected their wives, chil-
dren, property, and slaves in the acropolis, and
burnt the whole to the ground ; and then binding
themselves by the strongest oaths, they all sallied
out and fought until they fell. None survived, and
those of the later Lycians who were said to be
citizens of Xanthus, were all strangers, with the ex-
ception of eighty families who happened at that
time to be absent from the city.* The priestess oracieat
who uttered the oracles at Patara was similar to the
priestesses in the temple of Belus at Babylon, and
the temple of Zeus in Thebes ; she was obliged to
lead a life of celibacy, but was shut up in the sanc-
tuary all night ^ whenever the god was there.'' The
town of Phaselis in Lycia was inhabited by Dorians, Phaseiis.
and possessed a share in the Naucratian Hellenium.'^
The Lycians supplied fifty ships to Xerxes. They
wore breastplates and greaves, and used bows of Lycian cos-

tume.

^ Probably, like the Nairs on the Malabar coast, they considered that
though a man might be sometimes doubtful as to who was his father,
yet he could generally be certain as to who was his mother.

2 i. 173.

^ The Lycians had been sufficiently powerful to defy the power of
Croesus, who was unable to reduce them to submission, i. 23.

^ i. 176.

5 During the night she was supposed to receive the prophecy which
she was to utter next day.

6 i. 182. ' ii. 178.

226

ASIA MINOE.

ASIA.

CHAP. TI.

Milyans.

Pamphj'-
lians.

IT. Mysia
and Lydia.

Mysians,
also named
Olympieni.

Extent of
the Mysia
of Herodo-
tus.

dog-wood, (the cornelian cherry,) and cane arrows
without feathers, and javelins. They also had
goat-skins hanging over their shoulders, caps encir-
cled with feathers on their heads, and daggers and
falchions.^

The MiLYANS were the ancient inhabitants of
Lycia, but were driven into the interior by the Ter-
milae, afterwards called Lycians, from Crete.^ In
the army of Xerxes they carried short spears, and
their garments were fastened by clasps ; some also
carried Lycian bows, and wore helmets of tanned
hides on their heads. ^

The Pamphylians are but little mentioned : they
furnished Xerxes with thirty ships, and were equip-
ped in Hellenic armour. They were descendants of
the mixed multitude* who returned from Troy un-
der Amphilochus and Calchas.^ Artemisia said that
as allies to Xerxes they were good for nothing — bad
slaves to a good master."

II. Mysia and Lydia were comprised in the second
satrapy, which thus included the Mysians, Lydians,
Lasonians, Cabalians, and Hygennians. It paid a
tribute of five hundred talents.^

The Mysians were colonists from the Lydians, and
were also named Olympieni from the mountain of
Olympus, called the Mysian Olympus.^ Their origin
was doubtless the same as both that of the Lydians
and the Carians, as they observed the same religious
rites. ^ Their principal pursuit appears to have been
agriculture.^" Their equipment consisted of helmets
peculiar to their country, small shields, and javelins
hardened by fixe."

It is difficult to define the limits of the territory
held by the Mysians of this second satrapy. The
maritime districts of the province subsequently call-
ed Mysia were not included, for the western coast
was occupied by the Aeolians of the first satrapy.

' vii. 92. 2 See p, 224. » ^11. 77.

* Hence they derived their name Ua/x^vXat, "people of all tribes."

s vii. 91. « viii. 68. ' iii. 90. « i. 36. '■' i. 171.

I" i. .36. " vii. 74.

ASIA MINOE. 227

and that on the north and north-west, by the Helles- asia.
pontines of the third. The Mysia of Herodotus how- chap. n.
ever evidently extended much farther to the north-
east than the later Mysia, for we find the city of
Cius of Bithynia called a Mysian town.^

In describing the country we shall proceed from Topography
south to north. Not far from Lydia, the river Cai- RivScai-
cus ^ (now called the Akson or Bakir) flowed through *=^^-
the plain, called the plain of Caicus, which belonged
to the Mysians.' On the left or western side was Mount
Mount Canae,^ now called Cape Coloni. Next came
Atarneus, which was situated opposite Lesbos, and Atameus.
was given to the Chians in return for their delivering
up Pactyes ; andfor a longtime afterwards, the Chians
would not offer to the gods any barley-meal from
this town, nor would they bake any sacrificial cakes
from the fruit which came from thence, nor admit
any of the productions of that country into their
temples.^ In the district of Atarneus was the town
of Malene, where Histiaeus was taken prisoner by Maiene.
the Persians.*^ Next followed the cities of Carina ; Carina.
Adramyttium ; Thebes, with the Theban plain ; Adramyt-
Antandrus, which was a Pelasgian city,'' and belonged Sdbes.
to the territory of Troas ; and Lamponium.* Then Lam^nTim
came Cape Lectos,^ and the river Scamander, (now Cape
called Bunarbashi,) and Cape Segeium. It was to nher^sca-
Segeium that the Peisistratidae retired after being ca^ segei-
driven out of Athens by Cleomenes ; ^^ and here ^m.
there was a temple of Athene, in which were hung
up the arms of Alcaeus the poet." In the neigh-
bourhood was the city of Achillei'um.^^ Xerxes on
leaving Antandrus had entered the territory of Ilium,
keeping Mount Ida on the left.^^ On reaching the
river Scamander, which was the only stream after
leaving Sardis whose waters were exhausted by the
Persian army, Xerxes went to see the Pergamus of

V. 122.

2 vii. 42.

3 vi. 28.

* vii. 42.

5 i. 160.

vi. 29.

' vii, 42.

8 V. 26. 9

ix. 114.

10 V. 65.

V. 95.

'2 V. 94.

Herodotus here seems

to make a mistake.

Moimt Ida must have

!ei

1 on the

right of the route taken by Xerxes.

Q 2

228 ASIA MINOR.

ASIA. Priam, ^ and there sacrificed a thousand oxen to the

CHAP. II. Athene of Ilium, whilst the Magi pom-ed out liba-

iiium inha- ^ious iu hoiiouT of tlio licroes.^ The Ilia nterri-

bitedbytke tory was inhabited by the Aeolians, among whom

au'dGeTgi- were the Gergithes, who were regarded as a remnant

^^^^- of the ancient Teucrians.^ The districts around

Ilium and Teuthrania were considered by Herodotus

to have been formerly a bay of the sea/ Further on

were the Grergithes on the right, and on the left were

Rboctium. the cities of Rhoetium ; Opluyneium ; Dardanus,

^^ rynei- ^^j-^^^]^ bordcred on Abydos ; ^ the city of Abydos,

Ab t"^' from whence, on a lofty throne of white marble at

the summit of a hill, Xerxes reviewed his entire

army and fleet on the neighbouring plains and

Percote. sliorcs ; - Pcrcotc ; Lampsacus ; Paesus ; Parium ; [

Pa^u^"''' Placia and Scylace, both of which were built by the

pS^' Pelasgians, who subsequently preserved their dia-

scyiace. jg^t i^ aiid Dascvleium,^ which had a district bear-

ing the same name, and which passed for a Bithy-

Cius. nian city, only Herodotus calls Cius a Mysian town,

and the latter lay still more to the eastward/^ Two

Islands of islands are also mentioned : Cyzicus, which contained

Proconne^*^ tlic citv of Artaco, and where was celebrated a great

^^®- festival to the mother of the gods, which Anacharsis

vowed he would introduce into Scythia ; " and Pro-

connesus, which was the native place of Aristeas, the

author of the Arimaspea/^ The towns of Artace and

Proconnesus were both destroyed by the Persians. ^^

Lydians, "YVq Lydians apparently occupied all the later pro-

ent empire, viucc of Lydia, cxccpting the maritime district held

by the lonians of the first satraj^y. In the time of

Croesus, they were the most valiant and warlike

people in Asia. They were armed with long jave-

' This was the name of the citadel of Troy. Herodotus adds " of
Priam" to distinguish it from Pergamus on the Caicus, with which how-
ever, singularly enough, BoLrik confuses it.

2 vii. 43. ■■* V. 122. " ii. 10. « vii. 43. « vii. 44.

7 V. 117; iv. 138. '^ i. 57.

^ iii. 120. We also learn from the testimony of Xenophon, that the
western portion of Bithynia was attached to that of Mysia, whose satraps
took up thefr habitual residence in the Bithynian town of Dascyleium.
Xenoph. Anah. quoted by Heeren.

J" V. 122. '• iv. 70. '^ iv. 13, 14. " vi. 33.

ASIA MINOE. 229

lins, and fought on horseback, managing their horses asia.
with admirable skilL' They thus became the rul- chap. h.
ing power in western Asia, and subdued all the
nations westward of the river Halys, except the Ly-
cians and Cilicians. The empire of Croesus there-
fore included the Lydians, Phrygians, Mysians,
Mariandynians, Chalybes, Paphlagonians, Thynian
and Bithynian Thracians, Carians, lonians, Dorians,
Aeolians, and Pamphylians,^ Sardis the capital was Saniis the
situated in a large but naked plain, watered by seve- ^^"^^ '^ '
ral rivers. Amongst others, the Hyllus (or modern River Hyi-
Demirgi-chai) flowed through it into the Hermus, (or iiemius.
modern Ghiediz-chai,) which was the largest river of
this country, and flowed from a mountain, (the mo-
dern Morad Tagh,) sacred to the mother Dindymene,
and discharged itself into the sea near Phocae.^
The acropolis of Sardis was very steep and inacces-
sible on the side which faced Mount Tmolus, (or
Musa Tagh,) but was nevertheless scaled at this part
by Hyroeades, a Mardian in the army of Cyrus, when
the walls at every other point were impregnable.*
Most of the houses were built entirely of reeds or
canes ; others with brick walls were also thatched
over with reeds. At the time of the Ionian revolt, a
soldier set fire to one of these houses, and the flames
quickly spread from house to house, and consumed
the entire city.^ Even the temple of the national
goddess Cybele fell in the general conflagration,
and the Persians subsequently burnt the sanctuaries
of Grreece in revenge for this destruction.*^ Through
the centre of the agora or market-place flowed the
river Pactolus, (or Sarabat,) bringing grains of gold
from Mount Tmolus, and subsequently discharging
itself into the Hermus.^ Sardis and Ephesus appear
to have been the principal markets of the country,
especially for the sale of eunuchs, who were more
valued than other slaves on account of their extreme
fidelity.^

1 i. 79. ' i. 6, 28. 3 I 80. i i 84. ^ y. joi.

6 V. 102. 7 V. 101.

* viii. 105. With the exception of a few black tents of Yuruks, or
wandering Turkomans, the only habitation described by travellers as ex-

230

ASIA MINOE,

ASIA.

CHAP. II.

Gold dust
brought
from Mount
Tmolus by
the river
Pactolus.

Tumulus of
Alyattes.

Roads from
Caria and
Lydia to
Phrygia.

The Lyclian territory presented few wonders, ex-
cepting perhaps the grains of gold which were washed
down from Mount Tmolns, by the river Pactolus.^ The
gold was apparently obtained in considerable quanti-
ties, and we find that the treasury of the Lydian kings,
like that of the Persians, was filled with heaps of the
precious dust.^ Lydia however exhibited one work
which was greater than those of any other nation
excepting Aegypt and Babylon. This was a monu-
ment to Alyattes the father of Croesus, and consist-
ed of an immense mound or tumulus of earth erected
on a basis of large stones. It was 6 stadia and 2
plethra in circumference, and 13 plethra in breadth,
and was situated near a large lake called the Gy-
gaean lake, which the Lydians said was fed by per-
petual springs.^ The tumulus was raised by trades-
men, mechanics, and prostitutes ; and on the summit,
there still remained in the time of Herodotus five
columns bearing inscriptions, showing how much of
the work was executed by each class, and proving
that the females had done the most.^

Herodotus also mentions a beautiful tree, which
existed in Lydia, and prefaces his notice with a some-
what minute topographical description. The road
which led from Phrygia into Lydia divided at the
frontier into two ways, that on the left led to Caria,

isting at Sardis, now called Sart, is that of a Greek miller, who has taken
advantage of one of the streams which flow past the acropohs to tm-n
the wheel of his mill. Ainsworth, Travels in the Track of the Ten Thou-
sand.

1 V. 101. 2 vi. 125.

3 The Necropolis of the ancient kings of Lydia was situated, according
to Strabo, about 40 stadia north of Sardis. It is described by Mr. Ha-
milton as standing upon a low ridge of limestone hills that rise above
the reed-environed lake of Gygaeus. It is a collection of gigantic mounds
or tumuli, three of which are distinguished by their superior size, but the
largest of which is generally designated as the tomb of Alyattes. It took
Mr. Hamilton ten minutes to ride round its base, which accordingly he
computes to be nearly half a mile in circumference. We have seen in
the text, that Herodotus describes the mound as made up of earth upon
a stone foundation, and Mr. Hamilton found it to be composed towards
the north of natural rock, a white horizontally stratified earthy limestone,
cut away so as to appear part of the structure, and in the upper portion
of sand and gravel, apparently brought from the bed of the Hermus. Cf.
Ainsworth, Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand.

^ i. 93.

ASIA MINOR. 231

and that on the right to Sardis. Travellers who went asia.
by this latter road, were compelled to cross the river chap. n.
Maeander, (now called the Buynk Mendereh,) and
pass by the city of Callatebus, in which resided con-
fectioners who made honey (or sugar) from tamarisk
and wheat. Xerxes followed this road in his ex-
pedition against Greece, and when about a day's Beautiful
march from Sardis, he met with a plane tree so o?tiie*Ly-
exceedingly beautiful, that he presented it with "^^^"^ ''°-''^-
golden ornaments, and committed it to the care of
one of the Immortals.^

The amusements and vices of the Lydians, as de- Depraved
scribed by Herodotus, are strongly illustrative of the thX/dLns.
state of civilization and morals in the rich commercial
cities of antiquity. Most of their customs resembled
those of the Hellenes, but it is remarked that they
prostituted their females ; ^ and their city seems to
have been the resort of a great number of wealthy
strangers, for we are told that the daughters of all the
common people were enabled to provide themselves
with dowries by the sacrifice of their modesty, and
were subsequently permitted to choose their own
husbands.^ The Lydians were also the first nation invented
known to Herodotus that introduced the art of coin- coFning mo-
ing gold and silver ; and they were the first retailers,^ deaiin ^'"'^
that is, they were the first who purchased articles and games
fr-om the manufacturer, or importer, and sold them Luckie-
separately or in small quantities to the public. Ac- J°^^'' ''''^
cording also to the Lydians themselves, they were the
inventors of games of dice, knuckle-bones, ball, and
all the other games which were common in Lydia
and Hellas, draughts only excepted. These inven-
tions were made during that prolonged famine in
the reign of Atys, which led to the Tyrrhenian mi-
gration.^ The Lydians, like the Aegyptians, held
tradesmen and their descendants in less respect than
other citizens.^ Their earlier name was Meiones.
In the army of Xerxes they carried weapons very
similar to those used by the Greeks.^

1 vii. 31. 2 i, 94. 3 i. 93_ 4 i. 94 5 ibid.

6 ii. 167. ' vii. 74.

232

ASIA MINOE.

maritime
enterprise.

ASIA. The towns on the coast of Lydia were very im-
CHA.V. II. portant, and may all be regarded as belonging to

Topoo-raphy loula, tliough, for tlio sako of clearness, it has been

of the coast, considered most advisable to include the description
of them under the geography of the Lydian territory.
We shall describe them in regular order, proceeding
from north to south. The first of these was the

Phoeaea, its commcrcial city of Phocaea, which was situated near
the mouth of the river Hermus.^ The Phocaeans
were the first of all the Hellenes who undertook long
voyages. These were made not in merchant vessels,
(broad boats,) but in penteconters, or fifty-oared gal-
leys,^ (long boats,) which, in the time of Herodotus,
were used chiefly for war. Arganthonius, the king
of Tartessus, received them with great kindness, and
endeavoured to persuade them to abandon their own
country and settle in his territory ; and when they
declined the offer, he gave them sufficient money to
build a good city wall of large and well-fitting stone,
and not a few stadia in circumference.^ When at-
tacked by the Persian general, they took all their
families, goods, and temple-images on board their
penteconters and sailed to Chios, and there tried to
buy the Oenyssae islands of the Chians. Being re-
fused, they sailed to Cyrnus, but on their way landed
at Phocaea, and slew the garrison which the Per-
sians had left to guard the city. They then sunk a
mass of red-hot iron into the sea, and swore not to
return until the iron should re-appear ; but soon after-
wards more than half of the citizens were seized with
a regret and longing for their native town, and vio-
lated their oaths and sailed back to Phocaea, whilst
the remainder proceeded to Cyrnus.'* Phocaea took
a part in the erection of the Hellenium, a sacred
building, or temple, in the trading city of Naucra-
tis in Aegypt.^ The Phocaeans had three ships at
the sea-fight near Lade."

Magnesia. Ncxt to Phocaca worc the following : Magnesia,'
the residence of Oroctes, the Persian satrap who

Heroic re-
sistance to
Cyrus.

i. 80.

163.

« vi. ft.

Ibid.

' i. 165.
-> i. 161.

ii. 178.

ASIA MINOR. 233

crucified Polycrates ; ' Sni;)^ma ; ^ Clazomenae ; ^ Ery- asia.
tlirae/ which sent eight ships to Lade ; ^ Teos, which ^haf. n.
was held ^to be the centre of Ionia," and sent seven- smyma.
teen ships to Lade ;^ Lebedos;' and Colophon," which g™^^^^
was not properly a genuine Ionian town, as its in- Teos.^^^ '
habitants did not celebrate the Apaturian festival. ^° coiophou.

Next came Ephesus ^^ on the river Cayster,^^ con- Ephesus.
taining the celebrated temple, which, with the tem-
ple at Samos, are declared by Herodotus to be the
principal structures in Greece. ^'^ This town was also
not genuinely Ionian for the same reason that Colo-
phon was not.^* On the other hand, the Ephesians
celebrated the Thesmophoria ; and once at this fes-
tival some Chians were unhappily killed as they
were escaping after the battle of Lade, being mis-
taken by the Ephesians for banditti. ^^ Ephesus and
Sardis were probably the great marts of western
Asia, especially for eunuchs.^" The whole country
around appeared to have been formerly a sea.'^ In
the Ephesian territory was a place called Coressus,^^ Coressus.
and lower down was .the headland Mycale, (or Sam- Mycaie.
sun,) projecting towards Samos, and on which the
natural sanctuary called the Panionium was built. ^"
Herodotus also relates that the Persians in going to
Mycale passed the temple of the Eumenides, (Deme-
ter and Cora,) and came to Graeson and Scolopoeis,
where the temple of the Eleusinian Demeter stood ;
and that they there drew their ships on shore, and
threw up a rampart of stone and wood, and fortified
it with a palisade.^" The mountains of Mycale are
also mentioned, with the passes leading to them.^^

In Ionia there were two figures of Sesostris sculp- sculptures

o -■- Q+ Spsostris

tured in the rocks, one on the road fi:om Ephesus to found in
Phocaea, and the other on the road from Sardis to ^°'''''-
Smyrna. In each place a man was carved four cubits

I iii. 125. '^ i. 14, 149. ^ i. iq. i i ig, ^ vi. 8.

6 i. 170. ^ vi. 8. 8 i, 142. 9 i. 14, 142. ^^ i. 147-

II i. 26. ^^ V. 100. The river Cayster now bears the name
of Kuchuk Mendereh, or Little Mendereh, in contradistinction to the
Maeander, or Great Mendereh.

13 ii. 148. '* i. 147. 15 vi. ig. 16 viii. 105. 1' n. 10.

18 V. 100. 19 i. 148. »° ix. 97. ^^ ix. 99.

23^

ASIA MINOE.

ASIA.

CHAP. II.

Identifica-
tion of the
monument
between
Sardis and
Smyrna by
modem
travellers.

Its Aegyp-
tian origin
doubted.

and a half liigli, and holding a spear in his right hand
and a bow in his left. The rest of the costume was
partly Aegyptian and partly Aethiopian ; and across
the breast between the shoulders was engraved an
inscription in sacred Aegyptian characters, signify-
ing ' ' I have conquered this country by my own
shoulders." These monuments were incorrectly sup-
posed by some people to be images of Memnon.^

The monument on the road from Sardis to Smyrna
is still to be seen.^ It consists of a figure of a war-
rior carved within a large square cavity, on the side
of a smooth and nearly perpendicular rock. The
figure wears a tiara and holds a spear in its left
hand, not in the right, as Herodotus says ; but the
right hand holds the string of a bow which hangs on
the warrior's back. Near the head is the represent-
ation of a bird in a sort of ornamented frame. The
detail parts of the figure are seen very indistinctly,
and the more prominent parts, including the inscrip-
tion, have been carried away by time and air. The
identity is, however, unquestionable, though some
modern critics have doubted the Aeg3rptian origin
of the monument. The inscription recorded in He-
rodotus does not contain the Idng's name, which, ac-
cording to Aegyptian custom, would not have been
omitted. The whole costume, especially the tiara,
which is very different from the Aegjptian pshent,
the form of the shoes, and the clumsiness and rude-
ness in the proportions of the body, do not agree
with other well-known monuments of Sesostris and
his time, nor with Aegyj)tian art in general. The
monument has therefore been ascribed to some one
of the native nations of Asia Minor, or to some con-
quering invader of Scythian origin ; and the latter
theory seems the nearest to truth, inasmuch as He-
rodotus's description of the costume and armour of
the Scythians, whom the Persians call Sacae, agrees

1 ii. 106.

2 This monument was discoveretl about thirty years ago by the Rev.
G. C. Renouard, and has been described by Prof. Welcker, and comment-
ed on by Kiepert and others. For the present account I am indebted to
two papers by Dr. Schmitz in the Chissical Museum, vol. i.

ASIA MINOR. 235

exactly with the figure in the relief, with the excep- asia.
tion of the sagaris or axe,^ But it is difficult, as Dr. chap, h.
Schmitz observes, to understand how Herodotus,
who had seen more Aegyptian monuments and in-
scriptions than any modern traveller, could have
pronounced the present one to be Aegyptian, unless
it had borne strong marks of its origin. The lonians
themselves evidently believed it was Aegyptian;
hieroglyphics were on its breast, and the bird in
the frame has only hitherto been found on Aegyp-
tian monuments. The costume certainly presents a
difficulty, but it must be remembered that it is to
our author himself that we are indebted for our in-
formation respecting the Scythian equipment. The
question however must still remain a subject for
archaeological critics.

Beside the Mysians and Lydians already describ- J^?°^f^'^^^'
ed, the second satrapy comprised the Lasonians, anduygen-
Cabalians, and Hygennians.^ Of these people we '''^'^'•
can gain no information. It is probable that the two
first formed one and the same nation, as Herodotus
says in another place — "the Cabalian Meionians,
who are also called Lasonians;" — and that they
were settled in Lydia on the confines of Lycia, as
the Lasonians and Milyans were both under the
same commander.^ It must however be remarked,
that the Cabalians were equipped like the Cilicians.*

III. The Asiatic coast of the Hellespont, with hl hel-
Phrygia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Cappadocia, ph^rygia,
composed the third satrapy, which thus embraced pIphUg^o.
the Hellespontines to the right of the entrance to ^^^'/^"^
the straits, the Phrygians, the Asiatic Thracians, docia.
the Paphlagonians, the Mariandynians, and the
Syro-Cappadocians. It paid 360 talents yearly.*'^

The Hellespontines were descendants of the ^ggl^^^"'^*"

1 vii. 64. 2 i_9o.

3 This is Valcknaer's conjecture. The objection to it is, that if Badres
was commander of only two nations, viz. the Cabahan Meionians or
Lasonians and the Milyans, why should Herodotus say " Badres com-
manded ALL these nations," — for two would scarcely justify the expres-
sion. Larcher, note on vii. 77-

* vii. 77. ' iii. 90.

236

ASIA MINOE.

ASIA.

CHAP. II.

Phi-ygians
more an-
cient than
the Aegyp-
tians.

Called
Brygcs
3vhen dwell-
ing in Ma-
cedonia.

lonians and Dorians. They contributed one hun-
dred ships to Xerxes, and were equipped in the
Hellenic fashion.^ It is evident from this that they
included the Hellenic colonies on the Propontis,
whose names we have already mentioned under
Mysia.^ Besides these, the town of Calchedonia^
on the Bosphorus, where the bridge of Darius was
laid across/ Megabyzus, when he heard that the
Calchedonians had settled seventeen years before
the Byzantines, remarked that the former must have
been blind for choosing the worst site for their city,
when they might have had Byzantium, which was
the best.^

The Phrygians were the only nation which the
Aegyptians acknowledged to be more ancient than
themselves. Psammetichus proved them to be an-
terior, by ordering a shepherd to bring up two new-
born children in a solitary room, where they were
suckled by goats, and could not hear the sound of
any human language. After two years it was found
that the children could only cry Bekos," which, on
inquiry, was discovered to be the Phrygian word
for bread. This experiment satisfied the Aegyptians
that the Phrygians were more ancient than them-
selves.'' In the army of Xerxes the Phrygians ap-
peared in almost the same costume as the Paphla-
gonians, who wore peculiar boots,'reaching half way
up their legs, and carried small shields and small
spears, together with javelins and daggers.^ Ac-
cording to a tradition of the Macedonians, they were
called Bryges, as long as they were Europeans and
dwelt witli them in Macedonia, but after they were
settled in Asia they changed their name with their
country, and were called Phrygians. The Armeni-
ans were a Phrygian colony.^

1 vii. 95. 2 pjige 226.

3 Generally spelt Chalcedonia. All the coins of the place have, how-
ever, the name written KaXxh^ov, and this is also the way in which the
name is written in the best MSS. of Herodotus, Xenophon, and other
writers. * iv. S5. ^ iv. 144.

*■' This is explained hy the Scholiast on Apoll. Rhod. iv. 262, to be
merely an imitation of the bleating of goats,

' ii. 2. ^ vii. 72. " vii. 7'S.

ASIA MINOR. 237

The topography of Phrygia is somewhat obsciire, asia,
A particidar tract of land in Phrygia was occupied chap. n.
by the Paeonians, who had been transplanted by ~ ^~~
Megabazus from the river Strymon, but who during of Phrygia.
the Ionian revolt escaped back to their own coun- p/ed^byXe
try, leaving behind them only a few who were Paeouians.
afraid to venture.^ Gordium^ was the ancient Gordium.
capital.^ Celaenae was a town in Phryffia where ceiaenae.

• t/ o Sources of

the sources of the river Maeander ^ streamed forth ; the Mae-
and where another river not much smaller, named c^tar-^*^'^^
the Catarrhactes, rose in the agora and discharged ihactes.
itself into the Maeander. In this city the skin of
Silenus Marsyas was suspended, which, as the Phry-
gians say, was stripped off and hung up by Apollo.^
Celaenae was also the residence of Pythius the
Lydian, who gave Darius a golden plane tree and
vine, and was said to be the richest man in the
world next to Xerxes.^ He possessed 2000 silver
talents and four millions of gold Daric staters,^ or
nearly four millions sterling. The river Marsyas River Mar-
flowed from the territory of Idrias and fell into the ^^
Maeander : on one of its banks was the place called
White Columns, where the Carians were defeated by white
the Persians in the Ionian revolt.^ From Celaenae course of
Xerxes in his course towards Greece went to the cei^nllTo
city called Anana, and passing by a lake from ^^^-^
whence salt was obtained, reached Colossae, where saitiake.
the river Lycus disappeared under the earth for five EivTr Ly-
stadia, and subsequently discharged itself into the *^"^-
Maeander. Farther on, at the town of Cydrara, a Cydrara.
pillar had been erected by Croesus to mark the piiiarbe-
boundaries between Phrygia and Lydia.^ The pITi^'giaand
road here divided ; that on the left leading to Caria, ^J'^'^-

1 V. 98.

^ Nearly all the ancient kings of Phrygia were called either Midas or
Gordius.

3 Cf. i. 14.

* The Maeander is now called by the Turks Buyuk Mendereh, or the
Great Mendereh, in contradistinction to the Little Mendereh, or ancient
Cayster. It is joined by the Catan-hactes, and after flowing for some
time in a westerly direction, is joined on the south side by the Lycus.
There is some slight confusion about the Marsyas, as it is evident that
the river so called by Xenophon is the Catarrhactes of Herodotus.

5 vii. 28. « vii. 27. ' vii. 2S. » v. 118, 119. » vii. 30.

238

ASIA MINOR.

ASIA.

CHAP. n.

Conium.
Alabanda.

Thracians
from the
Strymon,
called Bi-
thynians.

Mariandyii-
ians.

PapMagon-
ians.

White Syri-
ans, or

and that on the right across the Maeander to Sardis.^
Conium is also mentioned, of which town Cineas
the king of Thessaly, who assisted the Peisistratidae,
was a native ;^ together with Alabanda, a large
Phrygian city.^ It is however doubtful whether
this should not be written '' a Carian city."*

The Theacians, after their settlement in Asia,
were called Bithynians. Previously, whilst dwell-
ing on the river Strymon, they had been called
Strymonians, but according to their own statement
they were driven from the Strymon by the Teucri
and Mysians. They marched in the army of Xerxes
having fox-skins on their heads and tunics on their
bodies, over which were coverings of various colours.
On their legs and feet they wore buskins of deer-
skin. Their arms were javelins, light bucklers,
and small daggers.^ The Thynian Thracians are
also mentioned as forming part of the empire of
Croesus.^

The Martandynians accompanied Xerxes, and
were equipped the same as the Paphlagonians.'

The Paphlagonians also marched in the Persian
army, wearing plaited helmets on their heads, and
peculiar boots on their feet reaching half way up
their legs. They carried small shields and small
spears ; also javelins and daggers.^ They dwelt on
the left bank of the river Halys.^ Wlien the Cim-
merians were diiven into Asia by the Scythians,
they settled on the peninsula, (in the Paphlagonian
territory,) where the Hellenic city of Sinope stood
in the time of Herodotus.^" The Paphlagonians
seem also to include the people whom Herodotus
describes as^Hlie S3rrians about Thermodon and
the river Parthenius." ^' Here also may be placed
Themiscyra, which lay on the river Thermodon,
and from which city across the Pontus to Sindica
was 3300 stadia.''

The Cappadocians, so called by the Persians,'^

1 vii. 31. 2 V. f)3. ^ viii. 1.3G. < vii. 19.5. See also page 221.
•' vii. 7.5. " i. 28. ' vii. 72. « j^jid. o i 72.

'" iv 12. " ii. 104. '- iv. 86. " vii. 72.

ASIA MINOE. • 239

were named Syrians by the Greeks/ Before the asia.
establishment of the Persian power they belonged chap. h.
to the Median empire, but afterwards they were in- ~ ~r
eluded in the empire of Cyrus. The river Halys ans.
formed the boundary between the Median empire ^ ^^"

and the Lydian. This river rises in the mountains
of Armenia, and flows through Cilicia ; then be-
tween the Matienians on its right bank and the
Phrygians on its left ; and afterwards runs north-
ward with the Syrian Cappadocians on its right and
the Paphlagonians on its leffc.^

From the foregoing description, it is evident that Extent and
the territory occupied by the Cappadocians was in- cappldocir
eluded in very different limits to the Cappadocia of tus^'"'°'^°
later times. As the Halys is said to flow through
Cilicia, we cannot suppose the Cappadocians to
have stretched southward beyond it, but may indeed
consider them to be enclosed between the Halys
and the Euxine.

When Croesus reached the Halys he crossed the canaiof
river, as Herodotus believes, by the bridges still
there ; but the Greeks say that Thales the Milesian
made the stream fordable by carrying off the waters
through a semicircular canal behind the camp.^

River Halys.

^^"^J of TVv»^^*

The Cappadocians wore the same accoutrements

1 The Cappadocians are always styled by writers contemporaneous
with the Persians, Leuco-Syri, or White Syrians, to distinguish them
from the Syrians properly so called. " Their complexion," says Strabo,
" was fairer than that of then- countrymen to the south." It is probable,
however, that the Cappadocians had themselves assumed this appella-
tion fi'om motives of vanity. Most of the eastern nations take a pride
in bearing a name significant of fairness of complexion. Hence the
White Huns, the golden-horde, (among the Calmucks,) etc. Even the
empress of Russia was habitually styled by her oriental subjects, the
White Czarina. Heeren, Asiat. Res. vol. i.

2 i. 72. 3 i. 75.

Pteria.

240 ASIA MINOR.

ASIA, in the army of Xerxes as their western neighbours
!HAP. II. the Paphlagonians.^ Croesus took the Cappadocian
town of Pteria, which was the strongest position in
the whole of this country, and situated over against
Sinope ; and he enslaved the Pterians and ravaged
the lands of the surrounding Syrians, taking all
the adjacent places and expelling the inhabitants.^
Ciitaiia. The town of Critalla is also mentioned, as being the
place where all the land forces of Xerxes assembled.^
iv.ciLiciA ly. CiLiciA composed the fourth satrapy, which
therefore comprised the Cilicians, who gave 360
white horses and 500 talents, of which latter only
360 went to Darius, as the remaining 140 were re-
quired for the cavalry guarding Cilicia.*
Cilicians, Tho Cilicians furnished Xerxes with one hundred

named Hy- ships. Thoy dwclt in a mountainous country,^ and
pachaeans. ^q^q formerly called Hypachaeans, but afterwards
were named Cilicians, from Cilix, son of Agenor the
Phoenician. On their heads they wore helmets
peculiar to their country, and instead of shields
they carried bucklers made of raw hides, and were
attired in woollen tunics. Each man had two jave-
lins and a sword shaped lil^e the Aegyptian scimetar.^
Artemisia considered them to be as useless allies of
Xerxes as the Pamphylians.^ In the Aleian plain in
Cilicia, Datis and Artaphernes with the Persian land
forces were joined by the navy and horse trans-
ports.^
Extent and Tho Cilicia of Hcrodotus was evidently much
the'ciiicia larger than the country which went by that name
ti^^^°^°' ^^ ^ later period. In the north and north-east it
extended beyond the Halys and as far as Armenia,
for Herodotus says that the Halys flowed from the
Armenian mountains through Cilicia.^ Towards
the cast it reached as far as the river Euphrates,'"
and probably towards the south it extended to
Posidcium in Syria, as Herodotus expressly says
that this city was built on the frontiers of the Cili-
cians and Syrians. His statement that the Marian-

1 vii. 72. 2 i. 7(5, 3 vii_ 26. * iii. 90. « ii. 34.

G vii. 91. ' viii. 68. « vi. 95. ^ i. 72. '" v. 52.

ASIA MINOIl. 241

die Grulf lies adjacent to Phoenicia,' does not in the asia.
least interfere with this boundary line ; as the town ^hap. n.
of Mariandrus, which gave its name to the bay, might
be Phoenician, whilst the land farther in the interior
might be Cilician. Xenophon even expressly calls
it a Phoenician place. ^

Such then was the extent of our author's know- conciusioa.
ledge of Asia Minor. The geography of the western
coast is more full than that of all the remaining
territory; but it would have been impossible to
curtail the topographical description of the Greek
colonies without omitting information of consider-
able importance, whilst the interior and eastern dis-
tricts are almost as little known now as they were
in the days of Herodotus, and we gladly leave them
to enter upon the more important geography of
Upper Asia.

1 iv. 38. 2 Bobrik, Geog. des Herod. § 70.

CHAPTER III.

UPPEE ASIA, OR SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA. Plateau of Iran.— Traversed east and south by two great ranges. —

}HAP. HI. Zagros, or mountains of Kurdistan. — Elburz and Ghur mountains. —

\ Country watered by the Euphrates and Tigris. — Assyria. — Babylonia. —

Mesopotamia. — Syria. — Media. — Cissia and Persis.^ — Three satrapies
known to Herodotus. — 5. Syria Proper, or Phoenicia and Palaestine.
— Distinction between the Syrians of Palaestine and the White Syrians
of Cappadocia and Assyrians of Babylonia and Mesopotamia. — Face of
the country.— Libanus and Anti-Libanus. ^ — Valley of the Jordan. — Desert
of Syria. — Phoenicians, their migi-ations fi-om the Erythraean. — Com-
mercial enterprise. — Naval superiority. — Equipment. — Practice of cir-
cumcision.— Figure-heads on their ships. — Palm wine. — Tyrian camp
settlement in Aegypt. — Tyre : ancient temple of Heracles. — Sidon. —
Aradus. — Syrians of Palaestine, or Hebrews, scarcely known to Herodo-
tus.— Importance of Palaestine as a key to Aegypt. — Ascalon : temple of
Aphrodite or Astarte. — Magdolus, or Megiddo. — Cadytis. — Identified by
Prideaux -with Jerusalem — by Mr. Ewing with Kadesh in Galilee — ^by
Col. Rawhnson with Gaza. — Correctness of the latter view. — Sea-ports of
Palaestine. — Arid tract between Jenysus and Lake Serbonis. — Practice
of circumcision. — Pillars of Sesostris. — Cyprus. — 9. Assyria, or Baby-
lonia and Mesopotamia, answering to Irak Arabi, and Algezirah. — In-
habitants called Syrians by the Greeks, and Assyrians by the Barbari-
ans.-— Great importance of this satrapy. — Want of rain supplied by the
Euphrates. — Numerous canals. — Extraordinary growth of corn. — Palm
trees. — Babylon, the only city described. — Site of the ruins of Babylon
near Hillah. — Three mounds on the eastern bank of the Euphrates. —
Mujelibe, or " the overturned." — Erroneously supposed by Rennell to be
the temple of Belus. — El Kasr, or "the palace." — Amram' hill.- — Re-
mains of ancient ramparts. — River embankment. — Western bank of the
Euphrates. — Small scattered mounds. — Birs Nimroud, or tower of Babel
and temple of Belus. — Its extreme antiquity. — ^Herodotus's description
of Babylon : a vast square protected by a moat and wall. — Towers on
the wall. — One hundred brass gates. — The city cut in two by the Eu-
phrates.— Walls along the river-banks with brazen gates. — Inner wall.
— The royal palace. — Temple of Belus : its eight towers and spiral
ascent. — Statements of the Chaldacan priests. — Bridge over the Eu-
phrates.— Sepulchre of Nitocris. — Names of the city gates. — Destruction
of the fortifications by Darius. — Town of Is. — Account of the Euphrates.
— Anciently overflowed the country. — Dams raised by Semiramis and
Nitocris. — Course of the river rendered winding by Nitocris. — Numerous
artificial canals. — Towns of Opis and Ampe. — Dress of the Babylonians.
— Manners and customs. — Annual sale of maidens. — No physicians :
sick persons carried into the market for advice. — Embalming. — Funeral

SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PEESIS. 243

lamentations like those of the Aegyptians. — Burning of incense after
sexual intercourse. — Disgraceful practice connected with the worship of
Aphrodite. — Three tribes of Babylonian Icthyophagi. — Chaldaeans. —
Babylonian sun-dial. — Gnomon. — Talent. — 8. CissiA and Persis, an-
swering to Khuzistan and Farsistan. — General description of the country.
— Sandy plains along the coast. — Rising of the land in terraces. — Moun-
tains on the north the fatherland of the Persians. — Great city of Susaon
the Choaspes. — The Memnoniam. — Stone figure of Darius on horseback.
■ — Identification of Susa with Shus on the river Kerkhah. — Ardericca, seat
of the transplanted Erythraeans. — Well producing asphalt, salt, and oil.
— Persians divided into ten tribes, viz. the Pasargadae, Maraphii, Maspii,
Panthialaei, Derusiaei, Germanii, Dahae, Mardi, Dropici, and Sagartii. —
Religion of the Persians. — No statues, temples, or altars. — Name of
Zeus applied to the vault of heaven. — Sacrifices on high places. — Ancient
worship of the sun, moon, earth, fire, water, and winds. — Later worship
of Aphrodite or Mitra. — Mode of sacrifice. — Prayer of the sacrificer. —
Ode sung by the Magi. — Social customs. — Celebration of birthdays. —
Moderation at meals, but profusion afterwards. — Addiction to wine.
— Debates when drunk and again when sober. — Modes of salutation ac-
cording to rank. — Respect for neighbouring nations according to their
proximity to Persia. — Attachment to foreign .customs. — Polygamy, con-
cubinage, and pederasty. — Respect for fathers of large families. — Educa-
tion of sons. — Trial of criminals. — Parricide considered impossible. —
Lying and getting into debt especially abhorred. — Lepers and white
pigeons expelled from cities. — Veneration for rivers. — Ceremonies prac-
tised on dead bodies. — Weakness of the Persian skull. — Magi a pecuhar
race : imlike the Persian priests. — Persian ignorance of navigation. —
Contempt for markets and traders. — Equipment. — Especial honours paid
to valour. — Honible custom of burying alive in honour of Ahriman. —
Persian system of post. — Matters pertaining to the king. — Celebration of
his birthday. — Those who obliged him called Orosangae, or benefactors.
— Drank only of the water of the river Choaspes. — Regarded as the
master of Asia. — General veneration for him. — Conduct of the harem. —
Persian language.

In tlie preceding chapter we traversed Asia Minor asia.
to its eastern frontiers, and we therefore now find ^hap. m.
ourselves standing on the mountains of Armenia, pj^teau of
near the sources of the river Frat, or Euphrates. Iran.
Before us is the gigantic plateau of Iran, spreading
out from the base of Ararat southward towards the
Persian Gulf, eastward nearly to the Indus, and
sloping westward, as we have already seen, through
the peninsula of Asia Minor to the shore of the
Aegean. The whole of this elevated region is con-
nected with the vast conical summits of Ararat by
numerous mountain ranges. Westward the huge
arms of Taurus and Anti-Taurus spread tln-ough
Asia Minor. East and southward two other great Traversed
ranges proceed in distinct lines to the limits of an- south V
cient Persia. First the brown bleak mountains of *'''° '""'s^'-

R 2

244 SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PEESIS.

ASIA.

CHAP. III.

Zagros, or
mountains
of Kurdis-
tan.

Elburz and
Ghur moun-
tains.

Countries
watered by
the Eu-
phrates and
Tigris.

Assyria.
Babylonia.

Mesopota-
mia.

Syria.

Kurdistan, anciently called the Zagros, run towards
the south, and separate Assyria from Media ; and
then, after approaching the coast, take a bend
towards the east, and gradually decrease in height
until they lose themselves near the banks of the
Indus. The second chain runs almost due east, and
skirts the northern side of Iran. It proceeds from
the plateau of Ararat along the southern shore
of the Caspian under the name of Elburz, and from
thence stretches through Khorassan, and entering
Cabul is interrupted by the valley of Herat. Be-
yond this break it bears the name of the Ghur
mountains or ancient Paropamisus, but afterwards
joins the Hindoo Koosh, and at length reaches the
Himalayas, first sending off a branch towards the
north, which skirts the great desert of Gobi, or Sha-
me, and was known to the ancients as the Imaus, but
is now called Belur-tagh, or the mountains of Bolor.'
From the elevated region of Armenia rise two
great rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, and these,
after a long and devious com*se towards the south,
at last unite and fall together into the Persian Gulf.
The country on the northern course of the Tigris
was called Assyria ; that on the southern course of
the Euphrates was called Babylonia. The large in-
tervening space between the Euphrates and Tigris,
and to the south of Babylonia, was called Mesopota-
mia, or '' country between the rivers." The region
westward of the Euphrates, and stretching to the
Mediterranean, is generally known by the name of

^ The plateau of Iran, with its various ridges, is evidently described by
both Straho and Arrian, who copy from Eratosthenes, under the general
name of Mount Taurus. " India," they say, " is bounded on the north by
Mount Taurus, which mountain retains the same name even in that
country. It rises on the sea-coast near Pamphylia, Lycia, and Cilicia,
and extends itself in one continued ridge as far as the Oriental Ocean,
running quite through all Asia. In some parts, nevertheless, it is called
by other names ; for in one country it is named Paropamisus ; in another,
Emodus ; in a third, Imaus ; and it is very probable it has many more,
in the various territories through which it passes. The Macedonian
soldiers who accompanied Alexander in his expedition, called it Caucasus ;
whereas Caucasus is a mountain of Scythia, widely distant from this ; but
their reason was, that they might boast that Alexander had passed over
Mount Caucasus." Strabo, lib. xv. Arrian, Indica. Op. c. ii.

CHAP. III.

Cissia and
Persis.

SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS. 245

Syria/ Eastward of Assyria was Media, and east- asia.

ward of Babylonia was Cissia and Persis. Assyria

Proper answers to the modern country of Kurdistan, Media'
Babylonia to Irak-Arabi, Mesopotamia to Algezirah,
Media to Irak-Ajemi, Cissia to Khuzistan, and Persis
to.Farsistan. Syria Proper is still best known by its
ancient name. It is necessary for the reader to bear
these names and particulars continually in mind
whilst investigating Herodotus' s geography of cen-
tral Asia.

The countries thus named and mapped out em- Three^satra-
braced certainly all, and probably a great deal more to Herodo-
than was known to our author. In the present §f;ia Pro-
chapter we shall confine ourselves to the region be- per ; Assy-
tween the Mediterranean and the I igris, answermg and Persis.
to the provinces of Syria, Mesopotamia, and Baby-
lonia ; and to these we shall add Cissia and Persia
Proper, which lie eastward of the imited streams of
the Tigris and Euphrates. This region is bounded
on the north by the mountains of Armenia and Me-
dia, and on the south by the Arabian desert and
Persian Gulf, and was divided by Darius Hystaspis
into three satrapies, which we shall name as follows :

1 . Syria Proper, including Phoenicia and Palaestine.

2. Assyria, so called by Herodotus, although it
only comprised Babylonia and Mesopotamia, as
Assyria Proper, or Kurdistan, was included in the
Armenian satrapy. 3. Cissia, to which we shall also
add Persis. These in the arrangement of Darius
form the fifth, ninth, and eighth satrapies.

y. Syeia Proper, or the fifth satrapy, extended v. Syria
from the town of Poseideium which was built by Phoenicia
Amphilochus on the borders of Syria and Cilicia, as
far as Aegypt, and thus comprised all Phoenicia,
Syria which is called Palaestine, and Cyprus.^ It
paid a tribute of 350 talents.^

This territory may be called Syria Proper,* in con-

1 We shall presently see that the terms Syria and Assyria were some-
times used as general names for the entire region described in the pre-
sent paragi'aph.

2 This satrapy could scarcely include any part of Arabia, which paid
separately a yearly tribute of frankincense. '^ iii- 91.

^ Herodotus seems to have applied the name of Palaestine to the en-

and Palaes-
tine.

246 SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA, tradistinction both to the White Syrians, or Cappa-
^^^^- "^- docians, north of the Taurus, and the Syrians, or
Distinction Assyrians, of Mesopotamia and Babylonia. From the
?iIanTo?° former it was separated by the chain of Taurus Pro-
Pidaestine per ; from the latter by an uncertain and irregular
whitJ Syii- liiiG? which may be drawn from the southern point of
padoJia^''^' "^1^^ Dead Sea to^.the upper course of the Euphrates.^
and the' Tlio couutry may be described as consisting of

Bab/ionia two sots of highlands, formed by the ramifications of
potimia!°" Mount Taurus, and running from north to south under
Face of the ^]^g namos of Libanus and Anti-Libanus, until they
Libanusand finally conncct themselves with the rocky masses of
Anti-Liba- jj^j.^]^ ^^^^ Sinai in Arabia Petraea. Between them is
Sj Jidan ^^^® long and remarkable valley containing the Dead
Sea, the river Jordan, and a chain of lakes running
northward from thence to the foot of the Taurus.
Between this mountain region and the western bank
Desert of of tlic Euphrates is the dry and gravelly desert of
■^"'^' Syria, which however is covered with grass and wild
flowers during the brief rains of winter and spring.
It extends southwards into the desert of Arabia.
Phoenicia was a territory along the coast of the north-
ern half of the mountain region. Palaestine formed
the southern part. The S3aians of Damascus, to the
north of Palaestine and east of Phoenicia, are no-
where mentioned by Herodotus, but were doubtless
included in the same satrapy.
Phoenicians Tlic PHOENICIANS Originally wandered from the
t?ons from^' Erythraean to the Mediterranean, and having settled
thra?an" ^n the soa-coast of that part of Syria ^ which is called
Palaestine, began to undertake long voyages, and to
export Assyrian and Aegyptian merchandise. From

tire region, for, he evidently (vii. 89) considered Palaestine to include
Phoenicia.

» Syria, or Aram, in its widest signification, denoted all the countries
inhabited by the Aramaeans or Syrians, and embraced not only the re-
gion between the Mediterranean and the Euphrates, but frequently also
Mesopotamia and Babylonia, or the region between the Euphrates and
Tigris, and even sometimes Assyria Proper, or Kurdistan, to the east of
the latter river. On the other hand, Assyria was frequently made in its
turn to include the same territories, and we find the terms Syria and
Assyria often interchanged by Greek and Roman authors. Herodotus
says (vii. (j;J) that the peoi)le who were called Syrians by the Greeks were
termed Assyrians by the Barbarians.

2 vii. 89.

SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS. 247

the city of Argos they carried off lo, an outrage asia.
which is said to have been the original cause of the chap. m.
Persian wars ; ^ and they are also especially men- commercial
tioned as having taken to Greece the frankincense, enterprise.
which they imported from Arabia.^ Their maritime
power was very considerable, and without them
the Persians could never have achieved any con-
quests at sea.^ In conjunction with the Syrians of Navai supe-
Palaestine,they furnished Xerxes with three hundred ^'°^' ^'
ships,* and were considered to be the best sailors in
all the Persian fleet, more especially the Sidonians.^
Their equipment consisted of helmets made very Equipment.
much after the Hellenic fashion ; linen breastplates ; ^
shields without rims; and javelins/ They learnt Practice of
the custom of circumcision from the Aegyptians, sion'^™^'"
but those who carried on commercial intercourse
with Grreece discontinued the practice.^ On the Figure-
prows of their vessels they fixed the Pataici or their ships.
images representing pigmies, which were not unlike
the image of Hephaestus in the temple at Memphis.^

The palm wine of Phoenicia seems to have been Paim wine.
much celebrated, and when Cambyses sent a cask
with his other presents to the Aethiopians,^" it proved
to be the only one of the gifts that pleased their
taste." The Phoenicians themselves carried their xyrian
wine in earthen vessels into Aegjrpt twice every ^^^t in" ^"
year, and they seem to have had a large settlement ^^syv^-
in the Aegyptian capital, for we are told that the
Tyrian Phoenicians dwelt round the sanctuary of
Proteus at Memphis, whence the whole district was
called the Tyrian camp.^^

Of the country of Phoenicia we can obtain very Tyre. Anci-

, . . Gilt tGnTDiG

little information from Herodotus. At Tyre there was of Heracles.

1 i. 1. 2 HI 107. ' i. 143. _ * vii. 89._ ^ vii. 96.

^ The linen, says Larcher, was steeped in sour wine mixed with a
certain quantity of salt. Eighteen thicknesses were laid on each other
and worked together, as they make felt, and was then proof against steel,
and could resist an arrow. Mr. Cooley adds, that this armour of wadded
linen was probably an Aegyptian invention, and is still used in Upper
Nubia, by those tribes which are removed a little fi'om the ordinary
course of change and innovation.

' vii. 89. ^ ii. 104. » iii. 37. '" iii. 20.

" iii. 22. '2 ii. 112.

248 SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA.

CHAP. III.

Sidon.
Aradus.

Syrians of
Palaestine,
or Hebrews,
scarcely
known to
Herodotus.

Importance
of Palaes-
tine as a key
to Aegypt.

Ascalon,
temple of
Aphrodite
or Astarte.

a temple of Heracles, (Melicartlia,] richly adorned
witli a great variety of consecrated gifts, and contain-
ing two pillars, one of gold and the other of emerald,
both of which shone exceedingly in the darkness of
night. Herodotus inquired of the priests how long
the temple had been built, and was told that it had
been erected 2300 years previously, at the same time
that the city itself was founded.^ There was also
another temple dedicated to the Thasian Heracles.^
Beside the foregoing, we also find mention of Si-
don,^ and the town of Aradus, the native place of
Merbalus/

The Hebrew Nation, or Syrians of Palaestine, as
Herodotus calls them, though so important in the
history of the world, are but little mentioned by our
author. In his mind they merely formed, with the
Phoenicians and the island of Cyprus, a satrapy of
the Persian empire. Phoenicia was the maritime
nation extending along the coast. Palaestine was the
agricultural nation,^ occupying the interior, and in-
cluding the caravan route between Aegypt and the
east. In a political point of view its possession was
the more important to Persia, as it tended to secure
that of Aeg3rpt. From the book of Ezra we learn
that the head of this satrapy bore the title of go-
vernor of the country " beyond the river ; " and that
the Jews of Palaestine were sometimes governed
by a subordinate ruler of their own race.*' In the
time of Nehemiah we find allusion made to more
satraps than one.^ The following is all we can ga-
ther from Herodotus. At Ascalon (the old city of
the Pliilistines) was the celebrated temple of the

' Josephus, quoting from Menander, says that Hiram, the contempo-
rary of the Jewish Solomon, pulled down the old temples of Melieartha
and Astarte, and built new ones. Herodotus therefore only saw the
new temple, which however must in his time have been 550 years old.
Joseph. Cont. Apion, lib. i. c. 18.

2 ii. 44. 2 ii. 116. ^ vii. 98.

' The mountainous territory of Phoenicia was but little adapted for
agriculture, and we consequently find that the corn country of Palaes-
tine became her granary. Solomon furnished Hiram with an immense
(juantity of wheat and oil in return for the Phoenician king's assistance
in building the great temple at Jerusalem.

"■' lOzra vi. 65 vii. 25. '' Nehemiah ii. 7, *J.

SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS. 249

celestial Aphrodite,^ which was plundered by the asia.
Scythians in their excursions towards Aegypt. This chap. m.
temple was the most ancient of all that were dedi- '
cated to the Syrian Aphrodite, for the one in Cyprus
was built some time afterwards, and that in Cythera
was founded by some Phoenicians who came from
this part of Syria ? At Magdolus (or Megiddo ^) the Magdoius or
Aegyptian king Neco defeated the Syrians.* The *^^' '°'
city of Cadytis however is especially mentioned as Cadytis.
being a large city, and in the opinion of Herodotus
not much less than Sardis.^ Prideaux ^ identifies it identified
with Jerusalem, not only from our author's notice of deaux with
its importance, but also because Jerusalem was anci- Je^us^^iem.
ently called Kedushah, or " the holy ; " ^ changed in
the Syriac dialect, which was the vernacular tongue
of the period, into Kedutha ; and again changed by
Herodotus, who gave it a Grreek termination, into
KaguT-ic, or Cadytis. Jerusalem is also still called by
the Arabs El-kuds, or '' the holy." Herodotus how- ByMr.Ew-
ever farther describes Cadytis as a city on the coast, K^dTsh in
for he says that from Phoenicia to Cadytis, and from ^^aiiiee.
Cadytis to Jenysus, (in the south,) the ports belong
to the Arabs. ^ He also mentions that the Aegyptian
king Neco took Cadytis, after the battle of Megid-
do, and therefore could not have alluded to Jerusa-
lem, as the latter city would have been quite out of
his line of march.'' Mr. Ewing therefore shows that
Jerusalem could not have been meant, and he justly
observes, that to speak of the maritime towns be-
tween Jerusalem and Jenysus, would be as absurd
as to speak of those between Oxford and London.^"

^ Called Astarte, Ashtaroth, Queen of heaven, etc., and is identified
with the moon, as Baal was with the sun.

2 i. 105.

3 Herodotus has here confused Megiddo, the plain or valley at the foot
of Mount Carmel, where Josiah was defeated and slain by Necho, with
Magdolus or Migdol, in Lower Aegypt, 12 miles east of Pelusium.

* ii. 159. ^ 5 iii, 5,

* Prideaux's Connexion, an. 610 B. c.

'' The inscription on the shekels was " Jerusalem Kedushah," or Jeru-
salem the Holy, and this coin carried the name among the neighbour-
ing nations ; hence the city was soon called simply Kedushah for short-
ness' sake.

8 iii. 5. " ii. 159. '" Classical Museum, No. iv.

250 SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PEESIS.

ASIA. He points out Kedesli in Galilee as the Cadytis of
CHAP. III. Herodotus, because Kedesh is a maritime town, and
would lie in Neco's line of march from Megiddo
towards the Euphrates ; and he also derives the name
Cadytis from Kadatha, a Chaldee corruption of Ke-
desh. Mr. Ewing is evidently mistaken in his iden-
tification, for Phoenicia stretched southwards some
distance beyond Kedesh, and mention has already
been made of the sea-ports between Phoenicia and
By Colonel Cadytis. Coloncl Pawlinson has cleared up the difS.-
■witiiGaza. culty. The forty-seventh chapter of Jeremiah
j^rophetically describes the desolation by Pharaoh of
the land of the Philistines ; and further, expressly
alludes to the capture and destruction of Gaza, by
the same king. The name of the Philistine city
Correctness of Gaza, as discovcred by Dr. Layard and inter-
view, preted by Colonel Rawlinson, is Khazita,' and as the
description given by Herodotus is in every way ap-
plicable to Gaza, we may presume that this was the
name that the Greeks changed into Cadytis.
Sea-ports of The sca-Dorts on the coast of the Mediterranean

Falaestine. „ _^- K , r^ i • o i c r^ i ' i

irom Phoenicia to Cadytis, and irom Cadytis to the
city of Jenysus, belonged to the Arabians ; ^ but from

^ Outline of AssjTian History collected from the cuneiform inscriptions,
by Lieut. Col. Rawlinson. Printed from the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society.

* It must not however be forgotten that Cadytis, though in the midst
of an Arab population, belonged to the Syrians of Palaestine.

•■' It has been thought that the Arabs here described by our author
were no other than the Hebrew tribes. This superficial theory, whilst it
would explain the apparent difficulties in the geogi-aphy, is contradicted
by history, and indeed by Herodotus himself, as the manners and cus-
toms which he ascribes to the Arabians (see chap, on Independent Asia)
can by no means be identified with those of the Jews. It seems certain,
that after the return from the Babylonian captivity, and for a long time
subsequently, the Hebrews only occupied the city of Jerusalem and its
immediate neighbourhood, and gradually enlarged their territory as they
increased in population. I cannot therefore but presume that the Arabs
here alluded to were descendants of the old Philistine nation, which was
evidently a powerful people in the reign of Judas Maccabaeus. Those
commentators who suppose that Herodotus never could have penetrated
Palaestine, merely on the ground that if he had done so he would have
left some account of such a peculiar nation as the Jews, are, I think,
labouring under a misconception of the period in which our author
flourished. He was contemporary with Nehemiah, at a time when the
Jewish nation was almost crushed by the Samaritans, and when Jerusa-
lem possessed neither walls, towers, nor gates. The picture of utter pros-

SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS. 251

Jenysus to Lake Serbonis, on the confines of Aegypt, asia.
they belonged to the Syrians. The latter tract chap. m.
was three days' jonrney in extent, and utterly de- ^"JJ!^
stitute of water. ^ From every part of Hellas, and between Je-
also from Phoenicia, earthen vessels filled with wine ili^e'ser-
were twice every year imported into Aegypt, and ^°^^'-
yet not a single jar was to be seen there ; for every
demarch was obliged to collect all the vessels in his
own town, and forward them to Memphis, where the
people filled them with water, and conveyed them
to the arid tract of three days' journey already de-
scribed.^ This plan was first adopted by the Per-
sians after they had become masters of Aegypt, in
order to render the country easier of access.^

The Syrians in Palaestine, like the Phoenicians, Practice of
learnt the practice of circumcision fi:"om the Aegypt- sion!'^''''
ians.* Herodotus saw in their country some of the piiiars of
pillars of Sesostris, on which were engraved the ^^''^^*"^-
usual inscription,^ together with the al^oia, an hiero-
glyphic signifying that they had been conquered
with very little trouble.^

Cyprus has already been described amongst the cypms.
islands.^ The sixth satrapy, which included Aegypt
and Libya, is described in another place.

IX. Babylon and the rest of Assyria were included JJ^.^^'^^'jJ^
in the ninth satrapy, and paid yearly one thousand andMeso-
talents of silver and five hundred young eunuchs.^ swei-ing'tr'

This Assyria of Herodotus lay due east of the pre-
vious satrapy, and appears to have included the coun- rah.
try on the Euphrates and Tigris, and to have com-
prised Mesopotamia and Babylonia, thus answering to
the modern provinces of Algezirah and Irak-Arabi.^

tration and desolation described by Nehemiah in the two first chapters
of this history ,|cannot bi;t impress us ■vidth the conviction, that even sup-
posing that anything could have attracted Herodotus to Jerusalem, there
was nothing for the traveller to record, but a ruined city and a broken-
down people.

1 iii. 5. 2 iii. 6. 3 iii. 7. i ii. 104. ^ ii. 106.

^ Ibid. ■'' See page 96. ^ iii. 92.

^ When Herodotus speaks of Assyria, and the gi'eat cities which it
contained, (i. 177; 178,) it is clear from the context that he means Baby-
lonia, and when (vii. 63) he is describing the equipment of the Assyrians,
he evidently means the inhabitants of Mesopotamia.

Irak-Arabi
and Algezi-

252 SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA. Assyria Proper, or Kurdistan, was included in the
CHAP. III. Armenian satrapy.

Inhabitants ^^^® Assyriaiis were so named by the Barbarians,
eauedsy- but by the Helleiios were called Syrians. They
Greeks^, aud occupicd a part of uppcr Asia,^ and after the destruc-
i^y tiiTBar- '^i^n of tlicir chief city of Nineveh on the river
barians. TigHs,^ ^ tlio Celebrated Babylon became their capi-
tal, and the chief seat of government ; * and every-
thing that Herodotus says further of this country and
its inhabitants has reference only to Babylon and
the Babylonians.
Great im- Tlio Babyloniau territory was sufficient to pro-
tiiis satrapy, vido subsistonco for the king of Persia and all his
army during four months of the year, whilst the
rest of Asia was only able to meet the requirements
of the remaining eight. The power and wealth of
the Babylonians were therefore, in the opinion of
Herodotus, equal to one-third of all Asia. It was
indeed the most important of all the satrapies. It
brought daily to Tritantaechmes, the governor of the
satrapy, a full artaba of silver — a Persian measure
equal to one Attic medimnus and three choenices.
Beside this the satrap had eight hundred stallions
and sixteen thousand mares, in addition to the horses
used in war ; and he kept such a number of Indian
dogs, that four large villages were exempted from
all taxes and appointed to provide them with food.^
Very little rain fell in Assyria, but the want of

1 i. 95. 2 i 193,

3 The silence of Herodotus respecting Nineveh would render any ac-
count of the recent extraordinary discoveries by Layard and others out
of place in the present volume. It will therefore be sufficient to say, that
till a recent pciiod, a few shapeless mounds opposite Mosul on the Upper
Tigris were all that tradition could point out as remaining of Nineveh ;
Ijut that within the last ten years the excavations conducted by Dr.
Layard and M. Botta have brought to light the sculptured remains of
immense palaces, not oidy at the traditional site of Nineveh, namely,
Kouyunjik and Ncbbi-Yuniis, opposite to Mosul, and at Khorsabad,
abcjut ten miles to the N. N. E. ; but also in a mound eighteen miles
lower down the river, in the tongue of land between the Tigris and the
Cireat Zalj, which still Ijears the name of Nimroud, all of which extensive
ruins are considered by Dr. Layard to represent the site of ancient Nineveh.
We hope to be able to enter at gi-eater length on this subject in a future
companion volume, on the geogra})hy of the Bible.

^ i. 178. ^ i. 192.

SYRIA, BABYLONll, CISSIA, AND PERSIS. 253

water was supplied by the Euphrates, which in an- asta.
cient times inundated the country like the Aegyp- c"^^- "^-
tian Nile, but Queen Semiramis having prevented
the overflow by the erection of stupendous mounds,
or dams, along its banks, ^ the land was henceforth
irrigated by the hand and by engines. The entire ^^^^^^i-ous
territory, like Aegypt, was intersected by canals, the
largest of which could be navigated by ships, and
stretched from the Euphrates to the Tigris.^ As re- f^^*j;?j;J['^-
gards the productiveness of the soil, it was better of com.
adapted for the growth of corn than any other land
with which Herodotus was acquainted ; for though
the country was comparatively destitute of trees,
and possessed neither the fig, the vine, nor the
olive, yet the grain flourished so gloriously, that
the harvest generally produced from two to three
hundred-fold. The blades of wheat and barley also
grew to fall four digits in breadth, and Herodotus is
afraid to mention the height of millet and sesame,
as he is certain that those who had never been to
Babylonia would disbelieve his statements. The
Babylonians used no other oil but that which they
extracted from this sesame. Palm trees grew all Paim trees.
over the plain, and most of them produced fruit
from which bread, wine, and honey (or sugar) were
made. The fruit of what the Greeks call male palms
was tied upon the female palms, in order that the
gall-fly (-^wtc) in the former might ripen the latter,
and prevent the fruit from falling before reaching
maturity ; ^ for these palms had flies in the fruit just
like wild fig trees.*

Assyria, or rather Babylonia, contained many

1 i. 184.

2 Babylonia is no longer able to sustain a large population, for as the
canals have ceased to carry off the superfluous waters of the Tigris and
Euphrates, these rivers annually overflow all the tracts adjacent to their
lower courses, and convert them into immense swamps and marshes.

3 The fly in question is a cynips, or one of the genus which by pene-
trating and breeding within plants, produces on them what are called
gall-apples. Hasselquist observed it in the Levant, and has described it
under the name of Cynips Ficus. He seems to think that it does the
fruit more harm than good. Linnaeus has also described this fly, en-
titling it from its ancient appellative Cynips Psen. Larcher's Notes to
Herod., Mr. Cooley's Additions, vol. i. p. 184. * i- 193.

254

SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA.

CHAP. HI.

Babylon the
only city
described.

Site of the
ruins of
Babylon
nearHiliah.

Thi-ee
mounds on
the eastern
bank of t!ie
Euphrates.

Mujclibc,
or " the
overturn-
ed."

large cities, but Herodotus only describes the most
celebrated and the best fortified, namely, Babylon,
which after the destruction of Nineveh on the Tigris
became the seat of government.^

Before entering upon Herodotus's description of
this magnificent city, it will be necessary to glance
at the modern state of the ruins. ^ On the river
Euphrates, and about 50 miles south of Bagdad,
stands the town of Hillah. The road between Bag-
dad and Hillah lies through a level but uncultivated
plain, though the dry beds of numerous canals and
the fragments of bricks and tiles strewed everywhere
around are proofs of its former different state. Nine
miles north of Hillah, at the village of Mohawill, the
ruins may be said to commence ; and about five
miles north of Hillah, and on the eastern bank of
the Euphrates, the traveller approaches the great
mounds of ancient Babylon. The latter at first
sight appear to be natm'al hills, but a closer ex-
amination soon clearly shows that they are com-
posed of bricks, and are evidently the remains of
large buildings. Three of these immense mounds
are found in succession from north to south. The
first is called Mujelibe, or ''the overturned;" the
second, El Kasr, or "the palace ;" and the third,
Amram, from its supporting a small tomb of some
Mahommedan saint of that name.

Mujelibe is the loftiest of these gigantic mounds,
and the Haroot and Maroot of Arabian tradition.^

1 i. 178.

2 My authority for the following statements are Mr. Rich's First and
Second Memoirs on the Ruins of I3abylon ; Major Rennell's Remarks on
the Topography of Ancient Babylon ; and Sir Robert Ker Porter's
Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, Babylonia, etc. Comp. also Heeren's
account of the Babylonians in his Asiatic Researches.

•^ According to this tradition, the angels in heaven, having expressed
their surprise that the sons of Adam should continue in wickedness after
the repeated warnings from the prophets, were directed by God to select
two of their number to be sent on earth as judges. Haroot and Maroot
were accordingly chosen, but subsefjuently fell in love with a beautiful
woman and solicited her favours, and as a punishment for their crime
M'ere condemned by God to be hung up by the heels until the day of
judgment in a well invisible; to mankind, but which the Arabs believe
still exists at the foot of Mujelibe. See Sale's Koran, and Kinneir's
GeofjraphicaL 3femoir of Persia.

SYKIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PEESIS. 255

It is an oblong square composed of sun-dried bricks, asia.
consolidated into huge sustaining masses by the in- chap. m.
tervention of reeds and slime. It is 140 feet high,
and its sides face the four cardinal points. The side
to the north and that to the west each measure about
550 feet along their bases ; whilst those to the south
and east are each 230 feet. The summit presents
an uneven surface, and the entire mass seems to
have been a platform upon which some great build-
ings were formerly erected. The interior is full of
ravines and holes, which are literally garrisoned by
the wild beasts of the desert, and the loathsome
smell which issues from their dens is sufficient to
deter the traveller from attempting to enter. Ren- Erroneous-
nell erroneously supposed that this pile was the an- by Renndi
cient temple of Belus, but no such pyramidal succes- tempie^of
sion of towers as Herodotus describes could ever ^^lus.
have surmounted it, or otherwise a slight elevation at
least would have been found towards the middle of
the summit, whereas it there sinks in a deep hollow.
It seems to have been the citadel of the great palace,
which we shall next describe.

At 2250 feet south of Mujelibe is the second hill, ^\-^''^l' """
named El Kasr, or ''the palace." This is a grand lace."
heap of ruins, forming nearly a square of about 700
yards in length and breadth,^ and rising about 70
feet above the general level. The bricks of which
it is constructed are of the very finest description,
and not sun-dried like those of Mujelibe, but baked
in the furnace and ornamented with inscriptions.
Each brick is placed with its written face down-
wards on a layer of cement, which scarcely exceeds
the twentieth part of an inch in thickness ; but at
the same time the whole mass is so firm, that Porter
experienced considerable difficulty in chipping off a

^ This was its condition when visited by Rich in 1811, but even in the
seven years which intervened between this visit and that of Porter, the
everlasting digging in its apparently exhaustless quarries for bricks of
the strongest and finest material had been sufficient to change its shape.
Indeed these incessant depredations, which must have been going on for
ages, have not only altered the minor features of the place, but have kept
the whole surface in so decomposed a state, that at every step the feet of
the traveller sink into dust and rubbish. Porter.

256 SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA, few pieces. Fragments of alabaster vessels are also
CHAP. III. found here, together with fine earthenware, marble,
' and great quantities of polished tiles, the glazing

and colouring of which present all the freshness of a
modern material. Along the western and northern
face of the mound are detached portions of a wall,
which probably composed the piers or buttresses of
the terraces, attached to the celebrated hanging gar-
dens described by Diodorus, and which, according
to Curtius, had the appearance of a forest.^
Amiamhiu. About 2400 foct from Kasr is the Amram hill.
This is a triangular mass, of which the south-western
side is 4200 feet, the eastern 3300 feet, and the
northern 2500 feet. The entire heap is broken, like
that of the Kasr, into deep caverned ravines and
long winding furrows, from the number of bricks
that have been taken away. Its former state or
designation it is impossible to determine. At pre-
sent it is a shapeless assemblage of bricks, mortar,
and cement, where the foot of the traveller plunges
at every step into dust and rubbish.
Remains of Sovcral Smaller mounds are scattered around these
ramparts, three onormous masses, and the whole space is sur-
rounded by several lofty corresponding ridges or
ramparts, which form two sides of a great triangle,
of which the river Euphrates is the base. The
length of this base is three miles and three quarters ;
that of the northern rampart is two miles and
three quarters, and that of the southern two miles
and a half. Within the triangle, and between the
great mounds and the angle formed by the northern
and southern ramparts, run two wall lines of de-
fence, parallel with each other, and also parallel
River em- with the baso formed by the river. On the other
side of the great mounds that part of the Euphrates
which forms the base of the triangle is defended by
a wall enclosure, composed of sun-dried bricks, and
rising in some places 60 feet above the bed of the
river. Here most probably were fixed the splendid

^ It is to these ruins that the name of Kasr is properly appHed, though
Rich and Porter have appUed the name to the entire mound.

SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS. 257

river-gates of brass which are described by He- asia.
rodotus. CHAP. III.

Thus far we have noticed the ruins on the eastern

bank of the Euphrates. Herodotus however, as bank of the
we shall presently see, describes Babylon as a ""^ ^^^^^'
square of fifteen miles every way, and cut in two
by the river, the tower of Belus being on one side
and the royal palace on the other. Rennell accord-
ingly identifies the tower of Belus with Mujelibe,
and the royal palace with Kasr, and supposes that
the Euphrates anciently flowed in another channel
between these mounds. This theory has been now
completely refuted. Not the slightest trace of any
such change in the course of the Euphrates could be
discovered by either Rich or Porter. Taking it
therefore for granted that the mound Kasr rej)re-
sents the royal palace, we must cross the river be-
fore we can find the temple of Belus, and here it
will be necessary to take a preliminary survey of
the present face of the country.

The reader must imagine himself on the west- smaiiscat-
ern bank . of the Euphrates, and opposite the Kasr mounds.
and Amram hills. Here the ground is level, low,
and marshy, and contains no such mounds as those
we have described. A few hillocks are to be seen
in the neighbourhood of a village named Anana.
There is also a ridge of earth about fourteen feet
high, which runs due north for about 300 yards,
and then forming a right angle due east, takes that
direction till it reaches the river. At its termination
the courses of sun-dried bricks are distinctly visible, „
but this is the only trace of an embankment corre-
sponding to that on the opposite shore. How this
western embankment came to be destroyed whilst
the opposite one was preserved we cannot conjec-
ture. The fact however is certain, and this circum-
stance may have contributed to the preservation of
the eastern mounds, whilst those on the western
bank, unprotected by a corresponding dyke, have
been mostly swept away by inundations of the
river.

258

SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA.

CHAP. III.

Birs Nim-
roud, the
tower of
Babel and
temple of
Belus.

Its extreme
antiquity.

The reader must now be carried a considerable
distance.^ Nine miles south-west of Mujelibe, and
six miles in a straight line from Anana, is a huge
oblong mass, 200 feet high, and more than 2000 feet
in circumference at its base.^ The Arabs call it
Birs Nimroud, or Nimrod's tower. It is composed
of fine bricks baked in the furnace, and on the western
side rises from the plain in one stupendous, though
irregular, pyramidal hill. Eennell, who considers
that Herodotus has exaggerated the dimensions of
Babylon, will not include this extraordinary ruin
within the limits of the city. Modern travellers,
however, have been able to trace three out of the
eight stories described by Herodotus as belonging
to the great temple or tower of Belus, and thus to
clear his statements respecting the extraordinary
extent of the city from the charge of hyperbole.
The first story is about 60 feet high, cloven in
the middle by a deep ravine, and intersected in all
directions by farrows channelled by the successive
rains of ages. The second stage springs out of the
first in a steep and abrupt conical form. On the
summit is a solid mass of tower-lilie ruin, 28 feet
wide and 35 feet high, forming to all appearance
the angle of some square building. The ground
about the foot of the hill is now clear, but is again
surrounded by walls which form an oblong square,
and enclose numerous heaps of rubbish, probably
once the dwellings of inferior deities, or of the priests
and officers of the temple.

Such then are the remains of the great tower of
Belus, or Babel, in the land of Shinar. Its founda-

^ Along the road between Anana and Birs Nimroud Porter found, at
intervals of a mile or two, clear indications of the country having been
formerly covered with buildings. About a mile and a half from Anana
he reached a numerous and very conspicuous assemblage of mounds, of
which the most considerable was 35 feet high. These he regarded as
probably occupying the site of the second or older palace, which is not
mentioned by Herodotus. We may here remind the reader that two
palaces are described by Diodorus as having been built by Semiramis,
one on the eastern and the otlier on the western bank. Herodotus only
notices one, and seems to allude to the later palace built by Nebuchad-
nezzar, and which we identify with Kasr or the western palace.

2 Porter reckons it at 2082 feet : Rich at 2286 feet.

SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS. 259

tion must be carried back to the time of Nimrod, in asia.
the second century after the flood, when the nations chap. m.
said, '' Let us build a city and tower, and make us ^
a name." ^ Probably it was even then consecrated
to the worship of Baal or the sun, and thus brought
down the vengeance of Jehovah upon the builders ;
and whilst the descendants of Noah spread over the
whole earth, it remained through successive ages a
lasting monument of the guilty presumption of
their idolatrous ancestors. This supposition in no
way militates against the gradual additions and
embellishments which it afterwards received, as the
primeval temple of a national deity ; neither can
anything be argued against its high antiquity from
bricks with inscriptions having been found amongst
its ruins. It stands not only as a testimony to the
veracity of Herodotus, but above all, as an awful
confirmation of the truth of a far more ancient re-
cord of a divinely inspired author ; a solemn relic
of the first and mightiest fabric erected by the hand
of man, fulfilling in the present day the sacred words
of the prophet, ''wild beasts of the desert shall lie
there, and their houses shall be full of doleful crea-
tures." ^

We must now turn to the description of Herodotus. Herodotus's
Babylon stood in an extensive plain, and formed a of Babylon:
square, of which each side measured 120 stadia, gj^are, pro-
or about 1 5 English miles. It therefore occupied tected by a
an area of about 225 square miles. On every waii.
side was a wide and deep ditch full of water, and
within that was a wall 50 royal cubits in breadth or
thickness, and 200 royal cubits in height. The
royal cubit was longer than the common one by the
breadth of 3 digits.^ The wall was built in the fol-
lowing manner. The earth which was thrown up in
digging the moat was at once converted into bricks,
which were baked in kilns.* Hot asphalt from the

1 Gen. xi. 4. ^ iga. xiii. 21. s i. 178.

* Porter says that the embankments are made of sun-dried bricks.
These were generally used in the formation of the interior of the masses
of large foundations, whilst the exterior was faced with the more beauti-

s 2

260 SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA.

CHAP. III.

Towers oa
the Avail.

One huii-
dred brass
gates.

The city cut
intwobythe
Euphrates.
Walls along
the river-
banks with
brazen
gates.

Inner wall.

The royal
palace.

Temple of
Belus, —
its eight
towers and
spiral
ascent.

river Is (or Hit) was used for cement, and wattled
reeds were placed between the thirty bottom layers
of bricks. The sides of the moat were built up first,
and then the wall. On the top of the wall and along
its whole extent were built houses or towers one
story high ; and between each of these towers suf-
ficient space was left to turn a chariot witli four
horses. There were also one hundred gates in the
wall made entirely of brass, posts and lintels not
excepted.^

The whole city was divided into two parts by the
river Euphrates, which flowed through its centre;
and walls of baked brick ran along the curvatures of
each bank, and thus united the two elbows of the
outer wall. The city itself was full of houses three
or four stories high, and arranged in straight streets
intersecting one another. Where the streets de-
scended towards the river there were brazen gates
opening through the river-wall, and leading down
to the water's edge.^ Beside the great city-wall
already described, and which was the chief defence,
there was another wall within it not much lower in
height, but not so thick.

In the middle of each division of the city a forti-
fied building was erected. In the one was the royal
palace, with a spacious and strong enclosure and
brazen gates. In the other was the precinct of Be-
lus, which still existed in the time of Herodotus.
This was a square building two stadia in length and
breadth. In the midst of it rose a solid tower, one
stadia in breadth and length, ujoon which were built
seven towers, one upon the top of the other, so that
there were eight in all. An ascent was on the out-
side and ran spirally round all the towers. Half
way up there was a landing-place and seats for rest-
ing on. In tlie topmost tower was a spacious tem-
ple splendidly furnished, with a large couch and
golden taljlc, ]jut containing no statues.

ful bricks which were baked iu the furnace, and which are described by
Herodotus.
> i. 179. ■' i. 180.

SYEIA, BABYLONIA^ CISSIA, AND PERSIS. 261

The Chaldaeans, who were the priests of this asia.
deity, ^ said that no mortal was allowed to pass the <^hap. m.
night there excepting a native female, whom the god statements
selected for himself, and who was kept from all in- ofthechai-
tercourse with men.^ They also stated what Hero- priests.
dotus does not credit, namely, that the deity him-
self visited the temple and reclined upon the couch, ^ *
Beneath this sanctuary there was another temple,
and in it a large golden statue of Zeus in a sitting
posture, and also a large table of gold near the sta-
tue. The throne and step were also of gold, and
the Chaldaeans said that the whole weighed 800
talents, or 22 English tons of metal. Outside the
temple stood a golden altar, to which sucklings only
were allowed to be brought, whilst upon another
large altar fall-grown sheep were sacrificed, and a
thousand talents of frankincense were also consumed
upon it every year at the festival of the god. In
this sacred locality there was formerly a massive
golden statue 12 cubits high. Herodotus did not

^ Herodotus here expressly asserts that the Chaldaeans were a priestly
caste, and Mr. Grote, resting upon this positive statement, which indeed
is confirmed by Strabo, can only regard them as priests. In another
place, however, (vii. 63,) the Chaldaeans are mentioned as fighting in
the army of Xerxes, which seems more in keeping with the Scripture
accounts of the Chaldees as a warlike race from the north.

2 i. 181.

^ This circumstance, which puzzled Herodotus, is at once explained by
the following extract from the travels of Bernier. Speaking of the
Brahmins, Bernier says, " These impostors take a maid to be the bride
(as they speak and bear the besotted people in hand) of Juggernaut, and
they leave her all night in the temple (whither they have carried her)
with the idol, making her believe that Juggernaut will visit her, and ap-
pointing her to ask him, whether it will be a fruitful year, what kind of
processions, feasts, prayers, and alms he demands to be made for it. In
the mean time one of these priests enters at night by a little back door
into the temple and personates the god, and makes her believe anything
he pleases ; and the next day, being transported from this temple into
another with the same magnificence, she is carried before upon the cha-
riot of triumph, by the side of Juggernaut her bridegroom : these Brahmins
make her say aloud, before all the people, whatsoever she has been
taught of these cheats, as if she had learnt it from the very mouth of
Juggernaut." Similar delusions seem to have been carried on in the temple
of Isis at Rome, and Josephus relates a deceit which was practised on a
virtuous matron named Paulina, in favour of Decius Mundus, a Roman
knight. A full disclosure of this outrage was laid before the emperor
Tiberius, who thereupon ordered the priests to be crucified and the tem-
ple to be demolished.

- *a. 182.

262

SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS

ASIA.

CHAP. III.

Sepulchre
of JMitocris.

see it, but relates what was told him by the Chal-

daeans. Darius formed the design of taking it

away, but was afraid ; his son Xerxes, however, took
it, and killed the priest who forbade him to remove
it. Many other consecrated gifts were also exhibited
in this temple.'
Bridge over ^hc Only communication in ancient times be-
phrates. tweeii tlio two divisious of the city was by means of
a ferry across the Euphrates. At length Nitocris had
the river turned into a reservoir,^ and built a bridge
(or rather piers) in the centre of the city, composed of
large blocks of stone clamped together with iron
and lead. During the day square planks of timber
were laid upon these stone piers, in order that the
people might pass over ; but at night these planks
were removed, to prevent thieves from gliding about
to different parts of the city. Nitocris caused the
banks of the river to be lined throughout the city
with burnt brick like the city walls.'' She also
jDrepared a sepulchre for herself above the most
frequented gate of the city, and bearing the follow-
ing inscription :

''If anyone of my successors, kings of Babylon,
shall happen to want money, let him open this se-
pulclu-e, and take what he requires ; but if he wants
it not, let him not open it."

This sepulchre remained undisturbed until the time
of Darius, who considered it to be hard that money
should be lying there unused, and that the gate also
should be unused, because a dead body was lying
over the heads of all who passed through it. He
therefore opened the tomb, but found no money, and
only the body and these words :

' ' Were tliou not insatiably covetous and greedy
of the most sordid gain, thou wouldst not have
opened the resting-place of the dead." *

Five of tlie city gates are mentioned to us by
name, namely, the gates of Semiramis, the Nineveh
gate, the Chaldaean gate, the Belidae gate, and the
Cissian gate.® It was the last two that Zopyrus

' i. 183. 2 See page 263. '-^ i. 186. « i. 187. " m. 155.

Names of

the citj-
gates.

SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PEKSIS. 263

opened to the Persians.^ Darius demolished the asia.
walls and carried away all the gates, and as the Ba- chap. m.
bylonians had strangled their wives during the siege Destruction
to prevent the consumption of their provisions, he oftheforti-
taxed the neighbouring provinces to send a certain milul ^
number of women to Babylon, so that a total of fifty
thousand women were assembled, from whom the
Babylonians of the time of Herodotus were de-
scended.^

Eight days' journey from Babylon lay the town of Town of is.
Is, upon a small stream of the same name, which dis-
charged itself into the Euphrates, and brought with
it a great many lumps of asphalt, which were used
as mortar in building the Babylonian walls. ^

The Euphrates, which divided the city, took its Account of
rise in Armenia, and flowed with a broad, deep, and phrates.
rapid cm-rent until at length it discharged itself into
the Erythraean.* In former times it used to over- Anciently
flow the whole plain like a sea, but Semiramis, and thecouXy.
afterwards Nitocris, kept it within its banks by raising fy semT^-'^
mounds or dams along the plain. ^ Nitocris also used mis and m-
every means to protect Babylon against the newly
risen Median power, which was growing formidable
and restless, and had already captured Nineveh.
She dug channels above the Euphrates, and render- Course of
ed its stream, which formerly ran in a straight line, rendered
so winding that in its course it touched three times ^^^eSf ^^
at the single village of Ardericca ; and in the time
of Herodotus, those who went to Babylon by the
Euphrates came to this village three times on three
successive days.^ ^ Nitocris also excavated at some immense
distance from the river a large basin or reservoir for Ste.*^'^
a lake, 420 stadia (or at least 50 English miles) in
circumference, and dug down to the water, and this
reservoir she cased all round with stones. The
excavated earth was afterwards heaped up on the

1 iii. 158. 2 iii. 159^ 3 i 179^ 4 i igQ.

5 i. 184. 6 i. 185.

'' The royal station named Ardericca, (vi. 119,) which was 210 stadia
from Susa, was evidently a different site.

264

SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS

ASIA.

CHAP. iir.

To'wns of
Opis and
Ampe.

Dress of the
Babylo-
nians.

banks of the river, and formed the mounds or dams
ah^eady mentioned.^

In this satrapy must probably also be included the
two places Opis ^ and Ampe, which last was situated
on the Tigris near the coast of the Erythraean, and
was afterwards a settlement for the Milesians trans-
jjlanted by Darius.^

The dress of the Babylonians consisted of a linen
gown, which fell down to the feet ; next, a woollen
garment ; and lastly, over all a short white mantle.
Their sandals were peculiar to the country, but very
like the Boeotian clogs. They wore long hair, and
kept it together by their head-bands or turbans, and
the whole of the body they anointed with perfumes.
Every man had a signet ring and a curiously
wrought staff; and on every staff was carved either
an apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, or something else of
the same kind, for it was not allowable to carry a
stick without a device.^ In the army of Xerxes they
wore linen cuirasses, and helmets of brass plaited in
a peculiar fashion, which Herodotus tells us is not
easy to be described ; and they carried shields, and
spears, and swords similar to those of the Aegypt-
ians, together with wooden clubs knotted with
iron.^

Amongst the Babylonian customs was one which
was also practised by the Eneti of Illyria, and which
in the opinion of our author was the wisest with
Annual sale whicli lio was acquaiutcd. Once a year in every
of maidens. yiHage all tlio marriageable girls were collected to-
gether, and put up to auction. A crier directed them
to stand up one after the other, beginning with the
handsomest, and each one was then knocked down
to the highest bidder, who however was not allowed
to carry off a maiden without giving security that he
would marry her. The more beautiful giils were of
course purcliased by the rich Babylonians, who
strove eagerly to outbid each other. When these
were all disposed of, the crier directed the plainer

' i. 1>S5, 2 i. 189. 3 vi. 20. * i. 195. * vii. 63,

Manners
and cus-
toms.

SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PEESIS. 265

damsels to stand up in a similar manner, but offered asia.
to give a sum of money with each. Accordingly the chap. m.
poorer Babylonians began to bid against each other
to see who would marry an ill-favoured wife for the
smallest sum, the money having been already ob-
tained by the sale of the more beautiful. Thus the
handsome girls helped the plainer ones to husbands,
and fathers were not allowed to give away their
daughters in marriage to whom they pleased. If a
purchaser and his newly bought partner could not
agree, the money was repaid. Men were permitted
to come from one village to another to this matrimo-
nial auction ; but in the time of Herodotus the custom
was discontinued, for after the Persians had taken
the city, the people had been harshly treated and
ruined in fortune, and the lower classes were driven
to prostitute their daughters for a livelihood.^

The Babylonians also had another custom, which No physi-
Herodotus considered to be only inferior in wisdom persons ear-
to the foregoing. They had no physicians, but used market'for''
to bring their sick people into the market-place, and ^'^^i'^'''-
every passer-by was obliged to ask the nature of the
disease ; and then, if the latter had ever had it him-
self or seen it in others, he advised the patient to follow
the treatment which he knew to have effected a cure.^
The Babylonians embalmed their dead in honey, and Embalming

f, T ii • c 11 J ;• ' • •^ Funeral la-

periormed their luneral lamentations m a similar mentations
manner to the Aegyptians. Husbands and wives lhe^l^gyp°t-
after intercoiu^se sat over burning incense in differ- '^1^^.;^^^^ ^^
ent places, and at break of day washed themselves incenseafter
before they touched any vessel. The same practice tercourse"
was also observed by the Arabians.^

The most disgraceful of all the Babylonian cus- Disgraceful
toms was connected with the worship of Aphrodite, connected
■whom they called Mylitta. Every native woman ^oi^^li^of
was obliged once in her life to repair to the precinct Aphrodite.
of this goddess, and submit to the embraces of a
stranger. Some of the richer sort went in covered
and took up their station in the temenus,

196. - Ibid. 3 i_ 198. Comp. Leviticus xv. 16—18.

266 SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA.

CHAP. 111.

Three tribes
of Baby-
lonian Ich-
thyopliagi.

Chaldaeans.

Babylonian
sun-dial.

attended by a numerous train of servants ; but the
majority sat down in the temenus with a crown of
cord about their heads, and in straight rows, so that
they might be easily seen. When a stranger selected
a female, he threw a piece of silver into her lap, say-
ing, " I beseech the goddess Mylitta to favour thee."
The silver, however small, was accounted sacred, and
might not be refused, and the woman was obliged
to follow the man out of the sacred precinct and ful-
fil the law, and then, after absolving herself to the
goddess, she might return home. Many of the de-
formed women were obliged to stop three or four
3^ears fi:-om inability to satisfy the law, biit after the
goddess had been once propitiated no money could
purchase fresh favours.^

Amongst the Babylonians were three tribes who
lived solely upon fish, which they dried in the sun
and pounded in a mortar, and then, after sifting
them through a fine cloth, either kneaded them into
a cake or baked them like bread.^ The Chaldaeans
are mentioned both as being the priests of Belus,^
and as serving in the army of Xerxes.^ It was from
the Babylonians that the Greeks learnt the sun-dial

^ i. 199. The prevalence of this custom is confirmed by Jeremiah,
who evidently alludes to it in the letter which he writes to the Jews
who were about to be led captive to Babylon. — " The women also with
cords about them, sitting in the ways, burn bran for perfume : but if any
of them, drawn by some that passeth by, lie with him, she reproacheth
her fellow, that she was not thought as worthy as herself, nor her cord
broken." Baruch vi. 42, 43. Idolatry is always revolting, but in Baby-
lon it was of the vilest and foulest character. The riches and luxmy of
the people, consequent upon their extended commerce, brought on a total
degeneracy of manners, which was above all conspicuous in the other
sex, amongst whom were no traces of that reserve which usually prevails
in an eastern harem. Babylon has thus become a by-word for harlotry.
Her moral and social state is but too vividly described by Curtius.
"Nihil urbis ejus coiTuptius moribus; nee ad imtandas inliciendasque
immodicas vokiptates instructius. Liberos conjugesque cum hospitibus
stupro coire, modo prctium flagitii detur, parentes maritique patiuntur.
Convivales hidi tota Perside regibus purpuratisque cordi sunt ; Babylo-
nii maxime in vinum et quae ebrietatem sequuntur, perfusi sunt. Femi-
narum convivia ineuntium principio modestus est habitus; dein summa
quaeque amicula exuunt ; paulatimque pudorem profanant ; ad ultimun
(horror auribis sit) ima corporum velamenta projiciunt. Nee meretri-
cum hoc dedecus est, sed matronarum virginumque, apud quas comitas
habetur vulgati corporis vilitas." Cf. Heeren, Asiat. Res. vol, i. ; Quint.
Curtius, hb. v. c. i.

2 i. 200. " i. 181. ^ vii, 63.

SYKIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERglS. 267

and the division of the day into twelve parts.' The asia.
Babylonian talent was equal to seventy Euboic chap, m

mmaS. ^ ^ Gnomon.

VIII. CissiA, or the eighth satrapy, comprised Susa yj\°"*-(.j
and the rest of the Cissians. It paid 300 talents.^ si a and
Bordering it on the east was Persis, or the territory ^erhig to"'
of Persia Proper ; and thou2:h the Persians belonged Khuzistan

1 ' ,^.^. if» •! and f arsis-

to no satrapy, and brought gilts instead oi tribute, tan.
yet for the sake of geographical order and clearness
we shall include Herodotus' s description of them in
the present section.

The Cissia of Herodotus answers to the Susiana of General de-
Strabo and the modern territory of Khuzistan. Persia the country.
Proper, or Persis, is represented by the modern Pars,
Fars, or Farsistan.* '' The Persians," says Herodotus,
" occupy the country between Media and the Ery-
thraean Sea." ^ The southern frontier bordering on Sandy
the Erythraean or Persian Gulf is a sandy plain, which, the^coasi."^
during the summer, is rendered almost uninhabitable
by the heat, and by the pestilential winds from the
deserts of Carmania. Hence we find no mention
of the maritime districts in Herodotus, and indeed
the flat shore, unindented by any inlet, is generally
inaccessible from the sea, and only offers in one or
two places the shelter of a harbour. At a short dis- Rising of
tance from the coast the land rises in terraces, and tenaces.^'^
here the excessive heat becomes mitigated, and rich
pastures are watered by a number of rivulets, and
covered with villages and numerous herds. Further Moimtains
towards the north these agreeable districts are IL father-^
changed for lofty and sterile mountains, a continua- per'^ia^s,^''
tion of the great chain of Zagros ; and the climate here
becomes so inclement that even in the summer season
the elevated summits are not unfrequently covered
with snow. This ungenial region was however the
cradle of the conquerors of Asia. Inured from their
childhood to a rough clime and unproductive soil,

1 ii. 109. 2 iii, 89. 3 iii. 9i_

* Pars is the Persian, Fars the Arabic pronunciation of the word : the
Persian termination stan denoting country. Thus Farsistan the country
of the Persians : Hindtistan, of the Hindus : Kurdistan, of the Kurds.
Cf. Heeren. * vii. 61.

268 SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA, these hardy mountaineers conquered without diffi-
CHAP. in. culty the effeminate inhabitants of the low-lands ;
but although it was the policy of their rulers to at-
tach them as much as possible to their barren coun-
try/ they but too quickly adopted the luxurious
habits of the vanquished nations, and themselves
prepared the way for the destruction of their empire.
Great city Hcrodotus says but very little concerning" the to-
the^cho-"'' pography of either Cissia or Persis. The great city
aspes. q£ Sussi was situatcd in Cissia on the river Choaspes,
which could only be crossed in boats, and the Per-
sian king drank no other water but what was taken
The Mem- fi'om its strcam.^ Susa contained the royal palace
uoumm. gg^iig(j Memnonia,^ which was surrounded by walls,
and had a tower from whence Prexas23es harangued
the people and cast himself headlong.* It was here
that the king of Persia resided, and his treasures
were deposited.^ The suburbs of the city are also
mentioned.^ We may take it for granted that it was
stone figure in Susa that Darius erected a stone figure represent-
horseback!'^ ing a man on horseback, and bearing the following
inscription :

'^ Darius, son of Hystaspes, by the sagacity of his
horse, (giving his name,) and by the address of
Oebares his groom, became king of the Persians." ^
idcntifica- The site of Susa has been a disputed point. Cis-
with "sus^on sia is watered in the west by the Kerkhah, in the
Kerkhah. ^ast by tlic Karoou. On the Kerkhah is the city of
Sus, and on the Karoon, about 56 miles due east of
Sus, is the city of Shuster. Each of these cities have
been supposed to represent the ancient Susa. Shus-
ter, however, is of comparatively modern date,
and contains no ruins which can be referred to a
period anterior to the Sassanian dynasty. On the
other hand, recent travellers have discovered re-
mains at Sus which unquestionably belong to the
Persico-Babylonian period.^ We have therefore no

1 ix. 122. Cf. also Heeren, Asiat. Res. ^ i. 188; v. 49, 52.

3 V. 53. * iii. 75. "> v. 49. « iii. 86. ^ iii. 88.

*• The great mound cjf Sus forms the north-western extremity of a large
irregular platform or tumuli. It appears to represent the site of the in-
ner citadel, whilst the platform constituted the fort of the city. The plat-

SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PEESIS. 269

liesitation in identifying the site of ancient Susa with asia.
that of Sus, and the river Choaspes with the Kerk- chap. m.
hah, which discharges itself into the united streams '

of the Tigris and Euphrates. How far Susa may
be identified with the Shushan of Daniel seems to
be questioned by Major Rawlinson ;, but the adjacent
district is still celebrated for a sanctuary reported to
be the tomb of that prophet.^

At a distance of 210 stadia from Susa was situ- Ardericca,
ated the royal station of Ardericca in the Cissian transplant-
territory. To this spot Darius transplanted the aris"^""^*^''
captured Eretrians, and they continued to occupy
this country and retain their ancient language down
to the time of Herodotus.^ Forty stadia from Ar- weiipro-
dericca was a well which produced three different phaitfsait,
substances, namely, asphalt, salt, and oil. These ^"^^ °'^'
were drawn uj) by a kind of crane, having half a
wine-skin attached to it instead of a bucket. The
contents were thrown into a receiver, Avhich was
again emptied into another, upon which the asphalt
and salt immediately became solid, and the oil was
collected. The Persians called this oil rhadinace.
It was black, and emitted a strong smell. ^ Persia
was a bleak and barren country,'^ and a tract is men-
tioned, though in a somewhat traditionary narrative,
as being overgrown with briers ; but as this tract

form is square, and is estimated by Col. Eawlinson to be about two miles
and a half in extent, and between 80 and 90 feet high. The great mound
is 165 feet high, and about 1100 yards round the base, and 850 round
the summit. The slope is very steep, and can only be ascended by two
pathways. Col. Rawlinson saw on the mound a slab with a cuneiform
inscription of thirty-three lines, three Babylonian sepulchral urns im-
bedded in the soil, and in another place there was exposed to view, a few
feet below the surface, a flooring of brickwork. The summit of the
mound was thickly strewn with broken pottery, glazed tiles, and kiln-
di-ied bricks. Beyond the platform extend the ruins of the city, proba-
bly six or seven miles in circumference, presenting the same appearance
of ii-regular mounds, covered with bricks and broken pottery, and here
and there a fragment of a shaft is seen projecting from the soil. Raw-
linson, Notes on a March from Zohab to Khuzistan.

1 It is worthy of remark that Herodotus makes no mention of Perse-
polis. Neither mdeed do Ctesias, Xenophon, or the Hebrew writers.
To attempt to account for this circumstance would only be to write a dis-
quisition upon Persepolis, which would in no way illustrate the geogra-
phy of Herodotus.

2 vi. 119. ^ Ibid. * i. 71.

270 SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA, was only 18 or 20 stadia square,^ it is not likely to
CHAP. III. })Q ever identified.
Z '. ~ The Persians were formerly called Cephenes by

jr6rsi3,iis di- *^ jl j

Tided into tlio Grccks, but by themselves and neighbours were

STh.?^' named Artaeans.^ They were divided into ten tribes,

Pasargadae, -^Jiicli soom to havo boon includod in three different

Maspii, castes or classes, r irst, the nobles or warriors, con-

Derusiaef^' taiiiing thrco tribes ; viz. the Pasargadae, which em-

Da™^"^' braced the family of the Acliaemenidae, from whom

Mardi, the Persian kings were descended ; the Maraphii ;

and^sa- and the Maspii. Second, the three agricultural and

gartu. other settled tribes, viz. the Panthialaei, the Deru-

siaei, and the Germanii. Third, the four nomad

tribes, viz. the Dahi, the Mardi, the Dropici, and

the Sagartii.'^ The names of the four last tribes are

however common to many parts of west and central

Asia, especially amongst the nomad nations on the

shores of the Caspian. Nor is there any necessity

for supposing that Herodotus meant to say that all

these ten tribes were confined to the territory of

Persia Proper. Even Persian history is not so much

the history of the whole nation as of certain tribes,

or possibly even of the single tribe of the Pasargadae.

These composed the court, and it appears that all

the most distinguished Persians, with scarcely an

exception, proceeded from them.*

Religion of Tho rcUffion of the Persians is described by Herodo-

the Per- . i

sians. tus as follows. They erected neither statues, temples,

tlmpielror ^^^ altars, but regarded them with contempt, for they

Name of ^^^ ^^*' ^^ Hcrodotus conjccturcs, believe, like the

zeusappii- Hellcnes, that the gods had human forms. The

Ten? '^^' name of Zeus they applied to the entire vault of
heaven, and were accustomed to worship from the

'^^ hi^r* highest tops of the mountains.^ They sacrificed to

places. the sun and moon, to the earth, fire, water, and

wOTshil^of the winds ; and this was their only religious service

the .sun,

1 i. 126. - vii. 61. 3 i. 125.

* See a full discussion of this subject in Heeren, Asiat. Nat. vol. i.

® The prophet Isaiah seems to refer to this custom in the following
passage : " I will recompense your iniquities and the iniquities of your
fathers together, saith the Lord, which have burned incense upon the
mountains, and blasphemed me upon the hills." Isa. Ixv. 6, 7-

SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS. 271

in ancient times. At a later period they learnt from asia.
the Aegyptians and Arabians to sacrifice to the ce- chap. m.
lestial Aphrodite, whom they called Mitra.' At their ~ ~

•1^1 • 1 11 1-ni "loo'i' earth

sacriiices they neither erected altars nor kindled fire.Avater,
fires, nor did they use libations, flutes, fillets, or ilterTor-
sacrificial cakes. The sacrificer wreathed his turban Jph °odite
with myrtle, and leading his victim to a consecrated ^ ^itra.
spot, he invoked the god, and prayed not only for sacrifice.
blessings on himself, but also for the prosperity of Se^Iacr?
all the Persians and their king. The victim was ^'^^''•
next cut into small pieces, and the flesh boiled, and
laid upon a bed of tender grass, generally trefoil ;
and one of the Magi standing by sang an ode con- ode sung
corning the origin of the gods. This ode was ^y^^^^^^s^-
said to be an incantation, and unless a Magi an
was present it was unlawful to sacrifice. After a
short time the sacrificer took away the flesh and
disposed of it as he thought proper.^

Birthdays were celebrated by the Persians above social cus-
every other day, and on these occasions the peojole cdebration
were accustomed to furnish their tables in a more ^lys!^*^"
plentiful manner than at any other time. The
wealthier classes would serve up an ox, a horse, a
camel, and an ass roasted whole ; but the poorer sort
produced smaller cattle. At their meals they were Moderation
not immoderate in their eating, but they partook of prSon of
many after-dishes, which were served up at intervals : ^fter-dishes.
hence the Persians said " that the Greeks rose
hungry from table because they had nothing worth
mentioning brought in after dinner, and that if
other things were served up they would never leave
off eating." The Persians were much addicted to Addiction
wine, but their manners were refined in the presence
of each other. They debated upon the most im- Debate
portant affairs whilst they were drunk, and again and^aglkT
the next day when they were sober ; and if they '''^"' '°^^''-
approved of the measure when sober which they
had resolved on when drunk, they adopted it, but

1 The Assyrians called her Mylitta, and the Arabians named her
Alitta. i. 131.

2 i. 132.

272 SYEIA, . BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA.
CHAP. iir.

Modes of
salutatioa
according to
rank.

Respected
neighbour-
ing nations
according to
their prox-
imity to
Persia.

Attachment
to foreign
customs.

Polygamy,
concubin-
age, and
pederasty.

Respect for
fathers of
large fami-
lies.

Education
of sons.

Trial of
criminals.

Parricide

considered

impossible.

otherwise they rejected it. Also whatever they re-
solved on when sober they reconsidered when in-
toxicated.^

In their salutations it was easy to discover their re-
lative rank. Equals kissed each other on the mouth.
If one was a little inferior they kissed the cheek.
If one was of very much lower degree he prostrated
himself at the feet of the other. The Persians
esteemed themselves to be the most excellent of man-
kind, and considered those to be the worst who lived
the farthest from them. Thus they honoured their
neighbours according to their distance off.^ It was
however very remarkable that they were the readiest
of all nations to adopt foreign customs. Thus they
wore the Median costume because they considered
it handsomer than their own, and in war they used
the Aegyptian cuirass. Unfortunately they learnt
and practised all kinds of volu2:>tuousness, such as
pederasty, which they adopted from the Greeks.
They also married many wives, whom they visited
in turns, ^ and kept a still greater number of concu-
bines.^ Next to valour they considered _ that the
exhibition of a number of children was tl: '^ greatest
proof of manliness, and the kings sent presents
every year to those who had the largest families.
Sons from the fifth to the twentieth year were only
taught three things, namely, to ride, to shoot with
a bow, and to speak the truth. Before the fifth
year they lived entirely with the women, and were
not admitted into their father's presence, so that
they might not in case of early death occasion him
any affliction.^ Herodotus very much approves of
this custom, as he docs also of the following, namely,
that no one could be put to death for a single crime,
not even by the king ; but if on examination it were
found that liis misdeeds were greater and more
numerous than his services, the criminal might be
executed. Parricide or matricide were considered
to be impossible crimes, and the murderers in these
apparent cases were always declared to be of ille-

1 i. 133. 2 i. 134. ?. iii. 69. 4 i. 135. .0 j. 136.

SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS. 273

gitimate or of supposititious birth. ^ Conversation asia.
upon unlawful things was strictly prohibited. Tell- chap. m.
ing a lie they considered to be the most disgraceful i~"^
action, and next to that getting into debt, for they getting into
considered that debtors must of necessity be liars. cidiy^X'
Citizens afflicted with leprosy or scrofula were not LepSand
allowed to reside in towns, or mix with others ; and white pi-
the Persians generally maintained that a leper must peUed from
have been so afflicted as a punishment for some ^^*^^^"
offence against the Sun. Strangers attacked with
leprosy were obliged to leave the country, and white
pigeons were also expelled for a similar reason.
Rivers were held in srreat veneration, and no Per- Jeneration

o • • • tor rivGrs-

sian would either wash his hands in one, spit m it,
or otherwise defile it, nor would he suffer any one
else to do so.^ Other thina^s which related to the ceremonies

T -,. I -,~ -, J 1 practised on

dead were not publicly known, but only men- dead bodies.
tioned in private : namely, that the dead body of a
Persian was never buried until it had been torn
by some bird or dog. The Magi however practised
this custom openly. The body was subsequently
covered with wax and concealed in the ground.^
The Persians never burned their dead, because they
considered fire to be a god.* Their skulls were so JJ^tSTer-
remarkably weak that a hole might be made in one sian skuii.
hy casting a single pebble at it : this, Herodotus
supposed, was occasioned by their wearing turbans.^
The longest period of human life amongst them was
estimated by themselves at eighty years. ^

The Maffi differed very much from all other men, ^^?pi ^ p^-

.o lA • • n culuir race :

and particularly from the Aegyptian priests ; lor unlike the
whilst the latter would not kill anything which had piSs.^^"^
life excepting the sacrificial victims, the Magi would
kill anything with their own hands except a dog or
a man, and they even thought that killing ants,
serpents, and other reptiles, and bfrds, was a meri-
torious action.''

The Persians knew nothing of navigation, and ^n^anceof
they were unable to achieve anything on the sea navigation.

1 i. 137. 2 i. 138. 3 i. 140, i m, iQ, s m 12.

« iii. 22. ' i. 140.

274

SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PERSIS.

ASIA.

CHAP. III.

Contempt
for markets
and traders.

Equipment.

Special
honoiir paid
to valour.

Horrible
custom of
burying
alive in
honour of
Ahriman.

until tliey had subdued the Phoenicians/ Just as
little did they understand markets, and Cyrus con-
sidered them to be places set apart in the midst of a
city for people to collect together and cheat each
other.^ Like the Aegyptians and others, they held
those citizens who followed a trade in the least re-
spect.'' Their equipment was similar to that of the
Modes, who wore turbans and loose trousers, and
were protected by variously coloured breastplates
with sleeves or armlets, and with iron scales like
those of a fish. In war they used the Aegyptian
cuirass.* In ancient times the trousers and other
garments were made of leather.^ The cavalry were
armed like the infantry, excepting that some wore
on their heads embossed brass and steel ornaments.®
The people generally paid great honour to valour,
even when it had been exercised by their enemies ; '^
and though Xerxes ordered the head of Leonidas to
be fixed upon a pole, yet that must be regarded as
an exception to the general rule, and merely an in-
stance of the extent to which the Persian kings
indulged in their inveterate hatred against the
Spartans.** On the other hand, to be called more
cowardly than a woman was the greatest affront a
Persian could receive, and the general Artayntes
drew his scimetar against Masistes, the brother of
Xerxes, in return for such opprobrium.^ Burying
23eople alive was one of their most horrible customs.
At the place called Nine Ways they buried alive
nine sons and nine daughters of the inhabitants;
and when Amestris, the wife of Xerxes, grew old,
she caused fourteen children of the best families in
Persia to suffer the same fate, as an offering of thanks
to the deity below the earth.^**"

1 i. 143. ^ i. 1.53. 3 ii. 167. * i. 135; v. 49; vii. 61, 62.

« i. 71. «vi).S4. ■'vii. 181. « vii. 238. » ix. 107. i" vii. 114.

" By this deity Ahriman is probably intended, the angel of darkness,
the author and director of all evil. No trace however of any permission
to offer human victims is to he found in the Zendavestas ; vk^e must
therefore suppose that the sacrifice here mentioned was in accordance
with those hon-ihle magical and superstitious practices which, though
severely forbidden Ijy the reformer of the Magian philosophy, Avere
nevertheless on certain occasions resorted to as part of the more ancient

SYEIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PEESIS. 275

The Persian system of post, called Angareion, asia.
was the most rapid in the world, and was planned ^hap. m.
as follows. The same number of horses and men ~ :

■ t 1 f T • • JrGrsi3.li syS"

were provided as there were days journey to per- temofpost.
form, and one mounted courier was placed at the
station which terminated each day's journey. The
first comer gave his message to the second, the
second to the third, and so on to the end, similar to
the torch race of Hephaestus among the Hellenes ;
and neither snow nor rain, nor heat nor night, pre-
vented them from performing their appointed stage
with the utmost rapidity.'

The kins: on his birthday every year ffave a feast, Matters per-

^^ -t ^^ *^ tSrimii^ to

which was named in the Persian language "tycta, the king.
but in the Hellenic " TiXewr,'' or " perfect ; " and on ^flt'bS-
that occasion he washed his head with soap, and ^^J-
gave presents to the Persians,^ which sometimes in-
cluded the command of an army.^ Those who had ^^?^®,^^^.°
obliged the king in any way were called benefactors, called oro-
and were named in the Persian language Orosan- Sectors.
gae.* The king himself drank no other water than Drank only
what was procured from the river Choaspes at Susa ; t^e 7ive7 °
and this water was boiled in silver vessels, and carried ciioaspes.
after him in four-wheeled carriages drawn by mules
wherever he marched.^ He always was regarded as Regarded
the master of all Asia, and the barbarous nations who ter of iSra.'
inhabited it;" and he stood especially high in the love ^g^j.'^eration
and veneration of the Persians. When the latter heard for him.
of the defeat at Salamis, they were thrown into the
utmost consternation, and rent their garments and
lamented entirely on his account ; ^ and Herodotus
relates, though disbelieving the story, that when the
ship in which Xerxes escaped to Asia was threat-
ened by a storm, many of the Persians on board
voluntarily plunged into the sea, and sacrificed their
lives, in order to lighten the vessel and save their
king.^ Of the royal harem Herodotus says but

form of worship previous to Zoroaster. Kleuker, Appendix to the Zen-
davestas, quoted by Baehr.

1 viii. 98. 2 jx, 110. 3 j^. 109. * viii. 85.

° i. 188. 6 i. 4; ix. 116. ^ viii. 99. « viii. 118.

T 2

276 SYRIA, BABYLONIA, CISSIA, AND PEESIS.

ASIA.

CHAP. Ill,

Conduct of
the hai-em.

Persian lan-
guage.

little. The king received his wives in turns, ^ and the
latter appear to have enjoyed free communication
Avith each other, excepting dming the reign of
Smerdis Magus, when they were kept in separate
apartments.^ The height to which the passions of
hatred and jealousy sometimes attained in the con-
fined sphere of the seraglio, is strikingly brought for-
ward in the dreadfal story of Xerxes' s amour with
Artaynte, and the horrible revenge taken by his wife
Amestris.^

In concluding the present chapter we must remark,
that in connexion with the Persian language, Hero-
dotus mentions a circumstance which was only dis-
covered by the Greeks, after having escaped the no-
tice of the Persians themselves. The names of
the Persians corresponded with their rank and per-
sons, and all terminated in the same letter, viz. the
letter which the Dorians called san, and the lonians
sigmaJ^ A translation is also given of the names of
three of the Persian kings, viz. Darius, '' one who
restrains ; " Xerxes, '' a warrior ; " and Artaxerxes,
'' a mighty warrior." ^

1 iii. 69. 2 iii. 68.

ix. 108—113.

i. 139,

5 vi. 98,

CHAPTER IV.

UNEXPLOEED ASIA:

ETJXINE TRIBES ; ARMENIA ; MATIENE AND THE SASPEIRES ; MEDIA ;

SOUTH CASPIAN TRIBES ; PARTHIA, CHORASMIA, SOGDIA, AND ARIA ;

EAST CASPIAN TRIBES; BACTRIA; GANDARA ; CARMANIA ;

ASIATIC AETHIOPIA; AND NORTHERN INDIA.

Region bounded on the west by the frontiers of Asia Minor ; north by ASIA,
the Phasis, the Caspian, and the Jaxartes ; east by the Indus ; south by cjj^p j

Syria, Assyria, Cissia, Persis, and the Erythraean. — Divided into twelve '__

sati-apies. — 19. Eastern Pontus, comprising the Moschi, Tibareni, Ma-
Crones, Mosynoeci, and Mares, answering to Trebisonde. ■ — Herodotus's
account very meagre. — Extent of the satrapy : probably included the
Chalybes and Ligyes.^Order of the nations according to Xenophon. —
Described by Xenophon as being half barbarous and almost independ-
ent of Persia. — 13. Armenia and Pactyica, answering to Erzroum and
part of Kurdistan. — Difficulty respecting Pactyica. — Armenians, de-
scended from the Phrygians. — Their country the highway between Sar-
dis and Susa. — Watered by four rivers, viz. the Tigris, Zabatus Major,
Zabatus Minor, and the Gyndes. — Stream of the Gyndes weakened by
the 180 canals of Cyrus. — Commerce with Babylon. — Peculiar merchant
boats chiefly fi'eighted with palm wine. — Extent of the Armenia of He-
rodotus.— 18. Matiene with the Saspeires and Alarodii. — Eastern and
western Matiene mentioned by Herodotus. — Eastern Matiene identified
with the mountains of Zagros or Kurdistan. — Matieni represented by
the modern Kurds. — Western Matiene in Asia Minor. — Costume. —
Country of the Saspeires and Alarodii in the valley of the Aras. — 10.
Media, Avith the Paricanii and the Orthocorybantii. — Difficulty respect-
ing the Paricanii. — Orthocorybantii unknown. — ^General description. —
Northern Media, or Atropatene, answering to Azerbijan. — Southern
Media, or Media Magna, answering to Irak Ajemi. — Two capitals each
named Ecbatana. — Media of Herodotus. — Identified by Rennell with
Irak Ajemi, and the Ecbatana with Hamadan. — Identified by Col. Raw-
linson with Azerbijan, and the Ecbatana with Takhti-Soleiman. — Pro-
bably included a large portion of both provinces. — Nisaean plain and
horses. — Ecbatana as described by Herodotus.- — -Story of its walls con-
sidered to be a fable of Sabaean origin. — Medes divided into six tribes,
viz. Busae, Paretaceni, Struchates, Arizanti, and Magi. — Anciently
called Arians. — Costume. — Language. — 11. South Caspian Provinces,
comprising Caspii, Pausicae, Pantimathi, and Dareitae. — Costume of the
Caspii. — Identification of this satrapy with Ghilan, Mazanderan, and
Astrabad. — 16. Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, and Arians, all
wearing Bactrian costume. — Vast extent of the satrapy. — Parthia identi-

278

UNEXPLORED ASIA.

fied with the mountains north of Khorassan.^ — ^Chorasmia with Kharasm,
or Khiva.- — Sogdia with Sogd, or Bokhara. — Aria with Khorassan and
western Afghanistan. — Arians and Medes the same race. — Caspian
Gates. — Sah desert. — Remarkable plain described by Herodotus. — Con-
tained the sources of the Aces. — Tm-ned into a lake by the king of Per-
sia. — Difficulties in the geography : Herodotus's apparent confusion
between the Helmund and the Oxus. — 15. East Caspian Provinces,
comprising Sacae and Caspii. — Sacae the Persian name for Scythians :
their costume. — Amyrgian Sacae to be considered as a Scythian tribe,
conquered by Persia. — Situated between the Oxus and Jaxartes.- — Caspii
north of the ancient course of the Oxus. — 12. Bactria. — General de-
scription.— Identified with Balkh between the Hindoo Koosh and the
Oxus. — Herodotus's account. — Bactria, a penal settlement. — Costume of
the Bactrians. — Aeglae, probably the Ghiljies. — 7- Gandara, comprising
the Sattagydae, Gandaiii, Dadicae, and Aparytae. — Merely named by
Herodotus. — Probably answered to eastern Afghanistan.- — -Gandarii iden-
tified vidth the people of Candahar. — Dadicae with the Tadjiks. — Satta-
gydae with the Zhats. — 14. Carmania, including Sagartii, Sarangees,
Thamanaei, Utii, and Myci, and the isles of the Erythraean. — Sarangees
identified vidth the people of Zarang or Sehestan. — Herodotus's account.
— Costume of the Sagartii. — Mode of fighting with lassos. — Thamanaei
unknown. — Costume of the Sarangees, Utii, and Myci. — 17. Asiatic
Aethiopia, with the Paricanii. — Herodotus's account. — Equipment of
Paricanii. — Aethiopians of Asia contrasted with those of Libya. —
Strange head-dress. — Identification of Asiatic Aethiopia with Gedrosia,
or Beloochistan.- — 20. Northern India, or the Punjab. — Extent of the
satrapy. — Herodotus's account of the people. — Enormous ants. — Ant-
hills of sand and gold-dust. — Mode of carrying off the gold. — Identifica-
tion of the people with the Rajpoots of the Punjab. — Indian camels. —
Costume of the people. — Revenue of the twenty satrapies. — Herodotus's
en-or whilst reducing the Babylonian talent to the Euboic standard. —
Attempts to account for it. — EiTor in the sum total : perhaps included
taxes paid in kind, tolls, gifts, etc. — The money and gold-dust melted
down into ingots.

ASIA.

CHAP. IV.

Region
bounded on
the west by
the frontiers
of Asia Mi-
nor ; north,
by the Pha-
sis, the Cas-
pian, and
the jax-
artes ; east,
by the In-
dus ; south,
by Syria,
Assyria,
Cissia, Per-
sis, and the
Erythraean.

Divided into
twelve sa-
trapies.

In accordance with our plan of classifying the
geography of the Asia of Herodotus according to the
several degrees of his knowledge, we once more re-
turn to the mountains of Armenia, near the eastern
frontier of Asia Minor. In the previous chapter we
described the countries westward of the Tigris, and
Cissia and Persis to the south-east of that river. We
have now to treat of the immense territory north
and east of this region, extending from the eastern
boundary of Asia Minor to the basin of the Indus,
and stretching breadthways, at its eastern quarter,
between the banks of the Jaxartes and coast of the
Erythraean.

Twelve satrapies are included in this region, which
we shall describe in the following order, commencing
at the western extremity. 1. Eastern Pontus, or

UNEXPLORED ASIA. 279

the tribes along the south-eastern shore of the Eux- asia.
ine, now called Trebisonde. 2. Armenia, or Erz- chap. iv.
roum and part of Kurdistan. 3. Matiene and the
country of the Saspeires, comprising the mountains
of Kurdistan and valley of the Aras or Araxes. 4.
Media, or Azerbijan and Irak Ajemi. 5. South Cas-
pian districts, or Grhilan, Mazanderan, and Astrabad.
6. Parthia, Chorasmia, Sogdia, and Aria, or Khoras-
san, western Afghanistan, Khiva, and Bokhara. 7.
East Caspian district, comprising Amyrgian Sacae
and Caspians, or the country north of the ancient
course of the Oxus. 8. Bactria, or Balkh and Budak-
shan. 9. Gandara, or eastern Afghanistan. 10.
Carmania, or Kerman. 11. Asiatic Aethiopia, or Be-
loochistan. 12. Northern India, or the Punjab. This
arrangement is based upon the actual geography of
Asia ; it includes the seventh satrapy, and the tenth
to the twentieth inclusive ; and in order to reconcile
them with the geographical order laid down, we
must take them as follows: viz. 19, 13, 18, 10, 11,
16, 15, 12, 7, 14, 17, and 20.

XIX. Eastern Pontus, or the territory along the xix^ast-
south-eastern shore of the Euxine, now called Trebi- tus com-
sonde, seems to have composed the nineteenth sa- Mosdfi,*Ti-
trapy, which consisted of the Moschi, Tibareni, Ma- ^^^j^m, Ma-
crones, Mosynoeci, and Mares. They paid 300 synoeci.and

, 1 , ^ 1 "^ ' -^ ^ Mares, au-

talenXS. swerlng to

Herodotus tells us but very little concerning these HeredoSs
tribes. They all joined the army of Xerxes, and account
with the exception of the Mares they all wore the gref"^^
same equipment, namely, wooden helmets, small
bucklers, and large pointed spears.^ The Macrones
were neighbours of the Cappadocian Syrians, who
dwelt about Thermodon and the river Parthenius,
and at a recent period learnt the practice of circum-
cision from the Colchians,^ who apparently bordered
them on the north. The Mares wore helmets plait-
ed after the fashion of their country, and carried
small leathern shields and javelins.*

1 iii. 94. ~ vii. 78. ^ „_ io4. * vii. 79.

280 UNEXPLORED ASIA.

ASIA. According to the above description of the Ma-

CHAP. IV. crones, this satrapy appears to have consisted of the

~^^^^^ eastern half of the province subsequently called Pon-

the satrapy: tus, and may approximate to the modern province of

?nciud«i Trebisonde. Here also we may include the Chalybes,

£sancf^' ^^ ^^^ follow Wcssoling's conjocturo, and identify

Ligyes. tliom with the nation whose name has been lost/

The Chalybes carried small shields made of raw

hides, and each had two javelins used for hunting

wolves. On their heads they wore brazen helmets,

and on the helmets were the ears and horns of an

ox made of brass. On the top of the whole was a

plume of feathers. Their legs were wrapped in

pieces of purple cloth. This people possessed an

oracle of Ares.^ In this same satrapy we may also

place the Ligyes, who probably were a branch of the

same widely spread nation which were to be found

in Europe, and who wore the same equipment as

Older of the the Paplilaffonians.^ Xenophon in his way towards

nations ac- , ji -ii i i • -

cording to tho wost passcQ succcssivcly through the territories
Xenophon. ^£ ^^^ Macroncs, the Mosyiioeci, the Chalybes, and
the Tibareni, between the rivers Phasis (or Phion)
and the Thermodon (or Thermeh). The Moschi
are also said to be situated between the sources of
the Phasis and those of the Cyrus (or Kur). We
may therefore describe this satrapy as consisting of
the maritime district between the lofty chain of Ar-
menian mountains and Euxine Sea ; and having the
Phasis and Cyrus on the east, and the Thermodon
on the west.*
by xlno^ The manners of some of these tribes, as described
phonas by Xeiiophoii,^ sufficiently assure us of their half-
barbirous barbarous character ; and we learn that, protected by
fndeplnd-^ their woods and mountains, they paid little or no
ent of Per- regard to the authority of the Persian king, except
when for the sake of plunder they chose to accom-
pany his armies. The Mosynoeci were one of the
wildest and most uncivilized nations of Asia. Their
king or chief was maintained at the public expense

' vii. 76. ^ Ibid. ^ vii. 72. ^ UcnneW, Gcor/. of Herod. \o\. \.
5 Exped. V. 5, quoted by Heeren.

UNEXPLOEED ASIA. 281

in a wooden tower, which he was never permitted asia.
to quit. They pitched their dwellings on the tops chap. iv.
of the mountains at certain intervals, so that the ap- ~^
proach of an enemy might be telegraphed by signals
from one to the other. Their food consisted of dried
fish and boiled chestnuts, and we are told that the
children of the principal men were so effectually
fattened by the latter diet, that they were nearly as
broad as they were long. They practised piracy in
boats containing only three persons, namely, two
fighting men and a rower ; and they dyed and tat-
tooed their bodies with rejoresentations of flowers.
The Tibareni were less barbarous. The Chalybes,
or Alybes, were celebrated as early as the time of the
Homeric poems for their silver-mines, and they con-
tinued to work them in the time of Xenophon, but
at that period could only obtain iron. Xenophon
describes them as a warlike nation, but subject to
the Mosynoeci. They probably derived their name
from x"^'^^' which the Greeks also applied to iron
or steel. Herodotus seems to make a mistake when
he places them within the Halys.^

XIII. Armenia, or the thirteenth satrapy, included xiii. ar-
the Armenians and the neighbouring people as far pactyica,
as the Euxine,^ together with the district Pactyica. to ETz'i^um
The territory which it occupied seems almost to an- ^^"\pf* °^
swer to the modern provinces of Erzroum and Kur-
distan. It paid 400 talents.^

There is some difiiculty about Pactyica in this Difficulty
satrapy. This district must have been situated to Pactyicaf
the far east at the upper course of the Indus, for we
find that Scylax embarked at Caspatyrus in Pactyica
and sailed down the Indus. ^ Moreover, the Pactyes
are described as wearing goat-skin mantles like the
Utii, Myci, and Paricanii,^ who also dwelt in the
eastern quarter of the Persian empire. Probably
this is one of the cases alluded to by Herodotus, in

1 i. 28.

2 Herodotus here seems to make a mistake, as we have seen that the
tribes included in the 19th satrapy, just described, occupied the naiTow
tract between the Armenian mountains and the Euxine.

3 iii. 93. " iv. 44. Cf. page 198. ^ ^i 68.

282

UNEXPLOEED ASIA.

ASIA.

CHAP. IV.

Armenians
descended
from the
Phrygians.

Their coun-
try the
highway
between
Sardis and
Susa.

"Watered by
four rivers,
Tiz.

the Tigris,

Zabatus
Major,

Zabatus
Minor, and
the Gyndes.

Stream of
the Gyndes
weakened
by the 180
canals of
Cyrus.

which distant tribes were included in the same sa-
trapy/ though it is impossible to comprehend the
reasons for such an arrangement.

The Armenians were descendants of the Phry-
gians, and were attired in Phrygian accoutrements
in the army of Xerxes.^ Their country, which
abounded in cattle,^ was situated to the north of As-
syria, by which Herodotus probably meant Mesopo-
tamia, and was separated from Cilicia by a river
that was crossed in boats, namely, the Euphrates.
The route from Sardis to Susa ran through Armenia,
and Herodotus therefore tells us that the extent of
this province was 56|- parasangs, or 1695 stadia, and
that it included fifteen royal stages or resting-places.
Four rivers flowed through Armenia that could only
be crossed by boats. First, the Tigris ; then the
second and third, which have both the same name,
but flow from different sources ; finally, the Gyndes.*
Herodotus does not name the second and third rivers,
but it is evident that they were the Zabatus Major
and the Zabatus Minor, now called the Greater and
the Lesser Zab. Of these fom^ rivers, the Tigris rose
amongst the Armenians,^ flowed by the city of Opis,^
and discharged itself into the Erythraean Sea near
the city of Ampe.^ The second river (Zabatus Ma-
jor) also rose amongst the Armenians. The third
river (Zabatus Minor) rose amongst the Matienians.^
The fourth river, the Gyndes, (or Diala,) rose in the
mountains of Matiene, and flowing through the
country of the Dardanians, discharged itself into the
Tigris. The latter people are unknown. Wlien
Cyrus, on his march against Babylon, arrived at the
river Gyndes, one of the sacred white horses plunged
in from wantonness and endeavoured to swim across,
but was carried away by the stream and drowned.
Cyrus was so enraged with the river for this affront,
that he threatened to weaken its stream so effectu-
ally that women sliould be able to wade across it
without wetting their knees. Accordingly he de-

iii. H9.
^ Ibid.

" vii. 73.
'•' i. 189.

49.

' vi. 20.

* V. 52.
V. 52.

UNEXPLORED ASIA. 283

layed the expedition, and employed his army for an asia.
entire summer in digging one hundred and eighty chap. iv.
conduits, diverging every way from each bank of the
river, and by these means he at length fulfilled his
threat/ The mountains of Armenia also contained
the sources of the river Halys.^

The Armenians carried on a commercial inter- commeixe
course with Babylon by means of the river Eu- ion. "" ^'
phrates. The boats they used for navigating the
river were of a peculiar construction. They were
round like a shield, without making any distinction
in the stern or contraction in the prow. They were Peculiar
made of plaited willows, covered on the outside with {JoaTsl'chief-
leathern hides, and lined with reeds. ^ They were ^^^jf^^^^ted
carried down the river by the force of the stream, wine.
and every vessel was steered by two men, who each
carried an oar, one drawing in whilst the other thrust
out. The merchandise chiefly consisted of palm
wine, and some of the largest boats would carry
5000 talents' weight of freight. Each vessel had an
ass on board, and the larger ones had several of
these animals ; and when the conductors had reach-
ed Babylon and disposed of their cargo, they sold
the wicker fr-amework and reeds by public auction,
and then loaded the ass with the leather and skins
and returned to Armenia by land, as it was impossi-
ble to navigate up stream because of the rapidity
of the current.^ ^

1 i. 189. Rennell has pointed out that the river Gyndes, mentioned
as being traversed by the royal road, is different from the river Gyndes
whose stream was weakened by Cyrus. The former is identified with
the Diala, which is a deep and large stream answering to Herodotus's
description of the distances on the royal road, but totally out of Cyrus's line
of march between Susa and Babylon. The Gyndes weakened by Cyrus
seems to have been the Mendeh, which flows more to the south-east. He-
rodotus seems to have confused the Mendeh with the Diala, and to have
called them both by the same name of Gyndes. They certainly both took
their rise in the mountains of Matiene. ^ i. I'l-

3 Similar boats are still used on the Tigris. Porter (vol. i. p. 259) de-
scribes two kinds, the kelet and the kufa. The kelet consists of a floor-
ing of osiers based on two trunks of ti-ees ; the whole being wattled and
bound together with wicker-work, and attached to bladders filled with aii-,
to prevent their sinking. The kufa is a boat perfectly circular, made of
wicker-work and coated with bitumen, and exactly resembling a large
bowl. ^ i. 194.

5 The market-boats of Germany which go down the Danube to Vienna,

284 UNEXPLORED ASIA.

ASIA. The Ai'menia of Herodotus was confined within

CHAP. IT. very different limits to the Armenia of later times.

j,^^^^^ ^^ In the first place, it did not include the yalley of the

theAime- Araxcs, or Aras, which Herodotus assigns to the Sas-

rodo°tus. ^' peires. On the other hand, it is evident from the

description of the four rivers that flowed through it,

that it must have included a considerable portion of

Kurdistan east of the Tigris ; probably as far soutli

as the Gryndes or Diala. On the west it was bounded

by the Euphrates,^ and on the north it contained the

sources of that river. ^

XVIII. XVIII. Matiene and the country of the Saspeires

withthe^ and Alarodii formed the eighteenth satrapy, and

SSirro- P^^^ ^^^ talents.^

dii. The Matiene of Herodotus has occasioned con-

western^'^' sidcrablo difficulty to commentators. We find Ma-
Sentioned ^ioni in Asia Minor on the right bank of the Halys ; *
byHeiodo- and Aristagoras describes Matiene as coming be-
tween Armenia and Cissia,^ and including four of
the stations on the great highway between Sardis
and Susa;^ and we now see this same j)eople as-
sociated with the Saspeires, who lay to the north of
Media. ^ These contradictions may, to some extent,
be cleared up by a general survey of the country.
Eastern Wo liavo already described the mountain chain

identm'ed aucicntly called Zagros, which runs in a south-east-
mountains ^^^J dircction from the elevated peaks of Ararat to
ofzagiosor the head of the Persian Gulf. It apparently divided
Ma«eni1-e- Armenia from Media, and is now best known under
by'^thenfo- thc collcctive title of ''mountains" of Kurdistan.
dern Kurds, ^lie long tcrracos of this extensive range, and the
verdant pastures of the underlying plains, appear in
all ages to have formed the country of a pastoral
and wandering race. The modern Kurds, who have
taken the place of the Carduchi of Xerxes, arc al-
most all " dwellers in the field." ^

like those of Armenia, never return, but are sold with the commodities
they convey.

1 V. 52. 2 i. 180. ^ iii. 94. * i. 72. '' v. 49.

^ V. 52. Rennell wishes here to read Sittacene for Matiene, as he would
place the latter in Media Magna to the north of the Zagros mountains.

' iv. .37.

^ The wandering tribes of Persia arc comprehended under the general

UNEXPLOEED ASIA. 285

Here then we would place the eastern Matieni, asia.
and identify the mountains of Matiene with those of chap. iv.
Kurdistan. In the northern part of this chain rose
the river Aras, or western Araxes,^ whilst towards the
south the river Cryndes and the Greater and Lesser
Zab flowed into the Tigris. Thus the Matieni were
connected with the Saspeires on the north, and also
inhabited the southern district between Armenia
and Cissia, which Herodotus more especially calls
Matiene.

The western Matieni on the right bank of the western
Halys have next to be considered. They apparently Asia mLot.
occupied the mountains of Anti-Taurus, and were
most probably a pastoral people, presenting many
points of similarity to the eastern Matieni on the
Zagros range. How far they were of a kindred
race it is impossible to say ; Armenia certainly came
between the two nations ; but the question may be
safely left to the conjectures of the reader.

The Matieni in the army of Xerxes wore the costume.
same costume as the Paphlagonians of Asia Minor, ^
and seem to have belonged to the same stock as the
Armenians, with whom they were doubtless to some
extent intermingled, and who were equipped in a
similar manner.^

The Saspeires dwelt above the Modes, and south saspeires
of the Caspians,* and consequently must have occu- dS, in thr
pied the valley of the Aras, or western Araxes. The "'^^}^/ °^^^^
Alarodii are unknown, but were probably a neigh-
bouring tribe, as we find that both they and the
Saspeires were equipped like the Colchians.^

X. Media, or the tenth satrapy, comprised Ecba- x. media,
tana (or Agbatana '^) and the rest of Media, and the ParicSli,
Paricanii and Orthocorybantii. It paid 450 and ortho-

^ _ "' J^ corybantii.

talents.

The Paricanii may be identified with the Pare- Difficulty
taceni, one of the Median tribes,^ as we find the lh?pairca-

term of Iliyats, and are divided into Shehr-nishin, or dwellers in cities,
and Salira-nishin, or dwellers in the field.

1 i. 202. 2 vii_ 72. 3 Yii. 73. i iv. 37. " vii. 79.

•5 Herodotus and Ctesias both spelt it 'Ay^drava.

1 iii, 92. 8 iii. 101.

286

UNEXPLORED ASIA.

ASIA.

: CHAP. lY.

Orthocory-
bantii un-
known.
General de-
scription.
Northern
Media, or
Atropatene
answering
to Azerbi-
jan.

Southern
Media, or
Media Mag-
na, answer-
ing to Irak
Ajemi.

Two capi-
tals, each
named Ec-
batana.

Media of
Herodotus.

Paricanii mentioned again in the seventeenth sa-
trapy, associated with the Asiatic Aethiopians, much
farther to the east. The Orthocorybantii are un-
kno^^TLi.^

Media was divided by the later geograj)hers into
two parts, viz. (1.) Northern Media, or Atropatene,
a wild, momitainous, and unfertile region, west of the
Caspian, and bounded on the north by the western
Araxes or Aras, and answering to the modern country
of Azerbijan. (2.) Southern Media, or Media Magna,
a spacious and fertile table land, south of the Cas-
pian, and including, especially in the neighbourhood
of the city of Nisa, wide tracts of pasture abounding
in the herba medica of the ancients, probably the
same with our clover.^ Here were reared the cele-
brated Nisaean breed of horses, which are especially
noticed by Herodotus, and which were remarkable
for their pure whiteness, and for their size, speed,
and sureness of foot. This Media Magna answers to
the modern Irak Ajemi. Each of these divisions
appear to have had a capital bearing the same name
of Ecbatana, a word which probably signifies in its
original form " treasure," or " treasure city."^ The
Ecbatana of northern Media is identified with the
site of Takhti-Soleiman : that of Media Magna, with
the modern Hamadan. This subject will be more
fully discussed further on.'*

Media as described by Herodotus was generally
level, but the region to the north of Ecbatana, and
towards the Saspeires and the Euxine Sea, was very

^ The conjectures of commentators respecting these two nations are
various. The identification of the Paricanii with the Paretaceni is cer-
tainly doubtful, for if they were really Medes, they did not require
naming at all, being included under the general title of Medes. (See
Baehr's note to vii. 92.) The Orthocorybantii are supposed by Rennell
to be the people of Corbiana, now called Kummabad, in the southern
part of the satrapy.

'•* Heeren, Asiat. lies. vol. i.

3 See Colonel Rawlinson's Memoir on the site of the Atropatenian
EcbatJina, in the .Journal of the Royal Gcog. Soc. vol. x. p. 65 ; to which,
and to Rennell's Geography of Herodotus, I must generally refer as my
authorities for the present description.

' It need scarcely be mentioned that there was also a town in Syria
bearing the name of Ecbatana. (iii. 62.) It was situated on Mount Car-
mel, and was probably a treasure citadel.

CHAP. IV.

UNEXPLOEED ASIA. 287

mountainous, and covered witt forests, and abound- asia.
ing in wild beasts, yet including some pastures wliicli
were favourable to the grazing of cattle.^ This is
the only passage in our author which will really as-
sist us in discovering the territory to which he
referred. Rennell supposes that Media Magna, or g^^^^^^^^J^
Irak Ajemi, only is meant, because that would leave with irak
more room for the Saspeires,^ and was in accordance ^Sba^'^
with his theory that the territory of Matiene, which g^^^j*^^
Herodotus assigns to another satrapy, came between
Media Magna and northern Media or Azerbijan.
He therefore identifies the Ecbatana of Herodotus
with the site of the modern city of Hamadan.
Colonel Rawlinson however contends that only J^'^^oionti
northern Media or Azerbijan is meant, and that the Rawiinson
site of Takhti-Soleiman represents the Ecbatana of bJn,'^anT
Herodotus.' It is certain that our author's descrip- ^^^^^^^^
tion already quoted refers to northern Media, and Takhti-^
there are mountains to the north of Takhti-Soleiman,
but none to the north of Hamadan. It is however p^I^JJ^^
difficult to believe that Herodotus does not also }arg^ por-''
allude to the spacious plains of Media Magna, when '^Z^.^et^
describing the country as generally^ level. The
limits of course cannot be distinctly laid down, as it
is certain that some parts of Media were given to
different satrapies, and besides Matiene ^ already
mentioned, we shall find that the mountaineers of
the southern shore of the Caspian were also ex-
cluded. The border country along the south of
Media and north of Persis was filled up by the
Zagros mountains, and occupied by tribes of robbers,
of whom the Paretaceni were the most consider-
able.

Within the Median territory was the extensive Nisaean

1 i. 110. 2 Seep. 199,201.

3 Colonel Eawlinson shows that the ruins of Takhti-Soleiman are not
later than Timur's invasion in A. D. 1389; that they probably derived
their present name from Soleiman Shah Abuh, a local ruler of Kurdis-
tan, who hved in the early part of the thirteenth centuiy A. D. ; that pre-
vious to the Moguls, the city was known as Shiz in all Oriental authors,
and that Shiz is the same place as the Byzantine Canzaca. A concise
outline of his investigations is to be found in Dr. Smith's Diet, of Geog.
art. Ecbatana.

288

UNEXPLOEED ASIA.

ASIA.

CHAP. IV.

plain and
horses.

Ecbatana as
described by
Herodotus.

Stoi-y of its
walls consi-
dered to be
a fable of
Sabaean ori-

plain called tlie Nisaean, celebrated for its breed of
large and excellent horses,^ which even surpassed
those of India. ^ Ten of these horses were taken by
Xerxes in his expedition against Greece.^ The Ni-
saean pastures appear to have lain between Casvin
and Teheran.^

We now turn to Herodotus' s description of Ecba-
tana. The Medes were originally distributed into
a number of villages,^ and rapine and lawlessness
were generally prevalent.^ At length Deioces, hav-
ing induced the people to make him king, obliged
them to build him Ecbatana. This was erected upon
a mountain, and consisted of seven strong and lofty
walls, each one rising in a circle within the other.
The ground was of an easy ascent, and each inner
wall displayed its battlements above the other. The
outside wall was therefore the lowest, and was about
equal in circmnference to the city of Athens. The
innermost wall was the highest, and within it was
the king's palace, and also his treasury. The bat-
tlements of all these circular walls were of different
colours. The first were white, the second black, the
third purjile, the fourth blue, the fifth bright red,
the sixth plated with silver, and the seventh or in-
nermost one plated with gold.^ The people dwelt
outside all round the walls. ^

Such is Herodotus' s extraordinary description of
Ecbatana. The story of the seven walls is considered
by Colonel Rawlinson to be manifestly a fable of
Sabaean origin, the seven colours being precisely
those employed by the Orientals to denote the seven
great heavenly bodies, or the seven climates in which
they revolve." The hill of Takhti-Soleiman which

' vii.40. 2 ijj, 105. 3 vii. 40.

* Manncrt, V. p. 170. Ilennell places them near Kermanshah. Heeren
remarks that Porter, thouf^h stnick with the same groundless notion, was
struck with the heauty and lleetness of the horses of the plains of Casvin,
when he rode across them in the suite of the crown prince. Abbas Mirza,
Aniat. Nat. vol. i.

■' i. 9(5. « i. 97. "• i. 98. » i. 99.

'•' Colonel Rawlinson quotes from a poem of Nizami, who describes a
seven-dyed palace in nearly the same terms as Herodotus. In this the
palace dedicated to Saturn was black ; that to Jupiter, orange, or more

UNEXPLORED ASIA. 289

Colonel Rawlinson identifies with Ecbatana, rises asia.
one hundred and fifty feet above the plain, and its chap. iv.
brow is still crowned with a wall thirty feet high,
and having thirty-seven bastions in a circuit of a
little more than three quarters of a mile.^

The Modes originally consisted of six tribes, Meciesdi-
namely the Busae, the Paretaceni, Struchates, Ari- ^x tribes^
zanti, Budii, and Magi. These were all formed into pare^sTcTni
a single nation by Deioces.^ At an earlier period struchates,'
the Medes were all called Arians.^ In the army of Budfi^'and
Xerxes they wore turbans and loose trousers, and Anfientiy
their bodies were protected by variously coloured ^JJe^
Ibreastplates, with sleeves or armlets, and with iron Costume.
scales like those of a fish. They used short spears,
long bows, and arrows made of cane, and had dag-
gers on the right thigh, suspended from the girdle.
Instead of shields they had bucklers of osiers curi
ously twisted, and under these bucklers they hung
their quivers.* Of their language the word spaca. Language.
signifying '^ a bitch," ^ is alone preserved by He-
rodotus.

XI. The South Caspian districts seem to have g]\pf°^^"
formed the eleventh satrapy, which comprised the provinces,
Caspii, Pausicae, Pantimathi, add Dareitae. It caTp^irpIu-
paid 200 talents.^ f^^^^,^

The Caspii m Xerxes army wore goat-skm man- andDarei-

tae.

strictly speaking, sandal wood colour ; that to Mars, scarlet ; that to the
Sun, golden ; that to Venus, white ; that to Mercury, azur* ; and that to
the Moon, green, a hue which is applied by Orientals to silver. These
particulars would almost seem to indicate that the story in Herodotus
was originally derived from Chaldaean sources. The order however of
the coloured walls of Ecbatana will not agree with that of the orbits of
the heavenly bodies, according to Chaldaean or Aegyptian notions. If
however we might suppose that the colours of the first and second ram-
parts, and those of the third and fifth, have been interchanged in Hero-
dotus's description, we shall then get an order corresponding with that
of the deities presiding over the days of the week.

^ I have shown elsewhere that I do not beUeve that Herodotus ever
visited Ecbatana, otherwise he would never have compared its extent
with that of Athens. Mr. Blakesley however has pointed out that the
circumference of the hill of Takhti-Soleiman is sufficiently near to that
of the acropolis at Athens to allow of a comparison between the two to
be made in such a caravan story as may have reached the ears of om*
author.

2 i. 101. 3 vii. 62. * vii. 61; v. 49. ^ i nO.

« iii. 92.

290 UNEXPLORED ASIA.

ASIA, ties, and carried bows made of cane peculiar to their
CHAP. IV. country, and scimetars.^ This peculiar cane was
Costume of probablj the bamboo. The other nations are not
the caspii. mentioned as having joined the expedition.
identifica- Tliis satrapy, according to the generally received
JatrapyStii opiuion amoug commentators, lay along the south
Ghiiau,Ma- ^j^d eastom shore of the Caspian Sea, and thus occu-

zanderau, •ii p ^^ •• ij i-i' ^

and Astra- picQ tlic lertile scmicircular tract which is shut up
on the inland side by the ridge of mountains now
called Elburz. It constituted one natural division
of the country, and answered to the modern pro-
vinces of Ghilan, Mazanderan, and Astrabad. E,en-
nell identifies the Pausicae with the Pasicae of
Strabo, and Aspasiacae of Ptolemy, to the north-
east of Chorasmia ; this would extend the satrapy
into the desert of Khiva as far north as the present
mouth of the Oxus.^ We would rather consider it as
being bounded on the north by the ancient course of
this river, which would leave room for the Amyr-
gian Sacae and Caspians of the fifteenth century.
XVI. Par- XVI. The Paethians, Chorasmians, Sogdians,
Chwiasmi- and Arians composed the sixteenth satrapy, which
b^Tn^ Tnd P^^^ ^^^ talents.^ All these nations wore the Bac-
arians, au triaii equipment ; the Arians however are mentioned
BactrL-fn as caiTyiug Mcdic bows.^ It will be presently seen
costume. ^^^ ^^ Hyrcanians may be included in the same

satrapy.^
Vast extent The vast region thus pointed out would appear
tra^t ''^' to extend from the Carmanian satrapy at Lake Zur-
rah, or Aria Palus, and the river Helmund north-
ward to the banks of Jaxartes, or modern Sirr-deria.
We will endeavour to explain the country occupied
Parthia by thcsc uatioiis in detail. The Parthia of He-
wfth^the rodotus uudoubtcdly included only the original

1 vii. 67.

2 Major Rcnncll also remarks upon the general similarity in the
armour of the Bactrians, Caspians, Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians,
Gandarians, and IJadicae, from whence it would appear that all the na-
tions situated to the north and east of Media bore a sufficient resem-
blance to each other to show their common origin, which, he says, was
doubtless from Scythia. ( Gcorf. of Ilerod. vol. i.) The latter question
requires further consideration.

••' iii. 93. '' vii. 60. •' iii. 117,

UNEXPLOKED ASIA. 291

country of the Parthians previous to its extension by asia.
conquest ; and we may gather from the words of ^^^^- 1^-
Justin and Strabo, that this was nothing more than mountains
the mountainous tract between Hyrcania, Mar- ^^^°^^^
giana, Aria, and the desert of Chorasmia,^ answer-
ing on the modern map to the mountains in the
north of Khorassan, which form a continuation of
the Elburz range. Chorasmia may be taken for chors^mia
the deserts of Khiva or Kharesm, which form the resm or
south-western quarter of Independent Tartary. Sog- sogafa with
dia, or Sogdiana, included the country still called ^^^^^.^
Sogd, or Samarcand, but perhaps better known as
Bokhara, or the south-eastern quarter of Independent
Tartary, between the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes.
Lastly, Aria comprised nearly all Khorassan and Aria with

, "^ A n ^ • r 1 J -n 'j * Khorassan

western Afghanistan, and still preserves its name m and western
the modern Herat. The Arians and Medes were ttS^^'
originally the same race, as Herodotus tells us that f/^?'^^^^^

oJ 'ii 1 f \ • 9 Medes the

the Medes anciently bore the name oi Arians."^ same race.
Either this union was dissolved by the dynasty of
the Medes, or the Persians considered it expedient
to weaken a people so powerful by forming them into
separate satrapies. The passage from Media into Caspian
this territory was through the Caspian Gates, a
strong and narrow strait lying between the two
countries, and so called because it led through the
Caspian mountains, now called Elburz, down to the
sea. Western Aria is a waste so impregnated with sait desert.
salt that it has received the name of the Salt Desert.

^ This has been ably pointed out by Rennell, from whom we now ex-
tract the principal authorities for the original seats of the Parthians.
Justin says that the Parthians were Scythian exiles who possessed them-
selves of the places between Hyrcania, the Dahae, Arii, Spartans, and
Margianians. (Lib. xli. c. 1.) For Spartans read Aparytae. (Herod, iii.
91.) Strabo (p. 511) places Parthia between Margiana and Ai-ia ; and
in p. 514 says, that being originally of no great extent, it was increased
in after-times by the addition of Camisene, Chorene, and other districts
(formerly belonging to Media) as far as the Caspian Gates. In p. 509
he says that the river Ochus flows near Parthia. Pliny (vi. 25)
places Parthia between Media and Aria, Carmania and Hyrcania ;
and as he extends Hyrcania eastward to Margiana, it is certain that his
Parthia agrees with that of Ptolemy. Moreover he says that Hecatom-
pylos, the capital of Parthia, lies in the middle of it. RenneU, Geoff, of
Herod, vol. i.

^ vii. 62.

u 2

292 UNEXPLORED ASIA,

ASIA. A remarkable account is to be found in Herodotus

CHAP. IV.

of a large plain in the vicinity of the present satrapy
Remark- ^i^cl tlio uatious includcd in the fourteenth, which
able plain gecms to rcfcr to Sehestan. He describes this plain
Herodotus, as sliut ill by mountains, and situated in the neigh-
bourhood of the Chorasmians, Hyrcanians, Parthi-
ans, Sarangees, and Thamanaeans. It originally
belonged to the Chorasmians, but of course, after the
establishment of the Persian empire, it fell under the
Contained sway of the Great King. In ancient times a large
of*^theTc^el ^ivor named the Aces rose in this plain, and flowing
through five ravines in the mountain barrier, irri-
gated the lands of the surrounding nations already
Turned into montioncd. After the Persian conquest, the king
the^Sng^of dammed in the river by fixing sluice-gates in the
Persia. ravincs, and thus turned the plain into a sea.
This act of tyranny threw the people into the great-
est distress. The rains only fell in the winter ; and
during the summer, when the millet and sesame
were put in the ground, and the land stood in the
greatest need of water, there was none to be had.
Accordingly both men and women would travel all
the way to Persia, and make a great outcry before
the royal palace ; and Herodotus was informed that
the Persian king exacted large sums of money in
addition to the tribute, before he would consent to
open the gates. ^ This story seems in perfect keep-
ing with other accounts which have been preserved
of Asiatic despotism, though to Rennell the relation
Difficulties appeared improbable. It is difficult however to re-
Kraphy^:*^" coiicilc tlic gcogTaj^liical dcscriptioii with the actual
iierodotus's g^^to of the countrv. The country of Sehestan is a

apparent ,,, iii • i i

confusion hollow tract, surrounded by mountains and watered
Hcimund by tlic rivcr Helmund, and it includes the lake
and oxus. ^urrali,^ into which the Helmund discharges itself.

' iii. 117.

'■' This lake consists of a body of brackish water about 160 miles in
circumference. In the centre is a hill upon which is built the fort of
Rustam. Its shores are overgrown to a considerable distance with
rushes and reeds, interspersed with pools of standing water. The banks
of the Helmund are well cultivated and fruitful, and the country pos-
sesses a fine rich soil, which is irngated by the river. This fertile land
however nowhere exceeds two miles in breadth, and the great valley of

UNEXPLOEED ASIA. 293

This lake however and the neighbouring country is asia.
an immense distance from Chorasmia and Hyrcania. ^"^^- ^^-
Most probably Herodotus has confused the Helmund
with the Oxus, and this would account for his ap-
parent contradictory description.^

XV. The East Caspian Provinces seem to have xv- east
formed the fifteenth satrapy, and comprised the Provinces
Sa,cae or Amyrgians, and the Caspii, and paid 250 §33
talents.^ ^ <^^^p"-

Sacae was a name applied by the Persians to all Sacae, the

-ClJr 1 1 • ji f> Persian.

Scythians, but those who marched m the army oi name for
Xerxes, and who we may presume were those in- fhS?"''''" '

cos-
tume.

eluded in the present satrapy, were called Scythian
Amyrgians. They wore stiff hats with pointed
crowns and loose trousers ; and they carried bows
peculiar to their country, daggers, and battle-axes
called sagares.^ A modern geographer* considers Amyrgian
that the name of Sacae was not originally that of a coSered^
nation, but probably pertained to religion and cul- t^^jf^n^e
ture ; and that hostile tribes who gradually extended conquered
to the Tanais, and practised common rites and bore ^
the common name of Sacae, were separately called
the stock of the Greloni, Budini, Sauromatae, and
others. From the description in Herodotus we may
therefore deduce, that a tribe of the Sacae called
Amyrgians were subdued by Persia, and thus satis-
fied her pride. Their seats were probably between situated te-
the upper courses of the Oxus and Jaxartes, to the oxusaud
north of Sogdia. In the time of Alexander the J^^^^*"^^-
Great immense hordes of these Scythians traversed
Sogdia, ready at all times either to seize a booty, or
on the approach of superior forces to fly back to
their native steppes and deserts.'^

the Helmund therefore presents that remarkable contrast which in the
East is the result of the presence or absence of water. Elphinstone's
Cabid, vol. ii., and Capt. Christie in Pottinr/er's Travels, p. 407, both
quoted by Col. Chesney.

1 Herodotus distinctly says (iii. 117) that he derived his information
from hearsay.

■' iii. 93. 3 yii_ 64.

* Ritter, quoted by Baehr in his note on iii. 93.

^ Arrian, quoted by Heeren, Asiat. Nat. vol. i. Arrian makes a
broad distinction between the Sogdians living in cities and the wander-

294 UNEXPLORED ASIA.

ASIA. The Caspians in this satrapy have been a great
cHAv. IV. difficulty to commentators. Caspii have abeady
Caspii north hoon mentioned in the eleventh satrapy, in the dis-
ofthean- trict along the south and south-eastern shores of the
of the oxus. Caspian Sea ; and efforts have therefore been made
to substitute a different reading.^ But no authority
can be quoted from the manuscripts for such devia-
tions from the text, and we still prefer to read
Caspii; not indeed confusing them with those to
the south of the Caspian, from whom they were
separated by the ancient com^se of the Oxus,^ but

ing hordes of Scythians. In the same way the Bucharians are still dis-
tinct in their character and habits from the Usbeck Tartars.

^ Reizius would read Caspeiri, relying upon the authority of Stephen
of Byzantium, who cites from the third book of Herodotus, Caspeiron, a
city of the Persians bordering on India. Rennell and Larcher would
read Casii, or the inhabitants of the country called Casia by Ptolemy,
which lies to the north-east of Sogdia or Samarcand, and ansAvers to the
modern Kashgar. Maltebrun refers us to the inhabitants of the Indian
Caucasus or Hindoo Koosh, in the neighbourhood of the city of Caspa-
tyrus, which we shall presently see was identical with the city of Cabul.
Cf. Baehr, note on Herod, iii. 93.

2 Ancient geographers describe the river Oxus as flowing, not into the
Aral, as at present, but as running from east to west into the Caspian.
Strabo and Pliny always suppose this to be the fact, and it is expressly
asserted by Ptolemy. We are told, however, that about the year 1719,
Peter the Great, having heard that gold was contained in the sands of
one of the tributaries of the Oxus, sent 3000 men under Beckewitz to take
jiossession of the surrounding countries. Meantime the suspicion of the
Tartars was aroused, and they dammed up the Oxus by a strong d)^ke,
and conducted its waters through three canals into the lake Aral. The
khan then marched a large army to meet Beckewitz, but was defeated by
the Russian artillery. Beckewitz subsequently attempted to turn the
Oxus into its ancient channel, but his army, having separated into small
parties, was cut to pieces by the Tartars.

Such is the ancient account and modern tradition, but, in opposition to
the latter, we find that 700 years before the Russian expedition under
Beckewitz, Ebu Haukal describes the Oxus as falling into the lake Aral.
(See Ouseley's translation of Ebu Haukal's Geogi'aphy, p. 239, where the
Oxus is called the Jihoun, and the Aral is named ihe lake of Kharezm.)
It is therefore impossible to believe that the Tartars, in A. D. 1719, turned
the Oxus fiom the Casjnan into the Aral. Moreover we may even doubt
the general possibility of damming up so large a river in a country of
sand.

The researches of recent travellers however confirm the accounts of the
ancient geogi*aphers, that the Oxus did actually at one time flow into the
Caspian. I'he dry channel has been seen at different points, and we ai'e
even told that an embankment actually exists : the problem is best
solved by a consideration of the general physical geography of the
country.

In ante-historical times central Asia must have been an immense sea,
but a constant drying up of the waters has gradually changed a great

UNEXPLOEED ASIA. 295

placing them still higher on the eastern shore of the asia.
Caspian, and in the northern part of the desert of ^"^^'- ^^'-
Khiva.

XII. Bactria formed the twelfth satrapy, and ex- xii. bac-
tended from the Bactrians as far as the Aeglae. It
paid 360 talents.^

The province of Bactria lay between the Hindoo ^^?°^':^J/^®"
Koosh and the river Oxus, and is still known by the identified
name of Balkh.^ The descent from the great range beJwewfSe
of mountains is very rapid, and the lower parts of f ^oJ^°j^nd
Balkh towards the Oxus are much lower and the Oxus.
hotter than the elevated regions on the south.
The hills in the latter quarter are generally stony,
but have many good and well-watered valleys, and
they secure a supply of water to the central part of
the country, which is plain and fertile. The north
towards the Oxus is sandy and barren.^ Bactria
may also be said to include the mountainous terri-
tory to the east, which is now called Budakshan.
The Bactrians were a brave and hardy race, who
were reckoned amongst the best soldiers in the Per-
sian service ; and the province is still celebrated for
a strong and active breed of horses, which are ex-
ported in considerable numbers.

part of this sea into a desert of sand, under which are numerous springs,
generally salt and bitter, whose waters either lose themselves in the sand
or are carried off bj^^ evaporation. In very remote ages, therefore^ the
Aral may have formed only an inland lake of the Oxus river, and that
branch of the river towards the Caspian which is now dried up, was pro-
bably the outflow of the Aral. As the Aral became more shallow the
ijiass of water no longer required this outflow, and the branch towards the
Caspian gradually dried up. Water however is a precious element in a
sandy region, and when the old outflow became too shallow to irrigate the
land, the inhabitants threw a dam or embankment across it to prevent
the Oxus from merely losing itself in the sands, and probably to turn its
waters into canals of greater utility. This dam was probably the one
seen by Beckewitz, and was not recently constructed, but may have existed
prior to the time of Ebu Haukal. For a further account see Memoir
communicated by Humboldt to Captain Moria, and ascribed to the Graf
von Cancrin, printed in Morier's Memoir of the Countries about the Cas-
pian and Aral.

1 iii. 92.

2 Balkh is probably only the name of the principal city of this region,
but is generally applied by geographers to the entire tract. Elphinstone
also uses it in this general sense, though he acknowledges that it is in-
accurate.

3 Elphinstone, Account of Cauhil, vol. ii.

the Buctri

296 UNEXPLORED ASIA.

ASIA. Bactria, according to Herodotus, was the usual
CHAP. IV. place of banisliment for enslaved nations. Thus the
Herodotus's Porsiau gouorals threatened the lonians that thej
account. would nialvO eunuchs of their sons and carry their
peudTetde- virgins to Bactria;^ and the enslaved Barcaeans
^^'^^' from Libya were also carried there, and built a vil-
lage which they named Barca, and which still ex-
isted in the Bactrian territory in the time of Hero-
costumeof dotus.^ Tho Bactriaus in the army of Xerxes wore
turbans on their heads very much like those worn
by the Medes ; they also carried short spears, and
bows made of a cane, which was peculiar to their
country.^ They would seem to be the most im-
portant people in this part of Asia; and we find
that many of the surrounding nations wore the same
equipments, viz. the Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdi-
ans, Grandarians, Dadicae, and Arians; only the
latter carried a bow which bore more resemblance
to the Median.
Acgiae, Of the Aeglae nothing is known for certain. Een-

fheGhlyies. nell would place them in the eastern extremity of
Bactria, where he says that the most remote pro-
vince is named Kil, Gril, or Kilan.* We would
rather identify them with the Ghiljies, who were in
former times the most celebrated of the Afghan
tribes, and are to be found in the neighbourhood of
Cabul, and along the valley of the Cabul river as far
as Jellallabad.^
VII. Can- yii, Gandara, or the seventh satrapy, comprised
prising the tlio Sattagydac, Gandarii, Dadicae, and Aparytae.
GaiSii!'' It paid IT'O talents.^ Herodotus says nothing fur-
Sd A ri'r ^^^^^^ about thoso people, excepting that the Gandarii
tao. and Dadicae wore the same accoutrements as the

named^by BaCtriaUS.^

ivSd •''' The name of Gandara is applied by later oriental
answciudto wxiters to Candahar, and we have therefore thought

1 vi. 9. '' iv. 204. ■> vii. 04.

■* In Stephen of Byznntium we find A'lyrjXoi 'iOvog MrjdiKov, to which
some commentators refer. Ijillerbeck, (juotecl l)y Eaehr, for AlyXajv would
read 'Aptiojv. Sec Baehr's nole on llerod. iii. D2.

^ Elphinstone, Account ofCaubul, vol. ii.

f' iii. yi. ^ vii. 66.

UNEXPLOEED ASIA. 297

proper for the sake of clearness to use it as a general asia.
name for the country of the Gandarii and other na- chap. iv.
tions included in the present satrapy. This col- eastern Af
lective territory is to be identified with eastern ghanistan.
Afghanistan. Strabo places the Gandarii to the identiiied
east of the Indus, but Hecataeus fixes them on the peopie^o^f
western bank of that river, and this latter statement Candahar.
seems most in accordance with the arrangement of
Herodotus. The Dadicae were probably the Tad- Dadicae
jiks, a people of ancient Persian race, who are now T^iS?
widely scattered throughout the countries east of
Persia. The Aparytae we cannot identify. The sattagydae
Sattagydae have been identified by Colonel Raw- zLts. ^
linson with the modern Zhats of Candahar.^

XIV. Caemania, the modern Kerman, seems to xiv. cak-
have been included in the fourteenth satrapy, though ciud/ng ^"'
not named. This government comprised the Sagar- lafangees
tii, Sarangees, Thamanaei, Utii, and Myci, together Thamanaei,
with the islands in the Erythraean, to which the Myci, and
king used to transplant those individuals whom he J^e Eiy-°^
condemned to banishment. It paid a tribute of 600 tj"-aean.

- „ -•• barangees

talents. identiiied

The Sarangees and the Erythraean islanders are peopi?of
the only people whose localities can be at all identi- fe^gs\|°^'
fied, but we may regard these as forming two of the
extremities of the satrapy. The Sarangees were
apparently the people of Zarang or Sehestan, a rich
alluvial tract in the western part of Afghanistan, and
lying to the south of Lake Zurrah, or Aria Palus,
and the river Helmund. The other tribes mentioned

^ Rennell places the Gandarii in Margiana, because he finds in Isidore
the towns of Gadar and Apabartica between the towns of Nisaea, which
he takes for the country of Naisabour, and Antiochia of Margiana, which
he takes for the country of Meru. Hence he concludes that the Ganda-
rii occupied the country of Gadar, and the Aparytae that of Apabartica,
especially as he says Herodotus (vii. 66) gives the name of Gardarians
to those whom he had elsewhere called Gandarians. Larcher has how-
ever pointed out Rennell's mistake. All the MSS. consulted by Larcher
and Wesseling have Gandarians, and never Gardarians, to say nothing of
the weighty testimony of Strabo and Hecataeus quoted above. Baehr
has a long note upon Herod, iii. 91, in which he quotes the opinions of
different geographers, but without expressing any very decided opinion of
his own.

2 iii. 93.

298 UNEXPLORED ASIA.

ASIA, may be placed in the region between Sehestan and
CHAP. IV. the coast opposite the Erythrean isles, thus answer-
ing to the modern provinces of Kerman and Laris-
tan. None of these isles are of great extent except-
ing Kishm.
Herodotus's Tlic Sagartii were nomades ^ of Persian extraction
CoTtllme of and speaking the Persian language ; they wore a
theSagaitii. (.Qstume of a fashion half Persian and half Pactyan.
They furnished eight thousand horse to Xerxes, and
carried no arms either of brass or iron excepting
daggers, but were provided with lassos made of
Mode of twisted thongs. Their mode of fighting was by
■v\§th b^sos. throwing the lasso, which had a noose at the end, over
an enemy, and then dragging down either horse or
man, and despatching with daggers all that they could
Thamanaei tlius entangle.^ The Thamanaeans are unknown.
cStame'^of The Saraugocs, or Sarangae, were distinguished
the saran- for tlicir beautifully coloured garments,'' and wore

£r6Gs U til "^

andMyei.' busMus reaching up to the knee, and carried bows

and Medic javelins.* The Utii and Myci were

equipped like the Pactyes.^ '^

aStic XVII. Asiatic Aethiopia, or the seventeenth sa-

aethiopia trapy, seems to answer to the country between Car-

Paricanii. mania and the Indus. It comprised the Paricanii

and the Aethiopians of Asia, and paid 400 talents.^

account.'' Tho Paricanii were armed like the Pactyes.^ The

Spa?Si. eastern Aethiopians, or those from the sun-rise, as

1 i. 125.

2 vii. 85. The Csikos in the late Hungarian war were said to have
fought with lassos having an iron bullet at the end, and as there
seemed some strange similarity between their name and that of the
Sargatii, I made some inquiry concerning them. I find, however, that
Csiko merely means a colt; that the Csikos are simply herdsmen belong-
ing to no nationality whatever ; and that the story that they formed a
corps in the Hungarian army was a mere invention of the German
papers. I have not, however, been able to learn whether they preserve
any traces of having formed an hereditary caste.

^ Kerman still produces the finest wool; and Kerman, the metropolis,
is celebrated throughout all Asia for its manufacture of shawls, which
are as fine, but not so soft, as those of Cashmere. Heeren, Asiat. Nat.
vol. i.

■> vii. 67. ■' vii. 68.

'■' Bobrik thinks that the Pactyes were also probably included in this
satrapy, and that their name was omitted because the Utians and Mycians
dwelt in Pactyica. Geor/. des Ilerodot. § TQ,

' iii. 94. ' vii! 68.

UNEXPLORED ASIA. 299

Herodotus calls them, were marshalled with the Indi- asia.
ans, and differed from the Libyan Aethiopians only chap. iv.
in their language and their hair, which was straight, Aethiopians
whilst that of the Libyan Aethiopians was curly, of Asiacon-
These Asiatics were accoutred like the Indians, ex- those of '
cepting that they wore on their heads skins like stSge
masks which had been stripped from the heads of iiead-diess.
horses with the ears and mane ; and these horses'
ears were fixed so as to stand erect, whilst the mane
served for a crest. For defensive armour they used
the skins of cranes instead of shields.^

The region inhabited by these Aethiopians seems identifica-
to be identical with Gedrosia, and therefore to have AsLtic
included Mekran and other provinces in that quarter, 4^t?Gedro-
which now bear the general name of Beloochistan. siaorBeioo-
The Paricanii, however, cannot be identified at all.^

XX. Northern India, which formed the twentieth xx.
satrapy, comprised what may be called the tributary india"o?^
Indians, to distinguish them from those tribes who '^^^i^^-
were independent of the Persian power. They were
the most numerous people known to Herodotus, and
paid a tribute proportionably large, viz. 360 talents
of gold-dust ; ^ which, reckoned at thirteen times the
value of the usual silver talent, were equal to 4680
talents.*

Herodotus describes these tributary Indians as Extent of
being settled to the north of the other Indian '^^'^^'^p^-
tribes, and on the borders of the city of Caspatyrus
and country of Pactyica ; and we may infer that
their country was not far from that of the Bactrians,
whom they resembled in their mode of life. In their
neighbourhood was a sandy desert.^ : We have al-
ready identified Caspatyrus and the country of Pac-
tyica with the modern territory of Cabul,^ and the
desert here alluded to is no doubt that of Gobi or
Sliamo. We have therefore no hesitation in extend-

' vii. 70.

^ Rennell thinks it possible that they may have lived in the neigh-
bourhood of the Purah of the historians of Alexander, which he identifies
with the town of Paraj or Fahraj. This however is pure conjecture.

3 iii. 94, 102. * iii. 95.

5 iii, 102. « See page 199.

300 UNEXPLOKED ASIA.

ASIA, ing this satrapy in a north-easterly direction from
CHAP. IV. the confines of Gandaria and Bactria towards the
' desert of Shamo, thus approximating to the country
now called the Punjab.
Hciodotus's The Indians of this satrapy were the most warlike
thriTopie. of all the Indian nations. The desert abounded in
Enormous r^uts, rather less than dogs, but larger than foxes, of
which the king of Persia possessed some specimens.^
These ants formed their habitations under ground,
and heaped up the sand in a similar manner to the
ants of Hellas, which they much resembled in shape.
Ant-hills of Tlio saud tlius hcapcd up was mixed with gold, which
^oid-duft. ^^^^ "^^^^^ obtained by the Indians. Each man took
Mode of Avith him three camels, viz. a male on each side to
the'goid. carry the gold, and a female in the centre on which
he sat ; and he took care that the latter should be
one that had recently foaled.^ During the hottest
part of the day the ants burrowed themselves in
their subterranean dwellings, and accordingly the
Indians chose this time for carrying off the gold.
On reaching the spot they filled their sacks and
hastened away with all possible despatch ; for the
ants would discover them by their smell, and being
the swiftest of animals, would overtake and destroy
them, unless the gold-stealers had got a good start.
It was thus, according to the Persians, that the In-
dians obtained the greatest part of their gold; at
the same time the metal was found, though in less
quantities, in mines and rivers.^
idcntifica- Hcrodotus's remark already quoted, that the In-
^'co^,k with tl^i^'iTLS comprised in this satrapy were the most war-
thc uaj- like of all the Indian nations, at once leads us to
i°imjab. *^ identify them with the warrior-caste of Hindostan,
the ancestors of the Rajpoots, of whom the Mahrattas
and Sikhs are branches. The upper class of the
inhabitants of the Punjab still consists of Rajpoots,
who arc stout and handsome, with aquiline noses

^ Marco Paulo relates that the Indians sent stuffed monsters into
foreign countries to give countenance to the stories respecting them. If
this fraud was practised in the time of Darius, it will account for the
stuffed ants in the museum at Susa.

2 iii. 102. ^ iii. 106.

UNEXPLOEED ASIA. 301

and Jewish features. The lower class consists of the asia.
little, dark-complexioned, and unsightly Jauts, who chap. iv.
are plainly alluded to in Herodotus' s account of the '

Independent Indians.^

In connexion with the account of India, we have Indian
a notice of the Indian camels. These were as swift
as horses, and much better able to carry burdens.^
The males however were inferior in speed to the
females, and in the race from the ant-heaps were the
soonest tired, whilst the female, being anxious to re-
turn to her young, never slackened her pace. As
the camel was known to the Greeks, only two other
facts are mentioned, namely, that it had four thighs
and four knees in the hinder legs, or rather two
thighs, two shins in each leg, and that the genitals
of the male were turned towards the tail.^

The Indians in the army of Xerxes wore cotton costume of

, •11 ^ n /I ^"'^ Indians.

garments, and carried bows made oi cane, (or bam-
boo,) and arrows of the same material, but tipped
with iron/ Their cavalry were equipped in the
same manner, and besides saddle-horses, had chariots
drawn by horses and wild asses. ^

This account of the Indians who paid tribute to Revenue of
Darius concludes the geography of the twenty satra- satrapies- ^
pies. The revenue of the whole may be summed up as
follows ; it being remembered that Herodotus does
not include sums smaller than a talent.

Silver
Talents.

1. Western and south-western Asia Minor . . . 400

2. Lydian Asia Minor . . . . . 500

3. Northern Asia Minor . . . . . 360

4. South-eastern or CiUcian Asia Minor . . . 500

Also 360 white horses. . , . .

5. Phoenicia, Palaestine, and Cyprus . . . 350

6. Aegypt and Libya ...... 700

Also 120,000 measures of com and fish from Lake Moe-
ris : the latter producing one talent a day for six months,
and 20 minas a day for the remaining six months.

7. Sattagydae, Gandarii, Dadicae, and Aparytae . . 170

8. Cissia, or Susiana ..... 300

Carried forward 3280

1 See chap. v. « iii. 102. ' iii. 104.

* vii. 65. 5 vii. 86.

302

UNEXPLORED ASIA.

ASIA.

CHAP. IV.

Brought forward
9. Assyria, including Babylon
Also 500 eunuchs.

10. Media, including the Paricanii and Orthocorybantii

11. Caspii, Pausicae, Pantimathi, and Dareitae

12. Bactria, including the Aeglae and the nations intervening

13. Armenia from Pactyica to the Euxine

14. Sagartii, Sarangae, Thamanaei, Utii, Myci, and Ery-

thraean isles ......

15. Sacae and Caspii .....

16. Parthi, Chorasmii, Sogdi, and Arii
17- Paricanii and Asiatic Aethiopia .

18. Matieni, Saspeires, and Alarodii

19. Moschi, Tibareni, Macrones, Mosynoeci, and Marsi

Babylonian talents, each equal to 70 Euboic minas

20. Indians . . 360 talents of gold-dust, 13 times the value of

silver, and therefore equal to Euboic talents of 60 minas
each .......

Silver
Talents.

3280
1000

450
200
360
400

600
250
300
400
200
300

7740

4680

standard.

Herodotiis's TliG silvGr taleiits paid by the first nineteen satra-
redudngthe pi^s Were accorcling to the Babylonian standard,
Sent to the w^^ich Herodotus calculates to be equal to 70 Euboic
Euboic minas. ^ But we have now to deal with one of those
arithmetical errors so frequent in our author, and
which are generally laid to the charge of faulty
transcribers. The sum total paid by the first nine-
teen satrapies, reduced to Euboic talents, he calcu-
lates at 9540 talents. Now the Euboic talent^ was
equal to 60 minas, being a pro]3ortion of 7 to 6 in
comparison with the Babylonian talent. Conse-
quently the case stand thus.

7740 Babylonian talents according to Herodotus's calculation

equal to ....,,

Ditto, according to our calculation, as 6 to 7

Difference

Silver
Talents.

9540
9030

510

Attempts to It is really impossible to account for this discre-
account for ^qj^qj^ tliough it may be somewhat lessened by sup-
posing, as Aelian assorts, that the Babylonian talent
was really equal to 72 Euboic minas, and therefore

1 iii. 89.

2 The P^uboic talent was really slightly heavier than the Attic talent,
70 Euboic minas being equal to 72 Attic minas. This however makes
not the slightest diflerence in the calculation, as we reckon by Euboic
and not by Attic minas.

UNEXPLORED ASIA. 303

stood in proportion to the Eult5oic talent as 5 to 6 ; asia.
and that Herodotus merely said 70 minas for the chap. iv..
sake of using round numbers, though in his calcula- "

tion he reckoned it at 72 minas. This however will
not explain the whole error, as, according to Herodo-:
tus's calculation, the Babylonian was to the Euboic
talent nearly in the proportion of 4 to 5.

Close upon the foregoing we have another unac- Error in the
countable mistake. Herodotus calculates the 360 perhaps in-
talents of Indian gold-dust to be thirteen times the pjUdinS
value of silver, and accordingly reckons the' gold as toils, gifts,
equal to 4680 Euboic talents. Here, for a wonder,
he appears to be correct ; the gold was to be paid in
according to the Euboic talent, and thirteen times
360 is really 4680. Next, in order to arrive at the
sum total collected from the twenty satrapies, he
adds the 4680 talents to the 9540 talents. The
result ought to be 14,220 talents, but he makes
it 14,560 talents.^ Some commentators have endea-
voured to reconcile this difference, by supposing that
Herodotus tacitly included in the sum total the 360
white Cilician horses mentioned in the fourth satra-
py; the 240 talents produced by the fish in Lake
Moeris, and the 120,000 measures of corn, mentioned
in the sixth satrapy ; the 500 eunuchs sent from the
ninth satrapy ; together with the exactions levied
from the nations of the fourteenth and sixteenth,
who dwelt round the enclosed plain, and paid toll
for the water they obtained through the sluice-gates
which blocked up the five mountain ravines.^
Amongst these additions might perhaps be included
that branch of the revenue which was received in
the shape of gifts, and was sent by the following na-
tions. The Aethiopians on the borders of Aegypt,
who were subdued by Cambyses, took every 3 years
2 choenices of unmolten gold, 200 blocks of ebony,
5 Aethiopian boys, and 20 large elephants' tusks.
The Colchians and neighbouring nations, as far as
Mount Caucasus, which bounded the Persian empire,
furnished every five years 100 boys and 100 virgins.

1 iii. 95. 2 See page 292.

304 UNEXPLOEED ASIA.

ASIA. The Arabians also sent every year 1000 talents of
CHAP. IV. frankincense. Subsequently the islands (probably
those in the Aegean) paid tribute, together with the
inhabitants of Europe as far as Thessaly. The Per-
sians alone occupied their land without paying taxes,
though indeed they brought gifts, ^ which were pro-
bably regarded as voluntary marks of homage.
The money Wliou the tribute was all collected it was melted
dust^mdted and pom^ed into earthen jars ; and these moulds
•^Tts"^*'' were afterwards removed, and the king had the
metal cut off as occasion required.^

' iii. 96, 97. ^ iij, ge.

CHAPTEE V.

INDEPENDENT ASIA :

OR
SOUTHERN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA,

Three Asiatic nations independent of the Persian empire, viz. South- ASIA.
ern Indians, Colchians, and Arabians. — I. Southern India. — General chap v

description of the India of Herodotus. — Morning the hottest part of the . '

day. — Superior size of the birds and quadrupeds. — Camels. — Dogs. —
Gold. — Cotton-trees. — Two nations of Indians. — Southern Indians of
Northern Hindostan. — The most easterly of all the Asiatic nations. —
Divided into tribes who spoke different languages. — Four tribes men-
tioned by Herodotus. — Herodotus's superior and correct knowledge of
India derived from the report of Scylax. — Great merit of Scylax. — In-
dian fishermen on the marshes of the Indus. — Identified with the pulla-
fishers of Sinde. — Singular coincidence between the report of Scylax
and that of Lieut. Wood. — Nomade Indians or Padaei. — Killed and
ate their sick relations. — Identified with the barbarous tribes of the
deserts of Sinde. — Vegetarian Indians, who lived chiefly on rice. —
Identified with the Hindoos. — Calatians, who ate their parents. — Pro-
bably the same as the Padaei. — Shameless manners and black com-
plexion of the Indians. — Probably referred to the Jauts of Rajpootana.
II. Colchis. Description of the country. — Political relations with Persia.
— Costume. — Manufacture of linen. — Gifts to Persia. — Colchians be-
lieved by Herodotus to be of Aegyptian origin, from their complexion
and hair, their practice of circumcision, their manufacture of Unen, and
their hfe and language. — Value to be placed on his testimony. — III.
Arabia. General description of the country. — Herodotus's description. —
African mountain range between the Nile valley and Arabian Gulf, in-
cluded in Arabia. — Land of frankincense. — His account of the Arabian
Gulf. — Supposed it to be much narrower than it is in reality. — Causes of
his error.— More correct as to its length. — His real knowledge of Arabia
confined to Arabia Petraea. — Assigns the Philistine territory to the Arabs.
— Nature of the soil. — City of Patumos. — River Corys. — Defile near Buto
containing the bones of winged serpents. — Fabulous story concerning the
serpents. — Rare productions of Arabia. — Frankincense guarded by ser-
pents.— Cassia guarded by bats. — Curious manner of obtaining cinna-
mon from the nests of large birds. — Ledanum obtained from the beards
of goats. — Sheep with enormous tails. — Political relations of the Arabians
with Persia — Costume. Manner of making contracts. — Worship of
Dionysus, named Orotal, and of Urania, called Alilat and Alitta.

306 SOUTHERN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA.

ASIA.

CHAP. V.

Three Asia-
tie nations
independ-
ent of the
Persian em-
pire, viz.
Southern
Indians,
Colchians,
and Ara-
bians.

I. South-
ern India.
General de-
scription of
the India of
Herodotus.

Morning
the hottest
])art of the
day.

Superior
size of the
birds and
quadrupeds.

Camels.

Dogs.

Under the name of Independent Asia we purpose
developing our author's geography of those three na-
tions which to some extent were independent of the
Persian empire, namely, the Southern Indians, the
Colchians, and the Arabians, Of these the South-
ern Indians were never subject to Darius,^ and
though we find that both the Colchians and Arabi-
ans sent gifts to the Persian king, and served in the
army of Xerxes, yet they were not included in the
satrapical arrangement ; and, indeed, their geogra-
phical position would have defied every effort to
reduce them to absolute submission.

I. The India of Herodotus appears to have in-
cluded the valley of the Indus, and to have stretch-
ed eastward as far as the sandy desert of Shamo on
the north, and that between Moultan and Guzerat
towards the south. This country our author de-
scribes as being characterized by many peculiarities.
Here the hottest period of the day was not at noon,
but in the morning, and continued until about the
same hour that the Greeks left their markets. At
this time the sun was much hotter in India than it
was at mid-day in Greece, and it was reported that
the Indians were accustomed to refresh themselves
during these hot mornings by standing in water.
Noon in India was about as warm as noon elsewhere,
but the afternoon became as cool as the morning
in other countries. Thus the warmth decreased as
the day declined, and at sun-set it was exceedingly
cold.^

The birds and quadrupeds of India were much
larger than those of any other country, but the
horses were an exception to this rule, as they were
surpassed by the Nisaean breed of Media. ^ The
camels have been already noticed.* The dogs were
greatly esteemed by the Persians. The satrap of
Babylon kept such an immense number, that four

^ iii. 101.

2 iii. 104. This ;iccoiint is probably based upon Scylax's reports of
the morning lustrations of the Indians, and of the great heat of the coast
country, from sun-rise until the forenoon, when the sea-breezes set in.

■■' iii. 106. " See page 301.

SOUTHERN INI>IA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA. 307

considerable towns were exempted from taxation, asia.
on condition of supplying them with food ; ^ and we chap. v.
learn that an immense nmnber followed in the army
of Xerxes.^ Grold was obtained in large quantities, Gom.
partly by digging, but mostly by robbing the ant-
heaps in the manner already described.^ Curious Cotton trees.
wild trees also grew in India, bearing wool (or cot-
ton) instead of fruit ; and this wool surpassed that of
sheep in beauty and quality, and was used by the
natives as a material for their clothing.^

The Indians themselves were the most numerous Two nations
people known to Herodotus.^ We have followed °^ i'"'^^'^""-
Herodotus in dividing them into two nations, viz.
1. The Northern Indians, who formed the twentieth
satrapy, and lived in the neighbourhood of Bactria
and Cabul.® 2. The Southern Indians, who occu- Southern
pied Northern Hindostan. The latter people are Northern
those which now demand our attention, as we are Hindostan.
assured by our author that they were never subject
to Darius.^

The Indians of Sinde, who thus maintained their The most
independence, were the most easterly of all the authe Asia-
Asiatic nations known to Herodotus, for beyond ^''^ "^^^^o"^^-
them the country was desert by reason of the sands.
They were divided into a variety of tribes, who Divided into
spoke different languages.^ Of these Herodotus spoke dlffer-
describes four, viz. 1. The Fishermen, who lived on ^^^^l^'
the marshes of the Indus. 2. The nomad Padaeans, i^our tribes
farther to the east. 3. The Vegetarians. 4. The ™y He^'^do-
Calatians. *^®-

Before, however, we proceed further to develope Herodotuss

j_i 5 1 i» j^i T T i superior and

our author's geography oi the Indians, we cannot correct
but remark, upon the striking contrast between his o^inJ-a^e-
graphic pictures of these distant tribes and the rivefi froi"
meagre notices of the nations of Khorassan and ofscyiax.
Afghanistan, included in the geography of the satra-
pies. But a ray of light had been cast upon these

1 i. 192. 2 vii. 187. ' See page 300. * iii. 106.

s iii. 94.

^ The country of these Northern Indians approximated to the Punjab,
and the people have been already described at page 299.
■' iii. 101. 8 iii, 98.

X 2

308 SOUTHEEN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA.

ASIA, far-off regions by the exploring expedition of Scylax
CHAP. V. down the mysterious stream of the Indus.' We are
at once carried away to the royal archives of Susa.
The eager curiosity of the laborious traveller had
enabled him to master the list of the satrapies of
Darius, and to catalogue the nations in the armament
of Xerxes. But his mind was weary of the dry de-
tail. The mere names of barbarous tribes called up
no new ideas or pleasing visions. At last the report
of Scylax is before him. He reads the narration of
the voyage with the fullest conviction of its truth.
No Aegyptian priest is misleading him with absurd
stories ; ^ no cunning Phoenician merchant is puff-
Great merit ing off liis commoditics by lying fables.'^ He at
'^^^^' once adopts the report as the groundwork of his
description. And whilst we gladly testify to the
truth-loving genius of Herodotus by comparing his
geographical details with the researches of later
travellers, we would also place the name of Scylax
of Caryanda high on the list of those noble labourers
in the cause of geographical discovery, who have
been but too often the martyrs to that science of
which they themselves were the originators.

With this tribute to the memory of an almost
unknown discoverer, we proceed to enter upon the
geography of those four tribes of Indians already
named, viz. the Fishermen, the Nomades, the Ve-
getarians, and the Calatians.
Indian fish- The Fislicrmen, Herodotus informs us, lived on
thTmar^hes tlio marslics of tlic rivcr Indus, and subsisted on the
of the In- fjg|-^^ which they ate raw, and took by means of
canoes made of canes. A single joint of this cane
was sufficient to form a canoe. These Indian fish-
ermen made garments of river plants, which they cut
and beat, and then plaited lil^e a mat, and wore as a

•fid ^-^^^^^^^^-^
with the The position of these people is here distinctly

ofSinS^" pointed out. They inhabited the marshes of the

' The particulars of this expedition are already commented on at
page 198.

2 See ii. 2S, 121—123. ^ iii. Ill, 115. " iii. 98.

SOUTHERN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA. 309

Indus, by which we understand the country in the asia.
lower course of that river.* Many of the Sindians chap. v.
at the present day still live chiefly by fishing. The • "
lower course of the Indus is portioned out into sec-
tions, where the right of pulla-fishing is strictly con-
fined to their respective villages. The season for
taking the puUa fish commences in March, and ends
in September. The fishermen launch out upon the
river, supported only by earthen jars, or dry reeds.
The latter soon become sodden, and the fisherman
can then only keep his head above water ; otherwise
the bark costs him no care, and at every trip he sets
forth upon a new one. Upon the banks of the river
grows a gigantic grass which attains the height of
twelve and eighteen feet, and is often so dense that
it is difficult to force a path through it. It has a
graceful stalk, often three-eighths of an inch in
diameter, from the top of which droops a fringe re-
sembling a feather. The Sindian name is Cana.
The stalk is jointed like the bamboo, but one-third of
its whole length, measuring from the top, is con-
tinuous. This portion is called teli, and used in
the construction of baskets, while of the other part
a useful description of mat is fabricated, known by
the name of Keri.^

The reader will scarcely believe that we have ex- singular

..i.TT • n .- -I -If, -, coincidence

tracted the above miormation, nearly word lor word, between the
from Lieut. Wood's Personal Narrative. All further scyiaxfnd
comment is unnecessary. The description of He- ^^^^ °*"
rodotus, written more than two thousand years ago, Wooi.
is almost identical with that of Lieut. Wood, written,
as it were, yesterday; and yet the gallant English
officer neither quotes nor alludes to Herodotus
throughout his valuable volume. Strange, that the
log books of Lieut. Wood and Scylax of Caryanda,
the last and the first of Indus navigators, should thus
bear ample testimony to the truth of each other's

1 The delta of the Indus must have been anciently a marsh, for the
whole country is alluvial, and some of its spontaneous productions ex-
hibit the growth of a century. See Wood's Journey up the Indus to
the source of the Oxus. (London, I84I.)

^ Wood's Journey, pp. 15, 45.

310 SOUTHEEN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA.

ASIA, statements, and yet be equally ignorant of each
CHAP. V. other's discoveries.

Nomade In- ^^^ ^^ retiu'n to Horodotus. Eastward of the
diansor Fishermeii lived the Nomade Indians, who subsisted
on raw flesh, and were called Padaei. They were
Killed and Said to obsorvo tlic following customs. When any
theh-^s'ic°k ^^^ ^^ their community was attacked by sickness his
relations, noarcst coiinoxions put him to death, saying, that if
they waited until he was wasted by disease his flesh
would be spoilt ; and if he denied being sick, they
killed and feasted upon him just the same. If a
woman fell ill, her female companions treated her
in a similar manner. Those who happened to reach
old age were also killed and eaten, but this was of
rare occurrence, as each one was put to death di-
rectly he was seized with any distemper.*
Identified The Padaoi must thus be placed to the east of the
barbarous Fishormon, but whether their name is connected with
tribes of the ^}jg^^ of ^j^g rivcr Ganffcs, of which Padaei is the

desert of . i -i rN • i i

sinde. propor or banscrit name, whilst Granges is only the
appellative;^ or with the town of Pader, in Little
Thibet ; ^ or with the river Paddur, which separates
Cutch from Gruzerat ; * must still remain a matter for
conjecture. I am disposed to regard it as a general
name for the nomade Indians of north-western Hin-
dostan. The desert between Guzerat and Moultan
has been in all ages haunted by lawless Indian
tribes, who also inhabit a large portion of the penin-
sula, almost in a state of savage nature. Whether
they were really cannibals, as stated by Herodotus,
may be doubted, but the tradition is of genuine
Indian growth, and is repeated by Thevenot and
Marco Polo.
Vegetarian Otlicr Iiidians aro described by Herodotus, who
lived chidiy may be called Vegetarians, and who observed totally
on rice. dift'cront customs. They never killed anything that
had life, nor sowed anything, nor dwelt in houses ;
but they lived upon herbs, and especially upon a

1 iii. 99. 2 Renndl, Georj. of Herod, vol. i. p. 410.

^ Make Bnin, vol. ii. p. G27, Eng. edit.
* Hceren, Asiat. Nations, vol. i.

SOUTHERN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA. 311

kind of grain about the size of millet, enclosed in a asia.
husk, which sprung up spontaneously, and which ^"^^- ^-
they boiled and ate with the husk. If any one
amongst them was attacked by a malady, he retired
into the desert, and there laid down, and no one
gave a thought about him, or cared whether he re-
covered or died.'

It is impossible to fail in recognising this Indian J^^^{J*J^f
race who lived on a vegetable diet, and abstained Hindoos,
from every species of animal food. The Hindoos
generally abstain from meat, and the same distaste
for it may be traced amongst the Mahrattas to the
south of Gruzerat. Neither can there remain a
doubt as to the species of grain which is here de-
scribed, as we know that rice is the principal diet of
these tribes, and may be regarded as indigenous to
the country.

Lastly, Herodotus mentions the Calatians, an In- ^^^^"^^
dian people, who were accustomed to eat their their pa-
parents. Darius asked them what sum would induce ^®^*^'
them to consent to burn the dead bodies of their
fathers; but they replied with loud exclamations,
and prayed him to speak less impiously.^ They are
said to have subsisted on the same grain as the
Libyan Aethiopians.^

These people can certainly not be identified now. J[e°saSJas
Rubruquis says that the inhabitants of Thibet once the Padaei.
practised the abominable custom of eating the bodies
of those relations who died of old age, and that this,
when given up, was replaced by that of drinking out
of the skulls of their ancestors. The moderns make
no mention of either of these customs.* Heeren
would place them with the Padaei, and considers
their name as having been immediately derived from
their Indian appellation of Collar, Coolier, or
Cooleries.^ These, in their native coimtry, are a
most untameable race of plunderers, who delight in

^ iii. 100. 3 iii. 38.

3 iii. 97. In this chapter they are named Calantian Indians.

* Malte Brun, vol. ii. Eng. edit. ^ Heeren, Asiat. Res. vol. i.

312 SOUTHERN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND AEABIA.

ASIA, blood and nastiness, and despise every approach to

CHAP. T. ciyilized habits.
Shameless ^^ concluding liis account of the Indians of north-
^anners wcstem Hindostan, Herodotus informs us that they
complexion wore as shameloss as cattle in their intercourse with
ans-proba- womon,^ a sufficiont proof of the low state of civil-
*^L^"^^f ^.*^ ization amono-st these people in ancient times. He

to the Jauts o ,.-'-^,. iii i

ofRajpoo- also adds, that their complexion was black, and
strongly resembled that of the Aethiopians ; ^ and
even in the present day, the Jauts, or common peo-
]3le of Rajpootana, are described as black, little, and
wretched in their appearance.^
II. Col- II. The CoLCHiANS, who are the next people
Sscriptiou to bc doscribcd, were situated to the south of the
of the coun- pa^ge of Caucasus, and their territory thus an-
swered to the modern Georgia. According to He-
rodotus, Colchis extended along the Pontus, about
the mouth of the river Phasis, and was thirty days'
journey for a well-girt man from Lake Maeotis.*
The Saspeires, in the valley of the Aras, were the
only nation which separated it from the Modes. ^
Political re- The ColcHans were thus seated on the northern
Persk.^^^*^ frontiers of the Persian empire, but though the
Persian sway is said to have extended to Mount
Caucasus, yet the Colchians were independent of
the satrapical arrangement, and merely sent pre-
sents every five years,'' and furnished contingents
Costume, wlieii required to the Persian armies.'^ Their cos-
tume included wooden helmets like the other bar-
barous nations in their vicinity ; and they also car-
ried small shields of raw hides, short lances, and
^^""fiinen ^words.^ They were celebrated for their manufac-
ture of linen,''' but the other productions of their
country seem to liave been held in small estimation,
Pei?ia. foi" vfe find that their presents to the Persian court
consisted only of 100 boys and 100 virgins.'"

' iii. 101. 2 i^^ia.

^ See page 301. Comp. also Malte Brun, vol. ii. Eng. edit,

* i. 104. ' iv. 37. « iii. 97. ' vii. 79.

8 Ibid. » ii, 105, >» iii, 97,

SOUTHERN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA. 313

The Colchians appeared to Herodotus to be most asia.
undoubtedly of Aegyptian descent. The idea struck chap. v.
him before he heard it from others ; and he was so coichians
much interested in the question, that he made in- Jj^^jf^'^^^'J ^^
quiries amongst both people, and found that the Col- to be of
chians recollected the A egyptians better than the Ae- mS*'^^
gvptians remembered the Colchians ; yet even the
Aegyptians considered that the Colchians were de-
scendants from those Aegyptian soldiers whom Se-
sostris detached from his army, and left to settle in
the country. Herodotus himself tells us that he
based his conjecture, not only upon the fact of the from their
Colchians being swarthy and curly -headed, for that, compSfon
he says, amounted to nothing, as other nations were and hair,

J ' c3' . ^ but prmci-

the same, but upon other and more important marks paiiy from
of resemblance. First, the Colchians, Aegyptians, tice oE'
and Aethiopians were the only nations who origin- cumcision,
ally practised circumcision ; for the Phoenicians
and Syrians of Palestine confessed that they learnt
the custom from the Aegyptians, and the Syrians
around the rivers Parthenius and Thermodon, to-
gether with their neighbours the Macrones, adopted
it at a late period from the Colchians.^ Secondly, their mami-
the Colchians manufactured their linen, which the ifnenl^lnd
Greeks called Sardonic, in the same manner as the ^a kn^^
Aegyptians. Lastly, the mode of life, and even the guage.
language, of both nations were identical.^

From the foregoing paragraph it seems probable ^acedon^°
that Herodotus visited Colchis, and his account of his testi-
the people is therefore peculiarly trustworthy. He ™°'^^"
considered them to be of Aegyptian descent, and
whatever doubts may be thrown upon most of the
proofs which he brings forward, yet he could scarcely
have been mistaken in the similarity between the
mode of life of the two nations. The Colchians were
certainly a civilized and instructed people, living
among tribes remarkable for their rudeness ; ^ and
no other cause for this similarity seems so natural

1 ii. 104. 2 ji_ 105.

^ Bochart, Geogr. Sacr. iv. 31. Quoted b}' Kenrick, Anc. Acgypt,
vol. ii.

314

SOUTHEKN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA.

ASIA.

CHAP. V.

III. Ara-
bia. Gen-
eral descrip
tion of the
countiy.

Herodotus's
description.
African
mountain
range be-
tween the
Nile valley
andArabian
Gulf, in-
cluded ill
Arabia.

Land of
frankin-
cense.

as an Aegyptian settlement established on the shores
of the Euxine by some of the weary stragglers from
the army of Sesostris.

III. Arabia is a vast peninsula, extending into
the Erythraean in the shape of a hatchet, and con-
sisting of a high table-land supported by mountain
ranges. On the north-east it slopes down gradually
to the banks of the Euphrates, but on the other sides
it descends more or less abruptly, in a series of
mountain terraces, to a flat belt of sandy ground
which runs round the whole coast from the mouth
of the Tigris to the Gulf of Akabah. A mountain
chain which may be regarded as a continuation of
the Lebanon range, runs in a southerly direction,
nearly parallel with the Arabian Gulf, and is con-
tinued towards the last in a line parallel to the shore
of the Indian ocean as far as Oman.

The Arabia of Herodotus, however, comprised a
region within very different limits from those of the
Arabia of modern times. The Arabian Gulf, which
we now call the Red Sea, and regard as the great
separation between Africa and Asia, was considered
by him as a long and exceedingly narrow bay, run-
ning inland from the great sea which he called the
Erythraean, and having Arabia on both sides of it.^
In short, the mountain which ran along the eastern
coast of Africa, between the Nile valley and the
Red Sea, towards the southern sea, was considered
by Herodotus to form a part of Arabia,^ and imme-
diately adjoining it on the south-west was Aethiopia.^
Herodotus had heard that this mountain extended
a distance of two months' journey, and that its
eastern confines produced frankincense ; and he
considered that it ran in a south or south-westerly
direction, though he says in the same chapter, fi-om
the east towards the west.* Here, as elsewhere, too
much reliance must not be j)laced upon his state-

^ Indeed, if we were only to judge from the position and phj'sical
character of Arabia, we might assign it to Africa ; for if the Red Sea did
not interpose a narrow interruption, one almost continuous tract of sandy-
deserts would extend from the shores of the Atlantic to the Persian Gulf.

- ii. 8. 3 jii. 114; vii. 69. ^ ii. 8.

SOUTHEKN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND AKABIA. 315

ments respecting the bearing of places. His know- asia.
ledge of Arabia Proper was evidently confined to chap. v.
Arabia Petrsea ; and when he says that Arabia is
the farthest of all inhabited countries to the south,
he evidently alludes to the African Arabia, as we
may call it, between the Nile valley and the Red
Sea, extending far on to the mysterious land of
frankincense, and adjoining the other distant coun-
try of Ethiopia. ^ The African land of fi:'ankincense,
according to Bruce,^ begins south of Abyssinia at
Babelmandeb, and stretches eastward almost to Cape
Guardefui ; and it thus includes the tract of eastern
Africa occupied by the Somaulies, who are probably
a very ancient offset of the Arab race.

The Arabian Gulf was a bay branching from the His account
Erythraean Sea. Its length was a 40 days' voyage bkn Gtm'
in a vessel with oars, but its width in the widest
part was only half a day's voyage. It had an ebb
and a flow daily. Herodotus says, " Should the
Nile turn its stream into this gulf, what could pre-
vent the latter from being filled with soil, within
20,000 years." '' For my part," he adds, " I think
it would be filled in 10,000 years."^

The Red Sea, or Arabian Gulf, here described. Supposed it
is in reality from 150 to 200 miles across; Herod- narrower''^
otus therefore laboured under an evident miscon- reauty '* ^"
ception when he said that it was only half a day's
voyage. The cause of his error is manifest. He
himself was only acquainted with the north-western Causes of
arm of the Red Sea, which is at present called the
Gulf of Suez. Here he himself had probably crossed
over, and hence he regarded the entire sea as equally
narrow. In fact, he thought it little better than a
river which might be compared with the Nile, and
which had no better claim to be considered as a line
of division between the two great continents. Con- More cor-
cerning the length of the gulf he was better inform- length.
ed. Taking a day's voyage in a vessel with oars as

^ vii. 69. - Bruce, vol. i. p. 356. See his map.

3 ii. 11.

316 SOUTHEEN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA.

ASIA.

CHAP. V.

His real
knowledge
of Arabia
confined to
Arabia Pe-
traea.

Assigns the
Philistine
territory to
the Arabs.

Nature of
the soil.

City of
Patumos.

River
Corys.

about tlie same length as a day's journey on foot,'
namely 200 stadia, we shall find that he supposed
the giilf to be about 8000 stadia, or 1000 English
miles in length. Now the real length from the head
of the Gulf of Suez to the Straits of Babelmandeb is
not 1-100 English miles, and we cannot therefore
see much discrepancy between the loose estimate of
Herodotus and the real measurement.

From the foregoing description of the Arabian
Gulf, we have seen that our author's actual know-
ledge of Arabia coidd scarcely have extended south-
ward beyond the limits of Arabia Petraea ; but he
includes in the Arabian territory that maritime por-
tion of Palaestine which lay between Phoenicia and
Jenysus, and which has been always attributed to
the Philistines.^

He expressly tells us that from Phoenicia to the
confines of the great city of Cadytis, and again from
Cadytis to the city of Jenysus, all the jDorts belonged
to the Arabian king ; but that Cadytis itself belonged
to the Syrians of Palaestine as well as the country
between Jenysus and the Lake Serbonis, where
Aegypt begins.^ The soil was clayey and flinty,*
but the tract between Jenysus and Lake Serbonis
was a desert of about three days' journey long, and
totally destitute of water. ^ The Arabian city of
Patumos was situated near the canal dug by the
Aegyptian king Neco.^ A large Arabian river
called Corys is also mentioned, which discharged it-
self into the Erythraean; and the Arabian king,
who formed an alliance with Cambyses, is said to
have sewn together three pipes of ox-hides and other
skins, and thus to have conveyed water from the
river to the arid region already mentioned, which
was twelve days' journey distant, and where large
reservoirs were dug to receive and preserve it.^

' This is M. Niebuhr's conjecture, and we readily adopt it.
^ On the identification of the Philistines with the maritime Ai'abs
mentioned by Herodotus, see note to page 250.
•■' iii. 5. ■ -» ii. 12. ^ ijj. 5. 0 jj. 128.

■^ iii. 9. This stoiy appeared to our author to be as much of a fiction

SOUTHEEN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA. 317

In Arabia there was also a district very near the asia.
Aeg-yptian town of Buto, which Herodotus visited chap. v.
in order to learn somethino; about the wing^ed ser-

t5 & Defile near

pents. It was a narrow pass between two moun- Buto con-
tains, leading into a spacious plain which was con- bone" of
tiguous to the plain of Aegypt. In this pass geipeSs.
Herodotus saw an immense mass of bones and spines
of serpents, scattered in heaps of different sizes, but
in indescribable quantities. It was reported that
in the commencement of spring, winged serpents
flew from Arabia towards Aegypt, but that a kind
of bird, named the ibis, met them at the pass and
killed them to prevent their entrance ; and both the
Aegyptians and Arabians united in saying, that this
was the reason why the ibis was so highly venerated
in Aegypt.' It was these same serpents, small in
size, and variegated in appearance, that guarded the
frankincense trees in great numbers, and could only Fabulous
be driven away by the smoke of burning gum-sty- fermn'g°the
rax.^ ''If," says Herodotus, ''they multiplied as ^^'p^'^*^-
fast as their nature permitted, no man could live
there. But it is the same with them as with vipers,
for whilst they are coupling together, the female
seizes the male by the neck, and will not relax her
hold until she has eaten it through. The offspring
however avenge the death of their father, for they
make their way into the world by gnawing through
her womb. Vipers," he adds, " are found in all
parts of the world, but winged serpents only in
Arabia, where indeed they are very numerous."^

as it does to the modern reader. He was most inclined to believe that the
Arabian king filled an immense number of camels' skins with water and
sent them to the arid region on the backs of living camels. The story
of the pipes and reservoirs, however, he says he thought it right to re-
peat, though less credible. In fact, we may safely say, that all the skins
in Arabia would be insufficient to form three pipes, each twelve days' jour-
ney long. To attempt to identify the river Corys under these circum-
stances would be ridiculous. There is no large river in all Arabia Pe-
traea. The Arabic word khor, signifying a valley or creek, is frequently
applied to dry water-com-ses, and Abulfeda mentions a torrent called
Core. This then was doubtless the origin of the name, and it was called
a large river, and placed a long way ofi" and falling into the Erj'thraean,
to assist in throwing an air of credibility over the narrative.
1 ii. 75. ^ iii. 107. ' iii. 109.

318 SOUTHERN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA.

ASIA.

CHAP. V.

Rare pro-
ductions of
Arabia.

Frank-
incense
guarded by
serpents.
Cassia
guarded by
fierce bats.

Curious
manner of
obtaining
cinnamon
from the
nests of
large birds.

That Arabia was considered by Herodotus to be
the most southerly of inhabited countries, has
already been mentioned,^ and he believed that the
extremities of the earth, India, Arabia, and Aethio-
pia, possessed the most excellent productions.^
Thus Arabia was the only region in which grew
frankincense, myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, and ledanum.
All these with the exception of the myrrh were
attained with great difficulty. The frankincense
was guarded by winged serpents which were driven
away by the smoke of styrax.^ The cassia grew in
a shallow lake, and in and around this lake lodged
a number of winged animals very like bats, which
made a horrible screeching, and were exceedingly
fierce. The Arabians obtained the cassia by en-
veloping all their body and face, except the eyes,
with hides, and other skins; and by continually
striking the animals away from their eyes, they
were enabled to obtain the plant.* The cinnamon
they collected in a still more wonderful manner.
They did not know where it was produced, though
some stated that it grew in the land (Aethiopia)'^
where Dionysus was nursed. Large birds were
said to bring those rolls of bark, which the Grreeks
learnt from the Phoenicians to call cinnamon,
and to carry them to their nests, which were built
with clay on the sides of precipitous mountains that
were inaccessible to man. The Arabians having
cut up the limbs of dead oxen, asses, and other
beasts of burden into large pieces, laid them in the
vicinity of the nests and retired. Then the birds
carried up the large pieces of meat to their nests,
and the latter broke down with the weight, and
enabled the people to gather up the cinnamon.^

1 iii. 107. "" iii. 106.

3 iii. 107. '' iii. 110. 5 ii. 146; iii. 97-

' iii. 111. The story told by Herodotus is remarkably like the one
related in the second voyage of Sinbad the sailor in the Arabian Nights;
how the merchants obtained the diamonds from the terrible valley of
diamonds, by throwing down from the mountains large pieces of flesh to
which the precious gems adhered, and how enormous birds carried the
meat up again to their nest,s, but the merchants drove them off with fear-
ful outcries, and obtained the diamonds which stuck to the meat.

SOUTHERN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA. 319

The ledanum was still more wonderful. The Ara- asia.
Hans also called it ladanum, and though it came chap. v.
from the most stinking place, yet it was most fra- Ledanum
grant. It was found sticking like gum to the ^^^^^^^^
beards of he-goats,' and was useful for many orna- beards of
ments, and also burnt very generally by the Ara- ^°'^*''"
bians as a perfume.^ In consequence of these pro-
ductions the whole land of Arabia breathed a divine
odour.

Arabia was also famous for its sheep. There were sheep with
two species, which could be seen nowhere else. One tails.
sort had large tails, three cubits long, which would
ulcerate if suffered to trail along the ground ; and
the shepherd therefore used to make little carts and
fasten one under the tail of each. The other sort
had tails one cubit broad. ^

The Arabians never submitted to Persia, but were Political re-

n • 1-1 , 1 /^ 1 r lations of

on mendly terms, and gave (Jambyses a tree pas- the Araw-
sage into Aegypt.* They also sent every year a p^'grsTa*
thousand talents of frankincense as a present to the
Persian king;^ and they marched in the army of
Xerxes, wearing cloaks fastened by a girdle, and Costume.
carrjdng on their right sides long bows which bent
backwards.^ Some of them rode on camels, which
were as swift as horses. '^

They kept their contracts as religiously as any Manner of
people. When two persons wished to pledge their ^ntiafts.
faith, a third stood between them and made an
incision with a sharp stone in the palm of each of
the contractors and near the longest finger. He
then took some of the nap from the garment of each
and smeared seven stones, which were placed be-
tween them, with the blood, and whilst doing this
he invoked Dionysus and IJrania. The man who

1 The " ledum " is an odoriferous shrub which grows to the height of
two or three feet. Goats browse on the leaves of it, upon which a gum-
my matter adheres to their beards. The peasants of the Levant carefully
collect this, with wooden combs made for the purpose ; they then melt
it, and run it into a mass. This is what is called ledanum or labdanum.
Tournefort, as quoted h/ Lurcher.

2 iii. 112. a'iii. 113. * iii. 88. ^ jii. 97.
« vii. 69. vii. 86.

320 SOUTHERN INDIA, COLCHIS, AND ARABIA.

ASIA, pledged his faith, then bound his friends to be his

CHAP. V. sureties ; and the latter held themselves to be

,J^r;^JT~^ equally obliged to observe the contract. Dionysus

Dionysus, aud Urauia were their only deities. The people cut

tXandoT" their hair in a circular form, shearing it round the

S^Ainat'^^^' temples in the same way, as they said that Dio-

andAiitta. uysus had liis hair cut. Dionysus they called

Orotal, and Urania they named Alilat,^ and Alitta.^

They observed the same custom, after intercourse

with their wives, as the Babylonians ; especially

washing themselves in the morning, and never

touching any vessel until they had done so.

1 iii, 8. ^ i. 131. ^ i jgg.

CHAPTER VI.

PERSIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA.

Two Persian documents illustrative of the geography of Asia. — I. ASIA.
Catalogue of nations in the army of Xerxes, with description of their chap. vr.

equipments. — Hellenic costume : general description. — Heavy-armed

warrior with the tunic, greaves, cuirass, sword, shield, helmet, and spear.
— Light-armed soldier with darts, stones, and bows and arrows, or slings.
— Herodotus's account. — Shield and helmet borrowed from Aegypt. —
Crests, devices, and shield-handles invented by the Carians. — Hellenic
costume prevalent amongst the Aeolians, lonians, Dorians, Hellespon-
tines, Pamphylians, and Lydians. — Worn by Carians with falchions and
daggers. — Hellenic helmet worn by Phoenicians andSjTians, with linen
breastplates and shields without rims. — Barbarous costume in southern
Asia Minor. — Lycians with caps encircled by feathers, goat-skin cloaks,
cornel-wood bows, and cane arrows without feathers. — Cilicians with
woollen tunics, national helmets, and bucklers. — Milyans with clasped
garments and leathern helmets. — Cabalians and Lasonians like the
CiUcians. — Northern Asia Minor. — ^Mysians in national helmets. — Bi-
thynians in variously coloured cloaks, fox-skin caps, etc. — Moschi, Tiba-
reni, Macrones, and Mosynoeci in wooden helmets. — Mares in painted
helmets. — Chalybes with brazen helmets, and brazen ears and horns of
an ox, crests, purple cloth leggings, and hunting javelins. — Phrygian
costume of peculiar boots, plaited helmets, etc. : worn by Phrygians,
Mariandynians, Paphlagonians, Matienians, Syri-Cappadocians, and
Armenians. — Assyrian costume of linen cuirasses, helmets of brazen
network, Aegyptian daggers, knotted clubs, etc. : worn by Chaldaeans
and Babylonians. — Median costume of tiaras, variously-coloured cui-
rasses, breastplates of iron scales, loose trousers, osier bucklers, etc. :
worn by Medes, Persians, and Cissians. — Bactrian costume resembling
the Median, but including bamboo bows, short spears, etc. : worn by
Bactrians, Sogdians, Chorasmians, Arians, and Parthians. — Wooden
helmets, leathern bucklers, and short spears of the Saspeires. — Goat-skin
mantles and peculiar bows of the Caspii, Pactyes, Paricanii, Utii, and
Myci. — Peculian lassos carried by the Sagartians. — Beautifully dyed
garments of the Sarangae. — Loose trousers, pointed hats, peculiar bows,
daggers, and battle-axes of the Sacae beyond the Oxus. — Cotton gar-
ments and bamboo bows of the Indians. — Crane-skin bucklers and
horse-head helmets of the Asiatic Aethiopians. — Costume of nations not
included in Persian Asia. — Cloaks and long bows of the Arabs. — Wooden
helmets and leathern bucklers of the Colchians. — Plaited helmets, hol-
low shields with large rims, pikes, and hatchets of the Aegyptians. —
Hellenic armour and Persian head-dress of the Cyprians. — Libyan
Aethiopians with bodies half white and half red, clothed in lion and
panther skins, and carrying long bows, cane arrows tipped with stone,

322

PERSIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA.

javelins tipped with horn, and knotted clubs. — Leathern garments of the
Avestern Libyans. — Proposed comparison of Herodotus's description with
the monuments of Persepolis and Nineveh. — IL Royal highway from
Sardis to Susa. — Stations and caravanserais all the way. — Lydia and
Phrygia : 20 stations, 94^ parasangs. — River Halys : gates and fort. —
Cappadocia: 28 stations, 104 parasangs. — Cilicia: 3 stations, 15^ para-
sangs.— Ferry over the Euphrates. — Armenia : 15 stations, 56^ parasangs.
— Four rivers to be ferried: the Tigris, Zabatus Major, Zabatus Minor,
and Gyndes. — Matiene : 4 stations. — Cissia : 1 1 stations, 42i parasangs.

— Mistake in the sum total. — Hiatus in Matiene Probably never

filled in by Herodotus. — Length of the whole journey from Ephesus
to Susa. — Position of the nations in the map of Aristagoras. — Identifica-
tion of the ancient road with the modern caravan route.

ASIA.

Two Per-
sian docu-
ments illus-
trative of
the geogra-
phy of He-
rodotus.

I. Catalogue
of the na-
tions in the
army of
Xerxes,
with de-
scription of
their equip-
ments.

We have thus completed the geography of the
Asia of Herodotus. Before however we turn to the
last of the three continents, we have thought it ad-
visable to devote another chapter to a further con-
sideration of the two important Persian documents,
of which our author has preserved either a copy or
an abridgment, and to which we have continually
referred whilst developing the geography of the
satrapies. These documents are, first, the catalogue
of nations in the army of Xerxes ; and second, the
description of the royal road between Sardis and
Susa. The first embraces not only a list of all the
nations in the infantry, cavalry, and navy of Persia,
but also includes an account of their equipments
and origin ; and from this we shall endeavour to ex-
tract what information we can respecting the cos-
tume of the different people who inhabited the Asiatic
continent. The second document contains a full
description of the royal road through the western
provinces of the empire, with an account of the
countries that were traversed, rivers that were
crossed, and stations that were passed through,
along the whole extent of the route ; and this will
be found of the utmost service in settling the topo-
graphy of numerous important nations.

The Catalogue of Nations is the first which we
shall examine, and from this we obtain the following
information. The Hellenic equipment was gener-
ally adopted in western Asia Minor, Phoenicia, and
Palaestine, but the rude mountaineers of the northern
and southern provinces of Asia Minor, were armed

PERSIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 323

in a more barbarous fashion. The Phrygian cos- asia.
tume prevailed not only in Phrygia, but eastward chap. vi.
along the mountains of Armenia as far as those of
Zagros, or Kurdistan. Another style, in some re-
spects similar to the Aegyptian, was worn by the
Assyrian nations on the Euphrates and Tigris. Still
more to the east, the Median costume prevailed in
Media, Cissia, Persia Proper, and the nations gener-
ally between the Caspian and Erythraean, with the
exception of some mountaineers, who wore a dress
more suited to an inclement climate. Lastly, be-
yond these countries the Bactrian equipment was
generally adopted as far as the Indus, though the
Indians in the east, the Aethiopians in the south,
and the Sacae in the far north, wore a different and
peculiar costume.

The Hellenic costume is not described by He- Hellenic
rodotus. We learn, however, from Horner,^ that the general cie-
heavy-armed warrior, having already a tunic around Heavy"arm-
his body, put on, first, his metal greaves lined with ^. waiTior
leather or felt ; secondly, his cuirass of metal, or tunic,
hard leather, with the belt, ^u)vri, and the underneath fass^sword^
band, /xtVp?? ; thirdly, his short, straight, two-edged ^gf^^^^j^^®^'
sword was hung on the left side of his body by means spear.
of a belt which passed over the right shoulder ;
fourthly, the large round shield made of wood, or
wicker, covered over with ox-hides several folds
deep, and bound round the edge with a metal rim ;
fifthly, he put on his helmet ; sixthly, and lastly, he
took his spear. The light-armed soldier carried no ^d^soicu™^'
shield, and wore a much slighter covering than the ^'*^ '^'*''**','

' . i/*i 1 1 stones, and

cuirass ; and, instead or the sword and spear, com- bows and
monly fought with darts, stones, bows and arrows, sUnJ*' ""^
or slings. From Herodotus we learn that the shield ^^'1°!^'* ^
and helmet were borrowed from the Aegyptians,^ shield and
and that the custom of fastening crests upon helmets, rowed from
and of putting devices upon shields, was taken from crfit^,^de-

1 II. iii. 328— 339 ; iv. 132—138; xi. 15—45; xvi. 130—142; xix.364—
391. The Greek soldiers used nearly the same armour ever afterwards.
They also put it on in the same order. Dr. Smith, Did. of Gr. and JRom.
Ant., art. Anna.

2 iv. ISO.

Y 2

324

PERSIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA.

ASIA.

vices, and
shield-han-
dles, invent-
ed by the
Carians.

Hellenic
costume
prevalent
amongst the
Aeolians,
lonians,
Dorians,
Hellespon-
tines, Pam-
])hylians,
and Ly-
dians.
Worn by
Carians
with fal-
chions and
daggers.
Hellenic
helmet,
■worn by
Phoenicians
and Syrians,
with linen
breastplate,
and shields
without
rims.
Barbarian
costume in
southern
Asia Minor.
Lycians
with caps
encircled by
feathers,
goat-skin
cloaks, cor-
nel-wood
bows, and
cane arrows
without fea-
thers.

Cilicians
with wool-
len tunics,
andnational
helmets,
and buck-
lers.

the Carians.^ It also seems that in ancient times
shields were carried without handles, and merely
guided by leathern thongs fastened round the neck
and left shoulder. This inconvenience was removed
by another invention of the Carians, who introduced
handles,^ consisting of a band of metal, wood, or
leather, Avhich was placed across the inside from rim
to rim, like the diameter of a circle.

The nations in the army of Xerxes who wore the
Hellenic equipment, were the Aeolians,^ lonians,^
Dorians,^ Hellespontines,^ and Pamphylians,^ who
all served in the navy, and the Lydians,^ who be-
longed to the infantry. The Carians^ also fought
on board the fleet in the same accoutrements, but
were armed with crooked swords or falchions, and
two-edged knives or daggers. The Phoenicians
and Syrians of Palaestine served likewise in the
navy, wearing the Hellenic helmet, which we have
already seen was borrowed from the Aegyptians :
they however wore breastplates of wadded linen,
and carried shields without rims, and javelins. ^'^

The equipments of the more barbarous tribes of
Asia Minor presented a little more variety. In the
southern provinces were the Lycians and Cilicians,
who served in the navy ; and the Milyans, Cabali-
ans, and Lasonians, who joined the infantry. The
Lycians wore greaves and breastplates, and caps
encircled with feathers instead of helmets. Over
their shoulders were hung cloaks of goat-skins. Like
their neighbours, the Carians, they were armed with
falchions and daggers, and they also carried javelins,
and bows and arrows. The bows were made of
dog-wood, the cornelian cherry ; the arrows were of
cane, and had no feathers."

The Cilicians wore woollen tunics and helmets
peculiar to their country. Instead of the usual large
shield, they carried one much smaller and lighter,
which may be called a buckler, and was made of
raw hides. Each man was armed with two javelins.

' i. 171.

* vii. 95.

'- Ibifl.
Ibid.

3 vii. 95. " vii. 94. ^ vii. 93.

vii. 74. ' vii. 93. "> vii. 89. '' vii. 92.

PERSIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 325

and a sword very much like the Aegyptian scimetar.' asia.
Of the three nations who joined the infantry, the

CHAP. VI.

Milyans wore garments which fastened with clasps, Miiyans
and helmets made of tanned skins ; and they were g^'jji^entr'^
armed with short lances, and the Lycian bow of and^^ea-^^
cornel-wood.^ The Cabalians and Lasonians, who mets.
seem to have been identical, wore the same costume S LaToni-
as the Cilicians.' ^TL-'itV^"

In northern Asia Minor, we have to notice the Northern
Mysians, Bithynians, and races south-east of the MysiansT'
Pontus, all of whom served in the infantry. Of these, H^^^l
the Mysians wore helmets peculiar to their country,
and carried small shields and javelins hardened by Bithynians
fire.* The Bithynians, or Asiatic Thracians, as they coioureT^ ^
are called, wore tunics, and cloaks of various colours l^^^^' ^°'''

m caps,

over them. They also had buskins of fawn-skin on etc
their legs, and fox- skins on their heads. ^ Their
arms consisted of javelins, light bucklers, and small
daggers.^ Much farther to the east, and along the
south-eastern shore of the Euxine, were the Moschi, ^^jf 'r^'^j
Tibareni, Macrones, and Mosynoeci, wearing wooden Macrones,
helmets, and carrying light bucklers and spears nofcf fn^'
with very large points ; ^ and the Mares with painted ^""f^'^^^^'
helmets, bucklers, and javelins.^ The Chalybes Mares in
also, who may be identified with that unknown na- me£^
tion which possessed an oracle of Ares," lived in the ^^thSen
same quarter. They wore brazen helmets, and helmets,

,,,•'• 1 T n Ti" 1 /> and brazen

also the ears and horns oi an ox, likewise made oi ears, and
brass, and over these were crests. Their legs were ox™ie°ts!'^
wrapped in pieces of purple cloth. They carried Firj^ie cioth
bucklers of raw hides, and two of the javelins used and hun't-

for hunting wolves.^" lag.iave ms.

' vii. 91. 2 vii. 77, ^ Ibid, * vii. 74.

5 Xenophon describes this dress as an eye-witness. " There fell," he
says, " a great deal of snow, and the cold was so severe that the water
which the servants brought in for the repast, and even the wine in
the vessels, was all frozen, and many of the soldiers had their noses and
ears frost-bitten. We then found that the Thracians were right in wrap-
ping up their head and ears in fox-skins, and in wearing, when on
horseback, instead of the chlamys, tunics which cover not only their
breasts, but their thighs, with long robes which hang down to their feet."
Anab. vii. 4.

6 vii. 7o. ^ vii. 7S. 8 vii. 79. ' Comp. p. 2S0. '" vii. 76.

326

PEESIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA.

ASIA.

CHAP. VI.

Phrygian
costume of
peculiar
boots, plait-
ed helmets,
etc., worn
by Phrygi-
ans, Mari-
andynians,
Paphlago-
nians, Ma-
tieniaus,
Syri-Cappa-
docians, and
Armenians.
Assyrian
costume of
linen cui-
rasses, hel-
mets of
brazen net-
work, Ae-
gyptian
daggers,
knotted
clubs, etc.,
worn by
Chaldaeans
and Baby-
lonians.

Median cos-
tume of
tiaras, vari-
ously co-
loured cui-
rasses,
breast-
plates of
iron scales,
loose trou-
sers, osier
bucklers,
etc., worn
by Medes,
Persians,
and Cissi-
ans.

The Phrygian costume comes next in geographical
order, and extended along Anti-Tam-us, from the
frontiers of Lydia to the mountains of Zagros, or
Kurdistan, being worn by the Phrygians, Marian-
dpiiaus, Paphlagonians, Matienians, Syri-Cappa-
docians, and Armenians. All these nations served
in the infantry. They wore peculiar boots reaching
up to the middle of the leg, and plaited helmets ; the
latter being probably made of brass net-work, or
twisted leather. They carried small shields, and
not large spears, besides javelins and daggers.^

The Assyrian costume belonged to the Chaldaeans
and Babylonians, who occupied the country between
the Euphrates and Tigris. These people served in
the infantry. They wore cuirasses of wadded linen,
and helmets of brazen net-work, twisted in a bar^
barous manner, which our author says is not easy
to be described. They were armed with shields
and spears, and with daggers similar to those of the
Aegyptians. They also carried wooden clubs point-
ed with, or, rather, studded with, knots of iron.^
Similar clubs were carried by the Aethiopians of
Libya. ^

The Median costume belonged not only to the
Medes, but was also adopted by the Persians and
Cissians, and these three nations served in both the
cavalry and infantry. On their heads they wore
caps not stiffened, called tiaras.'^ Their bodies were
protected by a cuirass consisting of variously co-
loured sleeved breastplates, formed of iron scales
like those of a fish. On their legs were loose trousers.
Instead of shields they carried bucklers made of
osiers, covered perhaps with leather, and, judging
from the descriptions given of their use,^ were frirn-
ished with a spike for fixing them upright in the

1 vii. 72. 2 vii. 63. ^ vii. 69.

* The scholiast on Aristophanes {Av. 487) says, " All Persians were
allowed to wear the tiara, hut not erect. The king of the Persians
alone had an upright tiara, called the citaris. The rest wore it bent
and projecting over the forehead." Quoted by Mr. Cooley, in his edition
of Larcher's Notes.

5 Cf. ix. 99, and Thirlwall in he.

PERSIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 327

ground. Beneatli the buckler was hung the quiver, asia.
The other arms consisted of short spears, long bows, ^hap. vi.
and arrows made of cane ; and a dagger was sus-
pended from the girdle over the right thigh. ^

The Cissians did not wear the tiara, but a mitra.^
Some of the Persian cavalry also wore ornaments of
brass and wrought steel on their heads. ^ The in-
habitants of the islands in the Erythraean likewise
wore the Median costume, but served only in the
infantry,^ and we shall presently see that it was
adopted, with some modifications, by the nations
farther to the east.

The Bactrian equipment prevailed over a still Bactrian

' ^ iij^j_j?i •j_ ij 1 costume re-

more considerable extent oi territory, but scarcely sembiedthe
differed fr-om the Median, though Herodotus dis- l^ciuded^*
tinctly points out those nations who wore the one tamboo
from those who wore the other. The present cos- spear's, etc.,
tume existed amongst the Bactrians, Sogdians, Cho- Bacu-J,ns,
rasmians, Arians, and Parthians, and the unknown n?f'^'^g^j'
races of eastern Afghanistan. These people wore ans, Ariaas,
a tiara very much like that of the Modes, and car- ans.
ried peculiar bows made of bamboo and short
spears.^ The Arians, who, as we have already seen,
were closely allied to the Modes, ^ are said to have
worn the Bactrian costume, but to have carried
Medic bows.'' All these nations served in the in-
fantry, but the Bactrians likewise furnished cavalry
attired in an exactly similar manner.^

A mixed costume was worn by the nomades and ^1'°'^^'^
other nations on the borders of the empire. The leathern
Saspeires in the valley of the Aras wore wooden and short
helmets, and carried only small shields of raw hides, |pearsof the

11 1 Til- "11 1 /^ 1 Saspeires,

and short lances, like their neighbours the Col-
chians, and the races to the south-east of the Euxine.^
The Casioian tribes, and the Pactyes, Paricanii, Utii, mantles and
and Myci, whose seats can only be conjectured, but H'l^^oi the
who served in both the infantry and cavalry, wore f'^^P'J;^^*'"
goat-skin mantles, peculiar bows, and either daggers canil, utii,

and Myci.
1 vii. 61. 2 vii_ (32. 3 yyi 34 i ^^^ gg. s y^i 64.

« Comp. page 291. "> vii. 66. « vii. 86.

9 vii. 79, comp. 78.

328 PERSIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA.

ASIA, or scimetars.^ The Sagartians, a race of Persian

CHAP. VI. nomades, wlio probably wandered through the salt

Pecuii^ deserts of Khorassan, furnished a large body of

lasso carried cavalrv drossod in a fashion half Persian and half

by the Sa- ._ »/ __,. . - - 1

gartians. Pactyan. i hen^ only weapons, however, were tne

dagger and a lasso. The latter was made of twisted

thongs with a noose at the end, and the Sagartian

mode of fighting was to throw the lasso over an

enemy, whether on horse or foot, and entangling the

victim in its coils, to put him to death with the

Beautifully dagger.^ The Sarangae, or people of Sehestan, were

ments^of the rendered conspicuous amongst the infantry by their

Sarangae. i^eautifully dycd garments ; they also wore buskins

reaching to the knee, and were armed with bows

and Medic javelins.^ The Sacae, a Scythian race

Loose trou- f^-Qni bevond the Oxus, wore loose trousers like the

sers, point- -r^ . "^ , i • i i j_l

ed hats, pe- Jb^ersians, but on their heads were caps, or rather

daggLr^^' hats, which came to a point and stood erect. They

axes of"the foi^glit Only in the infantry, and were armed with

sacae, be- bows pocuHar to tlicir country, daggers, and battle-

o°xus. ^ axes called sagares.* The Indians of the Punjab

served in both the infantry and cavalry, the latter

riding on saddle-horses, or driving chariots drawn

Cotton gar- by horscs and wild asses.^ They were clad in cotton

bLmboo" garments, and armed with bamboo bows, and arrows

indilns*^^ of the same material, tipped with iron.^ The Asiatic

Aethiopians of Gedrosia, or Beloochistan, were

Crane-skin accoutrcd iu tho samc manner, but carried crane-

an?horse- skius iustcad of shiclds. On their heads they wore,

head hei- instead of a helmet, the skin of a horse's head, in

mets of the i • i t t n i i

Asiatic Ae- whicli the mauc served for a crest, and the ears
uopians. ^gj.g fixed crcct. They served only in the in-
fantry.^
Costume The costumo of the nations not included in Per-

not'incTuded sian Asia, must also be mentioned here in reference
Ask!"''''^ to the general subject. Of these we find that some
of the Arabians and Colchians, who were considered
Cloaks and ^q })q independent nations, served in the infantry of

long bows ^-^ 1 A 1 p 1 T • 1 1 I' 1

oftheArabs. Acrxcs : tlic Arabs, from the south, m cloaks lasten-

' vii. 67, 68. 2 vii. 8.5. ^ yH ($7. 4 vii. 64.

' vii. 86. « vii. 0.1 ' vii. 71.

PERSIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 329

ed by a girdle, and carrying on their right sides long asia.
bows which bent backwards ; ^ the Colchians, from ^chap- ^^■
the far north, in wooden helmets, and carrying wood^
small shields made of raw hides, short lances, and f4\"ijgj'/'''^
swords,^ being thus accoutred in all respects like bucklers
their neighbours the Saspeires. The Aegyptians chians.
and Cyprians served on board the fleet. The former ^""l^^^ ^^^-
wore plaited helmets, probably of a similar fashion low shields
to those of brazen net- work already described as be- rims,pike\
longing to the Assyrians ; and they carried hollow g^g'^of th?"
shields with large rims, pikes fit for a sea-fight, and Aegyptians.
large hatchets, and most of them had breastplates
and larg-e swords.^ The Cyprians were attired like HeUenic ar-

o . J r ^ mour and

the Hellenes, excepting that their kings wore the Persian
tiara, and the common people the citaris.* The oftheCy-^
Aethiopians above Aegypt were clothed in the skins ^^^^l^ ^g.
of lions and panthers, and when they were going thiopians
to battle smeared one half of the body with chalk, half whitT
and the other half with red ochre. They carried ^ed, dothed
long bows, not less than four cubits in length, ^'^^'^'^^^'^*^
made from the branches of the palm tree, and used skins, and
short arrows made of cane, and tipped with sharp lonj^bows,
stone of the same sort as that on which seals were tf""g^"°^ir
engraved. They also had javelins tipped with stone, and
antelope's horn, and made sharp like a lance, and i^d^with'^"
used knotted clubs,^ which probably resembled those knotted"^
of the Assyrians.^ The Libyans in the western ciubs
part of the Libyan continent wore leathern garments, garments of

1 vii. 69. 2 vii. 79. ^ vii. 89.

* vii. 90. Literally, " their kings had their heads wrapped in turbans ;
the rest wore tunics, and were in other respects attired like the Hellenes."
De Pauw, therefore, jestingly asks if the Cyprians wrapped their heads
in tunics, and substitutes Ktraptae for KiOwvag ; a very slight alteration,
and. which appears founded on Julius Pollux, (x. segm. 162,) who cites
Kirapiv as from Herodotus. Wesseling would have approved of this
change had not the " citaris " been peculiar to the Persians. Larcher
suggests that the Cilicians might have borrowed this article from the
Persians. I have always hesitated to offer any opinion upon different
readings, but would here greatly prefer to understand that the Cilicians
wore the " citaris " which had an upright peak. In Persia, as was pro-
bably well known, and as we have already seen, page 326, note, the king
wore the citaris and the people the tiara ; but from this passage in He-
rodotus we may understand that in Cyprus the king wore the tiara and
the people the citaris.

^ vii. 69. ^ See page 326.

330

PEKSIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA.

ASIA.

CHAP. VI.

the western
Libyans.
Proposed
comparison
of Herodo-
tus's de-
scription
■with the
monuments
of Persepo-
lis and Ni-
neveh.

II. Royal
highway
from Sardis
to Susa.

Stations and
caravan-
serais all the
way.

Lydia and
Phrygia :
20 stations,
941 para-

River Ha-

lys, gates
and fort.

Cappadocia:
28 stations,
104 para-
.sai)''s.

Cilicia :
3 stations,
151 para-
sangs.

and carried javelins which had been hardened by
iire.^

Such then are the contributions of Herodotus to
this important branch of archaeology. They might
perhaps have been further illustrated by a careful
and minute comparison of the description of each
nation, with the various details of costume repre-
sented on the walls of Persepolis, and recently
recovered monuments of Nineveh. But such an
illustration would be foreign to the purpose of the
present volrnne, even supposing the author capable
of satisfying himself in its execution ; and indeed the
work could only be well done by one who had him-
self seen and studied the monuments of Persepolis,
and was not obliged to trust to mere engravings.
Probably Col. Rawlinson, in the new version of
Herodotus, already promised to the public, will
supply this desideratum in Asiatic antiquities.

II. We now turn to the second important docu-
ment in Herodotus, namely, the description of the
road between Sardis and Susa, which the historian
brings forward in explanation of the proposal made
by Aristagoras to Sparta, for the conquest of the
Persian empire.^

"From Sardis to Susa," says Herodotus, ''there
is a road which passes all the way through an inha-
bited and safe line of country, and all along it are
royal stations and excellent caravanserais. First on
leaving Sardis we pass through Lydia and Phrygia,
which comprehend twenty stations, or ninety-four
parasangs and a half. Leaving Phrygia we come
to the river Halys, at which there are gates pro-
tected by a fort, and these gates must be passed
through before crossing the river. On the other
side of the Halys we enter Cappadocia, and the
road leads us through this country to the borders of
Cilicia, comprehending twenty-eight stations, or one
hundred and four parasangs. We penetrate Cilicia
through two defiles or gates/ which are each ])yo-

' vii. 71. ^ V. 49.

■'' The Greeks called these nairow passes -rrvXat, "gates:" hence Thcr-

PEESIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 331

tected by a fort. In Cilicia are three stations, and asia.
fifteen and a half parasangs. The river Euphrates, ^"^^- ^i-
which can only be crossed by a ferry, separates perry over
Cilicia from Armenia. In Arnienia there are fifteen t^e^Eu-
stations, or fifty-six and a half parasangs. There are ^^^^^^nia:^
here also four rivers, which can only be crossed in s'ei'p™''
boats. The first is the Tigris. The second and 'C^^'Viyers
third have the same name, though they are not the ^ be fer-
same river, nor flow from the same country, as the Tigris, za-
first comes out of Armenia, and the other out of j^^f ""l^^^t^^
Matiene. [Unquestionably the Zabatus Major and ^^^"^^f^*^
Zabatus Minor, or Greater and Lesser Zab, of which
the first springs fi-om the mountains of Kurdistan,
and the other from the mountains of Armenia.] The
fourth river is the Gyndes [which we have already
shown to be the Diala']. From Armenia into Ma-
tiene there are four stations and from Matiene.-

Matiene through Cissia, as far as the river Choaspes cLlaT'"
on which Susa is built, there are eleven stations, or IgfpST-''
forty-two and a half parasangs." ^ ^^"^s^-

Herodotus next says, that the total number of mstaj^in
stations between Sardis and Susa are one hundred total."
and eleven, and that the total number of parasangs
is four hundred and fifty. But if we add up those
mentioned in the text, we find only eighty-one sta-
tions and three hundred and thirteen parasangs, thus :

stations. Parasangs.

Lydia and Phrygia . . . .20 94-i-

Cappadocia 28 104

Cilicia 3 15^

Armenia 15 56^

Matiene 4

Cissia 11 421

Total 81 313

The hiatus may occur in the account of Matiene, g||fiene!'
where even the number of parasangs are not men-
tioned. It has been therefore proposed, instead of
four stations, to insert "thirty-four stations and one

mopylae, or " hot-gates." The nvXai, however, on the Phrygian side of
the Halys seems to refer to actual gates constructed on a bridge. Per-
haps, also, there were flood-gates, which could be opened or shut at
pleasure.

1 See page 283. ^ v. 52.

332

PEESIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA.

ASIA.

CHAP. VI.

Probably
never filled
in by Hero-
dotus.

Length, of
the whole
journey
from Ephe-
sus to Susa.

Position of
the nations
in the map
of Aristago-
ras.

hundred and thirty-seven parasangs," which will
exactly reconcile the apparent contradiction.

We have however already seen,' that Herodotus
considered Armenia to include Western Kurdistan,
and Matiene to comprise the Kurdistan mountains,
together with a small territory between Armenia
and Cissia ; and consequently there could not be
more than four stations in Matiene, though there
may have been more in Armenia. But Herodotus
is certainly very obscure in mapping out these two
countries, and his obscurity probably arose partly
from his ignorance. He also trusted too much to
his memory, and this may account for his putting
down sum totals from recollection, without proving
them. It really is not impossible that in describing
the road between Sardis and Susa, he saw that there
was some mistake about Matiene, and left a hiatus
to be subsequently filled up. But, being unable to.
get correct information at Thurium, he died without
making the necessary insertion.

Herodotus calculates the parasang as equal to
30 stadia. The whole distance from Sardis to Susa,
according to his measurement, would be 13,500
stadia ; and he adds that those who travel 150 stadia
a day would spend 90 days on the journey.^ Cal-
culating however from the Hellenic Sea (or Aegean)
to Susa, 540 stadia more must be reckoned in, as
the distance between Ephesus and Sardis. The
whole journey therefore from Ephesus to Susa was
14,040 stadia, or three days more than the three
months mentioned by Aristagoras.^

Tlie words of Aristagoras respecting the positions
of the principal nations, should be also compared
with Herodotus's account of the route. " Next the
lonians are the Lydians, who inhabit a fertile coun-
try, and abound in silver ; then towards the east are
the Phrygians, who are the richest people in cattle

^ See page 2S4.

^ In another place (iv. 101) Herodotus calculates 200 stadia to the day's
journey, but here he is evidently desirous of reconciling the distance with
the words of Aristagoras, that the journey would occupy three months.

3 V. 53, .54.

PERSIAN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA. 333

and corn ; next are the Cappadocians, whom we call asia.
Syrians ; bordering on them are the Cilicians, who ^^^^- ^i-
extend to the sea, in which the island of Cyprus is
situated ; then come the Armenians, who also abound
in cattle ; then the Matienians ; and, lastly, the Cis-
sians, where the city of Susa is situated on the river
Choaspes.^

In concluding this chapter, we may mention that J^^^^J^^^-
the great road already described is still used by andentrold
caravans from Smyrna to Ispahan. Only the latter ^.oJeJu'ca-
half has varied, for the traveller now proceeds north- ravan route,
east, in order to be in the direction of Ispahan,
whilst the ancients inclined more to the south, and
followed the course of the Tigris. The ancient and
modern roads however agree in one particular, they
both took a circuitous course through inhabited
countries, for the sake of security. A more direct
road would have led the traveller through the steppes
of Mesopotamia, occupied then as now by roving
predatory hordes ; he therefore preferred taking the
northern route, along the foot of the Armenian
mountains, where he enjoyed security from all mo-
lestation, and an abundant supply of all necessaries.^

1 V. 49.

2 Heeren, Asiat. Res. vol. i. Tavernier's account of the caravan routes
to Ispahan is graphic, though somewhat long-winded and gossipping.
I made an abstract of his description of the route through Armenia in the
hope that it would illustrate that of Herodotus, but the result, though in-
teresting, was too unsatisfactory for me to insert in the present volume.

AFRICA.

CHAPTER I.
GENEEAL SUEVEY.

AFRICA. Imperfect state of the geography of Africa. — Considered by Herodotus
CHAP. I. to be surrounded by water, excepting at the Isthmus of Suez. — Story of

, its circumnavigation by Phoenicians sent out by Neco. — Evidently be-

heved by Herodotus and his contemporaries. — Voyage of Sataspes. —
Possibihty of circumnavigating Africa, subsequently denied by Plato,
B. c. 360; Ephorus, B. c. 340; Polj^bius, B. c. 150; Strabo, A. D. 1 ; and
Ptolemy, A. D. 150. — Difficulty in deciding whether the Phoenicians did
or did not accomplish the circumnavigation. — Herodotus's account of the
voyage. — Examination into its possibihty. — Nature of the ships. — Cha-
racter of the voyage. — Extent of coast to be traversed by circumnavi-
gators.— Mean rate of sailing. — Aggregate length of the voyage. —
Description of the supposed circumnavigation by the light of modern
geography. — B. c. 613, August. — Suez. — Monsoon in the Arabian Gulf
blowing from the north. — October. — Straits of Babel-mandeb. — Cape
Guardafui. — Land of frankincense. — Monsoon of the Indian ocean blow-
ing from the north-east.— Sun perpetually on the right hand. — Current
of the Mozambique channel running round the Cape of Good Hope. —
B. c. 612, January. — Tropic of Capricorn. — April. — Doubhng of the
Cape of Good Hope. — Atlantic Ocean. — "Wind from the south blowing
along the coast. — July. — St. Thomas's island. — Unfavourable wind and
cmTent lasting till October. — General com-se of the currents of the At-
lantic.— October. — Wind blowing from the north-east: slow westward
progress against the current. — B. c. 611, March. — River Senegal. — Stay
for the September harvest. — Slow progress against the current to the
limits of the north-east trade wind. — Favourable winds through the
Pillars of Heracles to the mouths of the Nile. — Story of the Phoenicians
obtaining suppUes on their voyage by sowing corn and waiting for the
harvest, not incredible. — Probably well victualled as far as Sofala, and
again fresh supplied at Angola. — Bank of the Senegal river, the most
likely spot for the Phoenicians to have chosen for sowing corn. — Ex-
amination into the credibihty to be attached to Herodotus's relation. —
Story of having the sun on the right hand no evidence of its tinith. —
Failure of Sataspes no evidence of its falsehood. ^ — Phoenicians assisted
by monsoons and currents, which would have been adverse to Sataspes.
— Enterprising character of Neco in perfect keeping with his having
organized such an expedition. — Convincing reasons for believing in the
circumnavigation, and in the truth of Herodotus's narrative. — Herodo-
tus's general knowledge of the African continent. — Considered it to be a

GENERAL SURVEY. 335

great acte, spreading out from Asia at the Isthmus of Suez. — Extreme
heat of the climate.— Difficulty in discovering Herodotus's boundary line
between Asia and Africa. — Probably arose from a confusion between
the country of Libya and the continent of Libya. — Division of the
Libyan , continent into three tracts, viz. Aegypt, Aethiopia, and Libya
Proper.

The continent of Africa is a A^ast peninsula, con- afeica.
nected with the main-land of Asia by the Isthmus chap. i.
of Suez. Its immense deserts, its unbroken coast imperfect
line, and the peculiar nature of the climate, have state of the

_.,' ,■•■, , ,. f, . . i . geography

hitherto rendered a large portion oi its interior m- of Africa.
accessible to European travellers ; and, notwithstand-
ing all that has been done by ancient and modern
research, we cannot reduce the physical features of
this quarter of the globe to any general arrangement,
but must confine ourselves strictly to the illustration
of those regions which were known to our author.

Africa, or Libya, as it is called by Herodotus, considered
was considered by him to be entirely surrounded by tustobe°sur-
water, excepting at the part where it bordered on ^°ateJfex^^
Asia, for he describes Libya as having been cir- ^^f jffj^^*^
cumnavigated under the direction of the Aegyptian of suez.
Neco. This king sent out some Phoenicians from ^^^^^^l^^l
the Erythraean Sea, by which we may understand fjj,g^^f^j^g
the Arabian Gulf, whose waters were included in sent out by
the Erythraean. After an absence of three years,
the adventurous navigators returned through the
Pillars of Heracles, and declared that during the voy-
age round they had had the sun on their right hand.^
This last fact appeared incredible to Herodotus ; ^ Evidently
but it is evident that both he and his contemporaries Herodotus
believed in the circumnavigation. He himself says, trmpm^a^^sl
that the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, and the Ery-
thraean are all one sea;^ and he relates, upon the
authority of the Carthaginians, that Xerxes, yield-
ing to the popular belief that the southern quarter of
the continent of Libya was surrounded by water,
ordered Sataspes, as a punishment, to sail through J°^^s^ °^
the Pillars "of Heracles, and attempt the circumnavi-
gation of the continent by returning through the
Arabian Gulf. Sataspes came back without accom-

1 iv. 42. " Ibid. 3 i. 202.

336

GENERAL SURVEY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. I.

Possibility
of circum-
navigating
Africa, sub-
sequently
denied by
Plato, B. c.
360.

Ephorus,
B. C. 340.

Polybius,
B. C. 150.

Strabo,
A. D. 1.

Ptolemy,
A. D. 150.

Difficulty in
deciding

plishing tlie circumnavigation, not however because
it was impossible, but because he dreaded the length
and desolation of the voyage. It was necessary
however to assign some other cause for his return,
and he therefore declared that his vessel had been
stopped, and could proceed no farther. Xerxes dis-
believed this excuse, and Sataspes was impaled.^

This belief in the circumnavigation of Libya did
not exist in after-times. Plato virtually denies the
fact, for he says that the Atlantic Sea was neither
navigable nor to be traced out, being blocked up by
the mud produced by the sunken island of Atlantis.^
Ephorus expressly rejects the notion, for he says
" that they who would sail to the island of Cerne
from the Red Sea, are not able from the extreme
heat to pass beyond certain columns."^ Polybius,
who had himself explored the western coast of Africa,*
tells us that '' Africa lies between the Nile and the
Pillars of Heracles," but he adds that '' it has never
yet been known whether Aethiopia, which is the
place where Asia and Africa meet together, be a
continent extending forwards to the south, or whe-
ther it be surrounded by the sea."^ Strabo be-
lieved that Africa terminated in a southern cape,
though he erroneously imagined that its eastern
coast formed a right angle with its northern, and
that its western was the hypotenuse of the triangle ;
but he disbelieved in the cfrcumnavigation, for he
says that no one had advanced more than 5000
stadia beyond the entrance of the Red Sea, now
called the Straits of Babel-mandeb, and considered
that after a certain distance an isthmus interposed.
This isthmus is laid down by Ptolemy as stretching
away from the coast of Africa, south of the equator,
to the eastern verge of the world.^

The question, therefore, still remains undecided,

' iv. 4.3.

^ Timaeas, § 6, iii. 25. It must be acknowledged, however, that the
whole story of the island of Atlantis ought, perhaps, to be considered as
a mere myth.

3 Pliny, Nat. Hist. vi. 31. * Ibid. v. i. ^ Polyb. lib. iii.

•^ Strabo and Ptolemy, quoted by Kenrick.

GENERAL SURVEY. 337

whether the Phoenicians sent out by Neco did or africa.
did not double the Cape of Grood Hope, and return chap, i. '
to Aegypt through the Pillars of Heracles; and as .whether the
the subject must necessarily be of great interest to J^°^"^^^j^f '
all students in ancient geography, we shall first ex- not accom-
amine into the possibility of the achievement, and circumnlvi-
then endeavour to point out the degree of credibility s^tion.
which ought to be attached to the narrative of He-
rodotus.^ Our author's own account is as follows :

'' The Phoenicians, setting out from the Ery- Herodotus's
thraean, navigated the southern sea. When autumn the°TOyage.
came they sowed the land at whatever part of
Libya they happened to be sailing, and waited for
the harvest ; then, having reaped the corn, they put
to sea again. Two years thus passed away. At
length, in the third year of their voyage, having
sailed through the Pillars of Heracles, they arrived
in Aegypt, and related what does not seem credible
to me, but which may be believed by others, that as
they sailed round Libya, they had the sun on their
right hand." ^

In order to arrive at the practicability of the Examin-

1 • 1 n v» • ' 1. ±r\ J. ation into

undertaking, we shall iirst examine into the nature its possi-
of the ships and means of navigation, and then fol- ^'^'''^'
low in the route which we may suppose the voy-
agers to have taken, and remark upon their means
of procuring sufficient supplies of provisions.

The vessels in which the Phoenicians sailed were Nature of
undoubtedly not war galleys, but merchant ships,
carrying a sail, and not propelled by oars excepting
in cases of emergency.^ The voyage must neces-

^ Rennell and Larcher believed in the circumnavigation : Mannert
and Gosselin doubted it. More recently the writer of the article on
Africa, in the Penny Cyclopaedia, and Mr. Cooley, in his edition of
L archer's Notes, have decided on rejecting it altogether.

2 iv. 42.

3 The Phoenician vessels that resorted to the Piraeus are admirably
described by Xenophon. " I remember," said Tschomachus to Socrates,
" I once went aboard a Phoenician ship, where I observed the best ex-
ample of good order that I ever met with : and, especially, it was sur-
prising to observe the vast number of implements which were necessary
tor the management of such a small vessel. What numbers of oars,
stretchers, ship-hooks, and spikes, were there for bringing the ship in
and out of the harbour ! What numbers of shrouds, cables, halsers,

338

GENERAL SURVEY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. I.

Character
of the voy-
age.

Extent of
coast to be
traversed
by the cir-
cumnavi-
gators.
Mean rate
of sailing.

Aggregate
length of
the voyage.

sarily have been performed along the shore, and only
during the day-tmie, especially as the nature of the
coast must have been totally unknown.

The eutii^e distance from Suez, round Africa,
coastwise, through Gribraltar, to the mouth of the
Nile, is calculated by Rennell ^ to be about 224 de-
grees of a great circle, or 13,440 geog. miles. The
mean rate of sailing, judging from the rate at which
Nearchus proceeded in his exploring voyage from
the Indus to the Euphrates, was about twenty-two
and a half miles per day.^ According to this esti-
mate, the voyage itself would occupy about twenty
months, and if a twelvemonth more is added for the
harvest, for repairs of vessels on the way, and for
rest and refreshment, the aggregate would be only

ropes, and other tackling, for the guiding of the ship ! With how many-
engines of war was it armed for its defence ! What variety, and what
numbers of arms, for the men to use in time of battle ! What a vast
quantity of provisions were there for the sustenance and support of the
sailors ! And, besides all these, the loading of the ship was of great
bulk, and so rich, that the very freight of it would gain enough to
satisfy the captain and his people for their voyage : and all these were
stowed so neatly together, that a far larger place would not have con-
tained them if they had been removed. Here, I took notice, the good
order and disposition of everything was so strictly observed, that, not-
withstanding the great variety of materials the ship contained, there was
not anything on board which the sailors could not find in an instant ; nor
was the captain himself less acquainted with these particulars than his
sailors : he was as ready in them, as a man of learning would be to
know the letters that composed the name Socrates, and how they stand
in that name. Nor did he only know the proper places for everything
on board his ship ; but, while he stood upon the deck, he was consider-
ing with himself what things might be wanting in his voyage, what
things wanted repair, and what length of time his provisions and ne-
cessaries would last : for, as he observed to me, it is no proper time, when
a storm comes upon us, to have the necessary implements to seek, or to
be out of repair, or to M'ant them on board ; for the gods are never
favourable to those who are negligent or lazy ; and it is their goodness
that they do not destroy us when we are diligent." Oecon. c. 8.

1 Geog. of Herod, sect, xxiv., concerning the circumnavigation of
Africa by the ships of Neco, to which I am indebted for many par-
ticulars upon the subject.

- The mean rate of Nearchus during his whole voyage was only
twenty-two and a half miles per day ; and even when he was sailing
through the Persian Gulf it was only thirty miles. This indeed is an
unusually low rate, Ijut is preferred in the present case because the ex-
pedition of Nearchus was performed under somewhat similar circum-
stances to the voyage of the Phoenicians. Rennell adopts it, but quotes
other examples of the rate of sailing, by which he would raise the mean
to thirty-five or thirty-seven miles per day, but they are all cases in which
the route was well known.

GENERAL SURVEY. 339

two years and eight months, or four months within africa.
the three years specified. _ ^"^^•^-

We will, however, now follow in the route which De^eiiption
we may suppose the voyagers to have taken, and "^^^^^f ^^j^P"
in order to do this effectually, we shall describe cumnaviga-
the voyage as having actually taken place, without Jg^t of mo-
expressing any opinion upon its truth. ^ grapiw""

The Phoenician expedition probably left Suez in ^^-J^-^^^'
the beginning of August, b. c. 613.^ We specify an suJT "
approximate date for the sake of clearness, and fix
upon the month of August, because at that time the
monsoon of the Arabian Gulf would be blowing fi:'om JJ^^^^mbian
the north. We may also take it for granted that ouif, biow-
the voyagers were experienced in the navigation of north?""
this sea ; that they knew it would take them at least
40 days to arrive at the Straits of Babel-mandeb ; ^
and that consequently they would reach the Indian
Ocean about October, when they could either pro-
ceed southward, along the eastern coast of the un-
known continent, by the assistance of the monsoon
of the Indian Ocean, which at this time begins to
blow from the north-east, or they might turn back
under the influence of the monsoon of the Arabian
Grulf, which chops round at the same time, and
through the winter months blows from the south. ^
We may next presume that the Phoenicians actually g^fa^tfof
did reach the Indian Ocean about the latter end of Babei-man-

deb.

^ A date for the voyage may be arrived at thus. Neco ascended the
throne, b. c. 617. His first recorded acts were to dig the canal fi'om the
Nile to the Arabian Gulf, and to build the two fleets. His expedition
against Assyria, which was attended with the defeat and death of Josiah,
took place B. c. 610; and we may suppose that the Phoenician voyage
of discovery started in B. c. 613, and returned E. c. 610, whilst Neco was
engaged in foreign conquest ; and this presumption would account for
the fact of such a very meagre account of the voyage having been pre-
served.

2 See Herodotus's own calculation of the distance, at page 315. It
must however be remarked, that if the voyage was performed in 40 days,
this would be at the rate of 32 miles per day.

3 The Indian Ocean and the Arabian Gulf have each of them pecu-
liar monsoons, which differ in their directions. In the Indian Ocean
south-westerly winds prevailed during the summer, and north-easterly
during the winter. On the other hand, in the Arabian Gulf northerly
winds prevail during the summer, and southerly during the winter.
These facts must have been well known to the intrepid seamen, who
had reached Tarshish and Ophir.

z 2

340 GENERAL SURVEY.

AFRICA. October, and that having doubled Cape Guardefui
CHAP. I. and passed by the land of frankincense, they found
Cape the monsoon of the Indian Ocean favourable to their

LancSf""'' enterprise, and resolutely proceeded towards the
frankin- Mozauibique Channel ; being probably encouraged
Monsoon of by tlic fact, wliicli they may very well have be-
OManf ''^'^ lieved, that should they find themselves impeded in
blowing their course, the monsoon would certainly change
north-east, again the ensuing March, and could easily waft

them back again to the Straits of Babel-mandeb.
Sun perpe- Ouward tlicn we may suppose the intrepid voy-
ri'Sian^L agcrs to havc proceeded. After crossing the equator,
they would observe that the remarkable phenomenon
which had sometimes taken place in the more south-
erly quarter of the Arabian Gulf was now perpetual,
and that the sun was always on their right hand, or
Current of ratlicr to the north of their vessels. On reaching
bique GIL'S- the 10th degree of south latitude, they would begin
round'thl'^° to fccl thc currcut of the Mozambique Channel,
Cape of which would run in their favour the whole way
B."a642T^' round the Cape of Good Hope. By the end of
TropiTof January, b. c. 612, that is, in the midst of the sum-
Capricorn. ingp of tlic southcm hemisphere, they might have
reached the tropic of Capricorn. They would thus
have a great part of the summer and autumn before
them, for accomplishing the most difficult part of
their voyage, namely, the doubling of the southern
Doubiin of P^o^iontory of Africa. We must of course presume
the Cape of that iu about two months and a half more they
°^^' achieved this dangerous undertaking; the current
of the Mozambique Channel carrying them safely
round the Cape, at the most favourable season of the
year, which, according to the above calculation, we
Atlantic fix al^out the middle of April. The Phoenicians

OcGcin.

AVind from ucxt cutcred the Atlantic Ocean, and turned their
Wowi'n* prows towards the mysterious north. It must here
along the }yQ remarked, that in the Atlantic, from the 30th

COfiSt. ^

degree of south latitude northwards to the equator,
there prevails in the open sea a regular south-cast
wind, which is called the trade wind ; but that off
the coast and within the influence of land, a south-

OENERAIi SURVEY. 341

erly wind prevails, varying only some points to the africa.
eastward or westward, according to the season or chap. i.
time of day. This is more particularly the case in
April and May, and consequently during this part
of the voyage the Phoenicians would find a fair
wind and but little bad weather. Three months
more, at the least, would elapse before they could
reach the equator and St. Thomas's island, and this
would bring them to the middle of July ; but as July. st.
they may have been delayed by the state of their li^^i'^ ^
ships, or by prolonged attempts to procure water or
provisions, the probabilities are that they did not
reach St. Thomas's until much later in the year.
One thing however is certain, that whether they
reached St. Thomas's in July, in August, or in
September, they could not leave it and commence
the westward voyage along the coasts of Guinea
and Sierra Leone before the beginning of November ;
for in this quarter a south-west wind, accompanied Un^'^'*'?"^-
by rainy weather, blows until October, when it is and current
succeeded by a north-east wind and dry weather, octoblf ^^
which would be more favourable to their progress.
A brief notice of the currents of the Atlantic would
also give the reader a further insight into the cir-
cumstances of the voyage.

There are two great counter -currents on the west- General
ern coast of Africa, one coming from the north, and the currents
the other from the south, and these two apparently lai.tic.'^*
meet near St. Thomas's island, and form together
the great equatorial current which runs westward
towards the opposite coast of South America. By
a glance at the map of Africa, it will be seen that
the northern current, keeping along the coast, must
take an easterly course through the Gulf of Guinea
before it meets the southern stream ; and that the
great equatorial current running out due west, ne-
cessarily flows parallel with it, though in an oppo- October.
site direction. As however the Phoenicians would ingfromthe
be sure to keep close to the coast, they woidd avoid ^Yo'i\yli-
the danger of being carried out into the open Atlantic ward pro-
by the equatorial current ; at the same time, in their thfcu^rent.

CHAP. I.

342 GENERAL SUEVEY.

AFRICA, westward voyage from St. Thomas's, they would
have to contend against the northern current, which
runs close along the shore. Giving them therefore
the advantage of the north-easterly wind, already
mentioned, they would make but slow progress
against the current, and lowering the mean rate of
sailing to 18 miles a day, it must have taken them
at least four calendar months to get from St.
B. c. 611, Thomas's to the mouth of the river Senegal.^ This
Eiver sene- briugs US to the Senegal by the beginning of March,
fOTthrU- ^- ^' ^^^^ when 19 months of the voyage were com-
tember bar- pletcd. At this rivcr the Phoenicians may have
waited until the harvest in the ensuing September,
and may then have again set sail and proceeded
Slow pro- towards the Pillars of Heracles. The first part of
the^cufreut this voyagc would be very slow, for they would
ofthenortb- ^^^'^^ ^o contcud both agaiiist the northern current
east trade and the uorth-cast trade wind ; and not less than
40 days of sailing, at the rate of 15 miles per day,
can be allowed them for clearing the limits of this
Favourable trade wiud. Haviug passed beyond the trade, the
throug^i the prevalent winds would be fair the whole way through
Heiacie^to ^^^^ PiUars of Hcraclcs to the mouth of the Nile, a
the mouths distaucc of about 2800 miles, which would occupy
about 110 days, at the rate of 25|- miles per day.
The voyage from the mouth of the Senegal to that
of the Nile would therefore occupy 150 days, or
about five months, and the Phoenicians would thus
return to Aegypt in February, b. c. 610, being the
third year of the entire voyage, and after having
been absent for a period of two years and six
months.
story of the In f^nncxiou with the voyage, we have to deal
obtaining witli thc subjcct of provisious. Herodotus's account
thei?voy°° ^^ ^hc sowiug of the seed and waiting for the har-
?ge ^y^'^^^ vest seems at first sight to be a mere fiction. But
waiting for tlic iutcrval bctwccn seed-time and harvest in the

1 A very long and learned, but most bewildering, account of the cur-
rents of the Atlantic Ocean is given Ijy Major Renncll ; but it is to him,
and to the valuable i)hysical Atlas of Mr. Johnstone, that I am indebted
for all the actual facts 1 have brought forward to illustrate this presumed
circumnavigation of Libya.

GENERAL SURVEY. 343

tropical climate of Africa, would be only three africa.
months ; and though the Phoenician vessels were chap. i.
well fitted to carry a large supply of provisions/ yet the harvest,
some extraordinary arrangements were doubtless notmcredi-
made to enable crews to supply themselves during
such a very long voyage as the one under consider-
ation. That voyages did often extend over two or
three years is proved from sacred ^ as well as from
profane history, and the idea of travellers depending
in some shape on a harvest of their own, is not con-
fined to the present instance ; for in the preparations
made by Tamerlane for his march into China, in
A. D. 1405, were included waggon loads of seed-
corn, to sow the fields on the road.^ With respect ^^"J'^J'cfu
to the victualling of the Phoenician fleet, we may aUed as far
observe that the power of the Aegyptian king Neco, and°agdA
combined with their own experience, would enable ^'jj^^atAn-
the navigators to obtain sufficient provisions through- goia.
out the whole length of the Arabian Gulf; whilst
their commercial relations with the people lower
down along the eastern coast of Africa, would pro-
cure them still further supplies, and they might be
nearly as well victualled when they arrived at Mo-
zambique or Sofala, as when they left the head of
the Arabian Gulf. Between Sofala on the eastern
coast, and Angola on the western shore, they might
not have been able to secure a fresh supply ; but
Angola is a fruitful and productive country, and
here it is probable that they made their first long
halt after leaving Aegypt. The Senegal river, we Bank of the
have seen, was not reached before March, b. c. 611, river^the
and probably not till much later, but this would "poffoJ'tS
depend upon the length of their presumed stay at ^'^°^^J'''^''*
Angola. This river is the most likely spot through- chosen for
out the whole voyage, where the Phoenicians, having
arrived by analogy at some idea of the probable
length of the remaining part of their voyage, might

^ See note to page 337-

2 1 Kings X. 22, quoted by Rennell. The voyages of Hanno, of
Scylax, and of Nearchus, beside those of the Phoenicians to the Cassi-
terides, are too well known and authenticated to require mention.

^ Sheref. Timur, vi. 28, quoted by Rennell.

sowing
corn.

344 GENERAL SURVliY.

AFRICA, resolve to victual themselves for tlie whole of that
^^^^- ^- interval. The harvests in this quarter are said to
be in September, and the seed-time in June or the
beginning of July ; but though this was a long time
to wait, yet the people of the country might not
have had a stock sufficient for themselves and the
strangers also, without the aid of the expected har-
vest ; and the time might also have been most
profitably employed in repairing the ships and re-
storing the crews to health and spirits.

Examiua- ^g have thus proved that the circumnavigation

tioii intotne r'x'i j*ii i i ' •

credibility 01 Libya was practicable under certain circum-
tached^to stanccs ; it now remains for us to ascertain the de-
SiatTon^^'^^ gree of credit which ought to be attached to the
narrative, which was evidently believed by He-
rodotus and his contemporaries, but rejected by suc-
ceeding authors, and doubted by many of the ablest
story of geographers of modern times. The story which the
suirof the Phoenicians told of their having had the sun on their
n?evickn^e ^ig^t hand by no means obliges us to believe that
of its truth, they did circumnavigate the continent, for the same
phenomenon might have occurred at a certain time of
the year northward of the Straits of Babel-mandeb.
Failure of Neither, on the other hand, does the failure of Sa-
evideuceof taspcs obligc US to coiiclude that the Phoenicians
hood!^'^ were equally unsuccessful ; for we have already seen
how much more easily the voyage might have been
conducted from the eastern than from the western
Phoenici- sidc. Tlic Phocnicians, who must have had some
by mon- cxpcrience of the trade winds, might have been able
cmrentr^ to take advantage of the monsoon of the Arabian
which Gulf, then of that of the Indian Ocean, and then
been ad- might liavc been carried round the Cape by the
taspes!" ^^' Mozambique current ; and, in short, would have
met with but little impediment beyond the proba-
ble want of provisions and water until they arrived
at the Gulf of Guinea. Sataspes, however, would
no sooner have reached this latter station than all
his troubles would have commenced. The strong
current from tlie Cape, strengthened by tlic south-
cast trade wind, would liave carried liim away in

GENERAL SUEVEY. 345

tlie equatorial current towards South America, if he Africa.
once left the coast ; and even supposing that by the ^^^^- ^•
assistance of oars he approached the Cape, it is cer-
tain that it would have been morally impossible for
him to have doubled this formidable promontory.
There can also be no doubt but that the Phoenician
expedition was really sent out. Neco was an enter- Enterpris-
prising and powerful prince. He commenced the tef o/Neco
canal from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf,* and built L^'ee^plng*"'
two fleets of triremes ; ^ and it was he who defeated ^^J^^^^'^^j.
King Josiah in the valley of Megiddo, and gained a ganized
splendid victory over the Assyrian power on the pldition.''^"
banks of the Euphrates. Was it therefore possible
for the Phoenicians to have subsequently deceived
him, and could they have transported their vessels
from the Arabian Gulf to the Mediterranean, and
after two or three years' absence have reached the
Nile and claimed the reward which had been doubt-
less offered ? Such a proceeding would be incredi-
ble. The ships could not have been carried, and
others would soon have been identified as never
havinff been sent out with the voyagers. We must convincing

^ *^ rGfisous lor

therefore own ourselves firm believers in the circum- believing in
navigation, and in the general truth of Herodotus's navigatiol^
narrative. The Phoenicians were notorious for their f''^J''i5f

. , . T r 1 1 n T truth of He-

commercial jealousy, lor the concealment oi dis- lodotus's

p jS 1 r ' ' 1 i? J.1 narrative.

coveries lor the sake oi enjoying a monopoly oi the
commerce, and their report was therefore as brief as
possible. Lastly, to those critics who urge that if
the circumnavigation had been once effected, it
would have been followed by some permanent re-
sults, we can only say that, difficult and dangerous
as the voyage must undoubtedly have been, it could
have had no more effect upon the commerce of the
ancients than the discovery of the north-west pas-
sage is likely to have upon the trading voyages of
modern times. India was to be approached from the
Arabian Gulf, and the eastern and north-western
coasts of Africa were already reached by the nearest

1 ii. 158. 2 ii. 159.

346

GENERAL SURVEY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. I.

Herodotus's
general
knowledge
of the Afri-
can conti-
nent.

Considered
it to be a
great acte
spreading
out from
Asia at the
Isthmus of
Suez.

Extreme
heat of the
climate.

routes. Communications with the interior were
sufficiently opened by the caravans from Carthage ;
and no merchandise of any description could be ob-
tained from Southern Africa which would at all repay
the most adventm-ous and enterprising voyager, for
any attempt to prove whether the story of the Phoe-
nician expedition was true or mythical. Thus,
after the lapse of ages, the narrative was either for-
gotten or doubted, and the great geographical pro-
blem still remained as though it had never been
solved.

The next subject to be considered is, the character
and extent of Herodotus's knowledge of the conti-
nent at large. According to his map of Asia,^ he
considered the Libyan continent as forming the
second great acte which ran westward from Asia.
At Aegypt the country was narrow, for between the
Mediterranean and the Arabian Gulf the neck
of land (now called the Isthmus of Suez) was only
100,000 orgyae across ; but from this narrow neck
the tract which was called Libya became very
wide.^ The western extremity was formed by the
promontory of Soloeis.^ The soil was reddish and
sandy,* but watered by numerous rivers.^ The
region above, or to the south of Aegypt, was exceed-
ingly hot ; the winds were very heating ; and there
was neither rain nor snow. The inhabitants also
became black from the excessive heat; kites and
swallows remained there the entire year, and the
cranes, to avoid the cold of Scythia, repaired to these
countries for their winter quarters.'' The air was
always clear, the soil always hot, and the winds
never cool ; ^ whilst the peculiar course of the sun ^
rendered the climate of Libya one eternal sum-
mer.^ Thus the Libyans, and next to them the
Aegyptians, were the healthiest of all men, be-
cause they had nothing to suffer from the change
of seasons.'"

See page 200.
ii. 22. ■' ii. 25.

iv. 41. Mi. 32.

" Sec page 12.

* ii. 12.

'■' ii. 2(j.

■' ii. 20.

'" ii. 77.

GENERAL SURVEY. 347

It is difficult to decide where Herodotus would Africa.
draw the boundary line between Libya and Asia. ^hap. i.
We have already seen that the eastern tract between Difficulty m
the Nile valley and the Red Sea was assigned to '^^l°J^^l^§
Arabia, and our author himself seems doubtful boundary
whether Aegypt belonged to Libya or to Asia. tween^Asia
Objecting, as he did, to the arbitrary continental ^"^"^ ^^"°^-
divisions of the other Greek geographers, he seems
more inclined to divide the world into tracts, or
countries. He therefore says that the only line of
division he knows between Asia and Libya is the
frontier of Aegypt,^ but whether that frontier was on
the east or the west, he nowhere specifies. Again,
he certainly does say that Libya commenced from
Aegypt, but then immediately afterwards he says,
that from the narrow neck which joins the acte to
the main-land, the tract which was called Libya
was very wide : ^ thus in the same chapter imply-
ing, first, that Libya commenced from Aegypt ; and,
secondly, that it commenced from the Isthmus of
Suez. We are therefore led to conclude that the ProbaWy

/»-p., -,-, PT'T arose irorti

continent oi Libya and the country oi Libya were a confusion
two totally different things. The continent cer- country S^
tainly included Aethiopia ; ^ whilst Libya Proper, ^g^^ntt^
which was inhabited by the Libyans, comprised nent of li-
only the northern territory between Aegypt and '
Cape Soloeis. That Aegypt was not included in the
Libyan continent may be distinctly proved by the
following passage. " Thus much I know," says
Herodotus, " four nations occupy Libya, and no
more ; two of these nations are aboriginal, and two
not. The Libyans and Aethiopians are aboriginal,
the former lying northward and the latter south-
ward in Libya ; the foreign settlers are Phoenicians
and Greeks."* This passage we shall ignore in obe-
dience to modern geography, and consider the Ae-
gyptians as included within the present quarter of
the globe.

The continent of Libya must be thus divided into Ji'jLibya°n

1 ii. 17. - iv. 41. 3 ii. 17. vii_ 70. * iv. 197-

348

GENEEAL SUEVEY.

AFRICA, three distinct tracts, viz. Aegypt, Aetliiopia, and

^'^^^- ^- Libya Proper ; Aegypt and Aetliiopia including

continent the countrics watered by the Nile, and Libya Proper

tact?Tiz embracing the region of Mount Atlas and desert of

Aegypt, Ae- Sahara: and this division we shall implicitly follow

thiopia, and ' , i t i j

Libya Pro- m tho succecamg chaptcrs.

per.

CHAPTER II.

AEGYPT.

General description of Aegypt— a fertile valley, bounded on the east AFRICA,
by the Arabian chain, and on the west by the Libyan. — Herodotus's chap. ii.
account. — Situation and boundaries of the country. — Supposed to be a ^

gift of the Nile, as in the reign. of Menes, B. c. 2200, aU Middle Aegypt
was a morass, and all Lower Aegypt was under water ; but in the time
of Herodotus, B. c. 450, the whole had been filled up by alluvial soil
brought down by the Nile. — Lower Aegypt said by the priests to have
been anciently a bay, corresponding to the Arabian Gulf.^Three facts
in favour of the hypothesis. — 1. Shells found on the mountains and
sahne humour on the pjrramids. — 2. Contrast between the black soil of
Aegypt and the rock and clay of Arabia and Syi-ia on the east, and the
red sand of Libya on the west. — 3. Gradual rise of the land. — Ionian
theory, that Aegypt Proper was included in the Delta, proved to be ab-
sui'd, as the Aegyptians were an ancient people, but the soil of the Delta
of recent formation. — Theory of Herodotus — that the Aegyptians had
advanced northward as fast as fresh soil was formed, and that Aegypt
properly included all the country inhabited by Aegyptians — -supported
by the oracle of Ammon. — Voyage of Herodotus up the Nile, by Heli-
opolis and Thebes, to Elephantine on the southern frontier of Aegypt. —
Aegypt north of Heliopolis, (i. e. the Delta,) a broad flat. — Aegypt
south of Heliopolis, a narrow valley between the Arabian and Libyan
mountains. — Extent of the voyage.' — Error in Herodotus's calculation of
the number of stadia. — Herodotus's personal knowledge bounded on the
south by Elephantine. — Could learn but little concerning the Nile. —
Three difierent causes assigned by the Greeks for its periodical over-
flow. 1st, That it was occasioned by the Etesian winds. 2nd, That
it was caused by the river Ocean. 3rd, That it was produced by the
snows of Aethiopia. — Theory of Herodotus, the Nile drained during the
winter by the sun, which is driven southward by Boreas ; but ovei-flowing
in summer, when the sun returns to the centre of the heavens. — Origin
of the three previous theories.^ — That of the Etesian wdnds, taught by
Thales. — That of the river Ocean, by Hecataeus, though perhaps in
part derived from the Aegyptian tradition of the revolution of the sun. —
That of the melted snow, taught by Anaxagoras, and followed by Eu-
ripides and Aeschylus. — Real cause of the inundation first discovered
by Democritus and Callisthenes, viz. the very heavy rainy season in Ae-
thiopia.— Period of the inundation. — Singular theory of the philosophers
of Memphis as described by Diodorus. — Sources of the Nile : Herodotus
unable to obtain any information concerning them. — Hoaxing story told
by the bm-sar of the Athene temple at Sais.— Effects produced by the
inundation. — Aegypt like a sea, and her cities like islands. — Navigation-
carried on across the plain of the Delta. — Cities protected by mounds. —

350

AEGYPT.

AFRICA.

CHAP. II.

General de-
scription of
Aegypt—
a fertile val-
ley,bounded
on the east
by the Ara-
bian chain,
and on the
west by the
Libyan
chain.

Seven mouths of the Nile, viz. Pelusiac, Canopic, Sebennytic, Saitic,
Mendesian, Bolbotine, and Bucolic. — Their identification on the modern
map. — Divisions of Aegypt not distinctly laid down by Herodotus. —
Supposed by him to have included Lower Aegypt, or the Delta, and
Upper Aegypt, or Heptanomis.

Aegypt in primeval times consisted of a long
rocky valley terminating in a deep bay. The river
Nile, which flowed from the highlands of Aethiopia,
traversed the entire length of the valley, and emp-
tied its waters into the bay. In the time of Hero-
dotus the Nile had covered the rocky valley with
rich and teeming earth, and by its continual de-
posits had filled up the bay, and transformed it into
that extensive and fruitfiil territory known as the
plain of the Delta. ^ Aegypt thus included, first,
the long and narrow valley which follows the course
of the Nile from Assouan, the ancient Syene, north-
wards to Cairo ; and, secondly, the extensive plain
of the Delta, which stretches from Cairo northwards
to the Mediterranean. The two mountain ranges
which enclose the Nile valley are called by an
Arabian writer, '' the wings of the Nile." That on
the east may be named the Arabian chain ; that on
the west, the Libyan chain. In Upper and Central
Aegypt they are each intersected by defiles, which
on the eastern side lead to the shores of the Red
Sea, and on the western side lead to the oases. As
these two ranges approach the apex of the Delta

' This opinion is in accordance with Herodotus's own theory, (ii. 5.
See also Savanj's Letters on JEr/j/pt, Letter L) It has however been
stoutly opposed by Sir J. G. Wilkinson and the learned writer of the
article on Egypt in the new edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, who,
though it is admitted on all hands that the land of Aegypt and the bed
of the river are both slowly rising, yet contend that the limits of the
Delta to the north are the same now as in the remotest antiquity. But,
even admitting that the northern limits of the Delta are the same now
as they were in the days of Herodotus, it does not invalidate his state-
ment, which we shall quote and remark upon further on in the present
chapter, that the cultivated portion of Aegypt is the gift of the river. The
chain of sand-banks, which skirt the Delta on the north, may have ex-
isted long before the Delta attained its present form ; but, at the same
time, there is no i-eason to doubt that the cultivable land of which the
Delta is composed really and wholly consists of deposits brought down
by the Nile, and that the lakes or lagoons, which lie along the shore to
the south of the chain of sand-banks, are the last remains of the sea by
'which the Delta was anciently covered.

AEGYPT. 3-51

near Cairo, they recede eastward and westward ; africa.
one, named Gebel Nairon, stretching north-west to chap. n.
the Mediterranean, and the other, named Gebel
Attaka, running north-east to Suez, and both form-
ing an angle of divergence of about 140°. A little
to the north of the spot where the two ranges di-
verge, the river divides into two large branches, one
flowing to Rosetta, and the other to Damietta ; and
these two branches thus contain between them the
triangular piece of insulated land, which the Greeks
called from its shape the Delta, a.^ The entire
length of Aegypt from Syene to the Mediterranean
is about 450 geog. miles, and the mean width of the
valley which stretches from Syene to Cairo is about
nine miles. Such was the country whose physical
formation, whose history, and whose religion, at-
tracted so much of the attention of our curious and
inquiring author. It was divided into three parts :
1. Northern Aegypt, or the Delta. 2. Middle
Aegypt, or Heptanomis. 3. Southern Aegypt, or
Thebais. And in reading Herodotus it is necessary
to remember, that by Lower Aegypt he means the
northern division, or the Delta ; and by Upper
Aegypt he means the middle and southern division.

Aegypt was supposed by Herodotus to lie under Herodotus's
nearly the same meridian as Cilicia, Sinope, and sitaario'n
the mouths of the Ister.^ Its northern boundary aries^oSe"
was formed by that portion of coast washed by the country.
Mediterranean, which lay between the bay of
Plinthenites on the west, and Lake Serbonis on the
east ; a distance of 60 schoeni, or 3600 stadia, the
schoeni being an Aegyptian measure equivalent to
60 stadia.^ Its southern boundary might be formed
by a line drawn east and west at the city of Ele-
phantine/ which was situated directly opposite
Syene, and just below the lesser cataract ; and it
should be remembered that from Elephantine north-

1 It need scarcely be mentioned that to the Greeks, coming from
Greece, Lower Aegypt presented the exact shape of the letter delta ; but
that on the modern map, which points in an exactly opposite direction,
Lower Aegypt appears like a delta npside down.

■'' ii. 34. 3 ii. 16. i ii_ i8_

352 AEGYPT.

AFRICA, wards to the Mediterranean, the Nile was navigable
CHAP. II. the whole distance.

^^^~~j^ The territory of Aegypt was considered by our
be a gift of author to be a gift of the Nile.^ In the reign of
in rtiTreigu Meuos, the whole of Aegypt, excepting Thebais,
E!^aS, was a morass, and all the country north of Lake
ail Middle Moeris was under water ; ^ whilst in the time of
a morass^ ^^ Hcrodotus, this Lake Moeris was distant from the
er A^egypr sca a scvcn days' voyage up the river Nile.^ It was
Avasimder ^j^^^g ovidont to all wlio saw the country, that the
irthe'time Delta, or that part of Aegypt which was visited by
t^s!l!c°45"o, the Greek merchantmen, was a gift from the river,
£d been ^^^ ^^^'^ ^^^ parts for a three days' passage south-
fiiied up by ward of the Lake Moeris were of the same descrip-
brought^" tion. The actual existence of these alluvial deposits
do^bythe ;^ig}jt however be proved by sailing one day's voy-
age from the coast, and casting in a lead ; upon
which the voyager would bring up mud, and find
Lower himsclf in eleven fathoms water.^ Indeed, as the
Aegypt said p^^gg^g j-^i^ Horodotus, and as also appeared to him
blvfbeen ^o bc the casc, the Nile valley, as far as the coun-
ancientiya try south of Mcmphis, was formerly a bay of the
spJndTngto sea,^ extending from the Mediterranean towards
^e^Arabian ^ethiopia, iu the same way that the Arabian Gulf
extended from the south towards Syria ; and if the
Nile were to turn its stream into the Arabian Gulf,
as it did into the Aegyptian bay, the gulf also
would be filled up in 20,000, if not in 10,000 years.^
Three facts That this was the ancient condition of the country
thehy^o'-*' was perfectly evident to Herodotus, especially when

thesis.

1 ii. 5.

2 The priests who gave this information to Herodotus spoke without
any historical authority. They saw what Herodotus himself says was
evident to any one who used his eye-sight, that the Delta consisted of
land which had been brought down by the Nile ; but being ignorant of
the rate at which such phenomena proceed, and conceiving the com-
mencement of their own special history to be the commencement of
everything, they declared that the formation of the Delta, which must
have been the work of many thousands of years, began in the reign of
Menes, because he was the first king of Aegjqit. The period however
of those great physical changes which raised the Delta above the level
of the sea, stretches far beyond the annals of the human race, and Menes
did not found his capital that he might reign over a marsh. See Kenrick,
Anc. Eqypf, vol. ii.

3 ii. 4! ^ ii. T). •'"' ii. 10. " ii. 11.

AEGYPT. 353

he saw that Aegypt projected into the Mediterranean africa.
beyond the adjoining land; that shells were found chap. n.
on the mountains, and that a saline humour every- ^ gy^^^g
where covered the surface, and even corroded the Jo^^d on
pyramids ; whilst, on the other hand, the mountains tains, and a
southward of Memphis consisted wholly of sand, mour on\e
Moreover, the soil of Aegypt was quite different py^'amids.
from that of the neighbouring countries, Arabia, /
Libya, and Syria ; for it was black and friable, as if 2/contrast
it were mud and alluvial deposit brought down by black sou of
the river Nile from Aethiopia ; whilst the soil of ^g^j.^P^^JjJ
Libya was reddish with a substratum of sand, and ciay of Ara-
that of Arabia and Syria was clayey, with a sub- riaonthe^'
stratum of rock,^ Another proof of the gradual ele- red sand*o/
vation of the country by alluvial deposits was also Jt^^y* ^"^

*J •J -L til6 west.

brought forward by the priests, who assured Hero- 3. Gradual
dotus that in the reign of King Moeris, if the Nile land?^*^^
only rose eight cubits it covered all Aegypt north
of Memphis ; ^ whereas, at the time they gave him
this information, which was only 900 years after the
death of Moeris, the river could not overflow the
country unless it rose sixteen cubits, or fifteen at the
least. If therefore the soil of the Delta continued

^ ii. 12. " Modern science," says Mr. Kenrick, " has added little to
this simple hypothesis. Borings made in the Delta to the depth of forty-
five feet, have shown that the soil consists of vegetable matter and an
earthy deposit, such as the Nile now brings down ; but as no marine re-
mains are found in the mud which covers the upper and middle portion
of the Delta, it appears that the present alluvium must have been de-
posited upon a surface previously elevated above the Mediterranean.
That Aegypt has undergone changes not recorded in history, nor sur-
mised by its ancient inhabitants or visitors, is evident from the pheno-
mena of the peti-ified forest in the neighbourhood of Cairo. The platform
on which it lies is considerably above the present level of the Nile, on
the side of the Mokattam range. The trees, some of which are from
fifty to sixty feet in length, are scattered over a space of three and a half
miles wide, and four miles long ; their substance is in many cases con-
verted into silex, agate, and jasper, and they are partially covered with
rolled pebbles and sand. It is difficult to account for these appearances
without supposing that they have been submerged subsequently to their
growth, and again elevated to theii- present position. (Newbold, Geology
of Egypt, Proc. Geol. Soc. 3, 2, 91. 1842.) If the agatized wood in the
Bahr-be-la-Ma is of the same origin, and was deposited there before the
valley of the Nile intervened, we are carried far back into that indefinite
-antiquity which Herodotus prudently assumes." — Kenrick, Ancient
Egypt under the Pharaohs, vol. i.

^ The priests ' here exhibit their ignorance of the rate of progression,
by which the physical changes first described were brought about.

2 A

35-1 AEGYPT.

AFRICA, to grow in the same proportion, he considered thai:
CHAP. II. the Nile would at length be unable to irrigate the
land at all, and that the Aegyptians north of Lake
Moeris would perish from drought.^ Meantime
howoYor they had the least trouble in the world in
obtaining the ft'uits of the earth. They neither
ploughed nor hoed, but when the river had irrigated
their fields and then subsided, each man sowed his
own corn and turned in swine, who thereupon trod
in the seed, and subsequently at harvest time trod
out the corn, and saved the trouble of tin-ashing.^
Ionian the- The louians maintained that Aegypt properly
gypt R^oper embraced only the Delta. They stated that its sea,
edlitS'^' from west to east, was only forty schoeni in extent,
Delta, prov- namely, from the tower of Perseus to the Taricheia
surci°as%L' of Polusium ; and that from the coast into the in-
here anTn- terior it only stretched to the city of Cercasorus,

?e''butthe where the Nile divides. The rest of Aegypt they
soil of the assigned partly to Libya, and partly to Arabia.
?ent fofm'^ " But, liow thcu," says Herodotus, " if the Delta,
ation. ^^ Aegypt Proper, were only created at a recent
period, could the Aegyptians be such fools as to
suppose that they were the most ancient of all peo-
ple ? But taking it for granted," he continues,
^' that the theory of the lonians be a correct one, I
will show that neither they nor the Greeks gener-
ally know how to count the divisions of the earth.
At present, they tell us that there are only three —
Em-ope, Asia, and Libya, and they add, that Asia is
separated from Libya by the Nile ; but surely if
Aegypt is included in the Delta, they ought to
reckon it as a fourth division, for being enclosed by
the Nile, it necessarily lies between Asia and Li-
bya." ^ Herodotus himself therefore considered that
the Aegyptians had existed as long as the human
SroStm ^^^^ generally ; that they had advanced gradually
thauhe ' northward as the land advanced ; and that Aegypt

1 ii. 14. This notion of Herodotus is based upon a misconception.
He forgot that the bed of the liver must necessarily rise by the same
agency as the surface of the surrounding soil, so that the same relative
level would be still preserved.

2 ii.. 14. =' ii. 15, 16.

AEGYPT. 355

in ancient times, before the Nile had created the Africa.
Delta, was included in the territory of Thebais, and chap. n.
was only 6120 stadia in circumference. ^ Aegyptiaus

Herodotus then places his own view, that Aegypt ^^d ad-
included all the country inhabited by the Aegyp- northward
tians, in opposition to that of the lonians, who con- frelh Ln
sidered that all, except the Delta, was halved by the ^'"^^ {?T®'^'

ATM 1 1 Tc • \ • 11 -11 ,„ and that

JNile, and one halt given to Asia, and the other half Aegypt pro-
to Libya ; ^ and he shows how the correctness of his ciude ™aii
own view was thus proved by the oracle of Ammon. £^abited ^
The inhabitants of the towns of Marea and Apis, t»y Aegyp-
on the borders of Libya, deemed themselves to be porTedb?^"
Libyans, and sent to the oracle to say, that as they S Ammin.
lived without the Delta, they were desirous of being
no longer restricted, like the Aegyptians, from eat-
ing the flesh of cows. The god, however, replied
that Aegypt comprised all the country that was
irrigated by the Nile, and that the Aegyptians in-
cluded all those who dwelt northward of the city of
Elephantine, and drank of the river. ^ This ansVer
was sufficient to prove that Aegypt extended to a
very great extent beyond the Delta ; for the Nile
overflowed not only the Delta, but also inundated
the country for two days' journey on either side.*

We next turn to Herodotus's description of the Voyage of
country, which is evideiitly the result of a voyage ^Tthe nIL,
up the Nile, from the coast of the Mediterranean to ^7 Heiiopo-
the city of Elephantine. This voyage he divides Thebes.
into three divisions. First, the voyage from the STouThe
Mediterranean coast to the city of Heliopolis, near }°^^^J^\f
the apex of the Delta ; secondly, that from Heli- Aegypt.
opolis to Thebes ; and, thirdly, that from Thebes to
Elephantine. The first division of the country thus
mapped out included the plain of the Delta : the
second and third embraced the long narrow valley
of the Nile between the Arabian and Libyan moun-
tains from the Delta southwards to Elephantine.

Throughout the plain of the Delta, namely, fr'om ^^?J^^'
the Mediterranean to Heliopolis, the country was Heiiopoiis,

^ ii. 15. 2 ii. 17. 3 ii. 18. * ii. 19.

2 A 2

356 AEGYPT.

AFRICA, broad and flat, without water ' and yet a swamp.

CHAP. 11. The distance was 1500 stadia, or fifteen stadia less

^i g ^i^g than the road from the altar of the twelve gods at

Delta) a Atlions to tlio tomplo of the Olympian Zeus at

Aegypt,' " Pisa.^ Southward of Heliopolis and the Delta, Ae-

HeHopdis, gJV^ becamo contracted into a narrow valley. On

a narrow 1\^q eastcm sido the Arabian mountains, containinor

YtlilGY DG- , ^-^

tween the the stouo quarrics which were cut for the pyramids
fndLiS'an ^t Momphis, extended to the Erythraean. On the
mouutains. -^egtem sido, bordering on Libya, another long
chain, covered with sand, stretched in the same
southerly direction. This contraction of the Ae-
gyptian territory extended only for four days' voy-
age (or 800 stadia) up the Nile. The country was
level, and at the narrowest part was only 200 stadia
broad, but beyond that point it widened.^ By a re-
ference to the modern map, the narrow part of the
Nile valley, to which Herodotus here appears to re-
fer, extends from Cairo southwards to Fayoum ; above
this point the valley increases a little in width.
Extent of^ From Heliopolis up the river to Thebes was
Error in ' a niuc days' voyage, or 4860 stadia, which amount
Scufation^ to 81 schocni — -an evident error;* and by adding
ber^f Tta^' *^^®^^ ^^^^ stadia to the 1500 stadia between Helio-
<iia. polis and the coast, Herodotus found that the whole

distance from the coast of the Mediterranean to
Thebes was 6120 stadia ; which is another mistake
as unaccountable as the former, for the real sum
total would be 6360 stadia. From Thebes to the
city called Elephantine, the southern boundary of
Aegypt was 1800 stadia.^

' Probably this only refers to the want of springs.

2 ii. 7. ' ii. 9.

^ According to this estimate a vessel would go 540 stadia per day
against the stream ; and according to the ordinary stadium this would
be at the rate of 67^ English miles per day, which is impossible. It so
happens that the estimate of nine days' voyage up the river from Helio-
polis to Thebes is not incorrect, whilst the number of stadia exceeds the
truth by about one half ; and therefore some commentators have sup-
posed (hat Herodotus here used a short stadium. It seems however
much more natural to suppose that he over-estimated the distance ; and
in many other parts, either his copyists or himself have much to answer
for in the way of arithmetical errors. See Appendix II.

5 ii. 9.

AEGYPT. 357

To this point of the Nile, namely, to the city of africa.
Elephantine, Herodotus carried his researches, and chap. n.
he is therefore enabled to describe the country thus uerodotus's
far from personal observation. Some Aegyptians personal
however occupied part of • the Aethiopian island bounded^on
called Tachompso, which lay southward of Ele- Eiepw^^
phantine ; and in describing this island and the voy- tine.
age to it, he is compelled to speak from hearsay.^

Concerning the river Nile Herodotus was able to couid leam
obtain very little information, either from the priests c^ncernfng
or from any one else. In the summer it swelled and tiie NUe.
overflowed for a hundred days, and then retired
and continued low all the winter.^ Eespecting the Three dif-
causes of this swelling, three different views pre- Jtuges as-
vailed amongst the Greeks. First, some said that ^jfj'^.p^g^g
it was the Etesian winds blowing against the river, for its pe-
which prevented it from discharging itself into the overflow.
sea ; but this theory was exploded by the fact that ^f^^ '^'^^^* ^*
the Nile had overflowed when these winds had not sionedby

IT ^ . I'd- 1TM the Etesian

blown, and many rivers also m byria and Ladjsl, winds.
with smaller and weaker currents, flowed opposite
the same winds without overflowing their banks. '^
Secondly, others said that the inundation took place 2iid, That it
because the Nile flowed from the river Ocean, which by the hvL
surrounded the earth ; but this opinion was laughed ocean.
at by Herodotus, for no such river existed at all, ex-
cepting in the brains of poets."* A third explanation 3rd, That it
was by far the most specious in his opinion, but at ducelTby
the same time the most untrue. According to that, ^^gth'iopla."^
the Nile flowed from a region of snow, which was
necessarily melted during the summer months. But
Herodotus could not understand the existence of
snow in the hot regions of the south. His own Theory of
theory was as follows. During the summer the sun 5h?NiJe
stands in the middle of the heavens, and sucks up t^iaineddur-

r n* Ti T 1 • 1 nig the wm-

the waters irom ail rivers alike. In the winter he terbythe
is driven by the storms of Boreas into the southern is"iriveii^^
regions, and there sucks up the water from the Nile ?°^^ore^f •

^ For Herodotus's account of the upper course of the Nile, see the
chapter on Aethiopia.

^- ii. 19. 3 ii. 20. * ii. 21, 23.

358 AEGYPT.

AFRICA, only. Consequently, during the winter the Nile
CHAP. n. ^ras partly dried up by its peculiar proximity to the
^^^ ^^gj._ sun god, and being fed by no rain or tributary
flowing in streams, it flowed in a weak and shallow stream;
wSn the whilst otlier rivers, inci^eased by the rain and snow
toV^cen-^ of the northern regions, were swollen with waters.
tre of the Qji tlio othor hand, during the summer, the Nile
alone flowed on in its natural, but mighty, flood;
whilst the other rivers, no longer supplied with rain
and partially dried by the sun, became weak and
shallow.^ Herodotus also adds, that no breezes
blow from the Nile, because of the heat of the coun-
tries through which it flows.^
SeHhree Such wcro the extraordinary theories brought
previous forward to account for the inundation of the Nile.
Sof the The first, which ascribed the phenomena to the
'^liiT blowing of the Etesian winds, was taught by Thales,^
taught by and was a real cause, though not sufficient to explain
That'^ofthe the whole effect. The second, which supposed that
by uSa^-''''' it was occasioned by the connexion between the
t^eus; ^i\e and the river Ocean seems to have been
haps m part tauglit by Hccatacus, whose theory concerning the
from the rivcr Ocean has already been noticed.'* It is how-
Aegyptian gygp vcrv likelv that Herodotus may also have heard

tradition oi -^ ■/. t- • jiT i

thereroiu- of tlic Acgyptiau traditiou concerning the diurnal
" ' ° revolution of the sun as connected with the river.
It was imagined, or feigned, that the sun's path
through the heavens was a huge river or abyss,
which he navigated in twenty-four barks, conducted
by the twelve hours of the day and the twelve
hours of the night. The Nile of Aegypt was a
branch, or offset, fr-om this abyss. The celestial
Nile, or course of the sun during the day, was
called Nen-moou, the Nile of Egypt was Phe-moou,
and the infernal Nile, or course of the sun dur-
ing the night, was called Meh-moou, that is, ''fall
of water," because it was larger than either of the
two others, as it received the waters of both. There
is a passage in the book of the dead written under

' ii. 24, 25 ; iv. 50. - ii. 27. ■''■ Diod. i. 3S— 40.

* See page 14.

tion of the
sun.

AEGYPT. 359

the picture of the bark of the first hour of the night, africa.
which gives us the geography of the Meh-moou. chap. n.
It is thus translated by Mr. Osburn. " This water,
which the sun is now navigating, is the pool of
Natron, which is joined with the pool of the field
of the great hall of judgment." .... "Moreover,
the waters of the great hall of judgment are joined
with the waters of Abydos, and they together are
called the way along which Father Athom travels
when he approaches the mountains of his rising.'"

The third theory, which attributed the inunda- That of the
tions to the melting of the snows of Aethiopia, was °iowt,
brought forward by Anaxagoras, who is also fol- ^j"f^a ^-
lowed by Euripides and Aeschylus.^ i-as.

Democritus and Callisthenes " seem to have been Real cause
the first to ascertain the true cause, namely, the dation tii'^sT
extraordinary character of the rainy season of Ae- by uemo-'^
thiopia. During the summer, the north winds are ciitus and
perpetually blowing from the Mediterranean to- thenes,viz.
wards the hot regions of Central Africa. These JJea^yr^iny
currents of air deposit none of their moisture in ^^^^PV- ™
their passage over the heated and level soil of
Aegypt, and flerodotus himself tells us that no rain
falls in this country ;* but when they reach the
lofty mountains of Abyssinia, the cold condenses
their vapours into heavy torrents of rain, and the
immense mass of waters drains off the western side
of the Abyssinian highlands, and is thus poured
into the channel of the Nile. In the last days of f.^'^'P'^ °^

,. .-."^ the inun-

June, or the beginning oi July, the rise begins to datiou.
be visible in Aegypt. About the middle of August
it reaches half its extra height, and from the 20th
to the 30th of September it attains its maximum.
It then remains stationary for fourteen days ; sinks
about the 10th of November to the same height as
it was in the middle of August, and continues to
decrease slowly till the 20th of May in the follow-
ing year, when it reaches its minimum. The
height to which it rises at Cairo is from between

^ Osburn, Ancient Egt/pt, chap. i. - Athenaeus, Epit. ii. 88.

3 Ibid. ii. 89. * ii. 27.

360 AEGYPT.

AFRICA, eighteen to twenty-four feet, and tliis agrees pretty

CHAP. II. ^tqW -v\ritli tlie statement of Herodotus, that in his

time, fifteen or sixteen cubits was the height of a

good Nile.^

siuguiar As a further illustration of the various theories

thrphUoso- afloat in ancient times concerning the overflowing

MempWs as ^f the Nile and physical geography of the universe,

described ^^Q might uotico tho opiuion of the philosophers of

iL. Memphis mentioned by Diodorus.

These philosophers divided the earth into three
parts, viz. : 1. The inhabited region, by which, of
course, they meant the northern hemisphere. 2.
An unknown region, where the seasons were exactly
op23osite to those in the inhabited region, summer
being in one whilst winter was in the other ; and
by this they plainly understood the southern hemi-
sphere. 3. The hot region between the two, which
they described as uninhabitable by reason of the
extreme heat, and by which they seem to allude to
the equator. Having thus developed this system
of the universe, which we can see was to a consider-
able extent based upon actual truth, they began to
draw from it certain hypotheses which are startling
from their ingenuity. They said, if the Nile rises

^ ii. 13. For a further account see Kenrick, Ancient Er/ypt, vol. i.
chap. iv. Mr. Kenrick and Heeren, however, both say that Agathar-
chides of Cnidus, in the second century before Christ, was the first who
assigned the true cause for the overflowing of the Nile. This seems to
be too sweeping an assertion. Diodorus (i. 41) only says that Agathar-
chides comes the nearest to the true cause, for he ascribed the inunda-
tion to the heavy rains in the mountainous parts of Aethiopia, which fell
between the summer solstice and autumnal equinox. It is plain, from
Diodorus himself, that Democritus of Abdera, as early as the fifth cen-
tury, B. c, considered that the Etesian gales carried with them, in their
course toward the south, the thick vapours which rose from the melted
snow and ice in the cold regions of the north ; which vapours were not
changed into rain until they reached the mountains of Aethiopia,
when they fell in mighty torrents, and poured down the highlands into
the channel of the Nile. This theory is substantially correct, though
Diodorus thinks otherwise. Again, we learn from Athcnaeus (Epit. ii.
89) that Callisthenes, the pupil of Aristotle, declared it to be his
opinion that the Nile rose in consequence of the heavy rains which fell
in Aethiopia, l;etween the rising of the Dog-star and the rising of Arc-
turus; which rains were ])roduccd by the clouds brought by the Etesian
gales coming in contact with the Aelliiopian mountains. The true cause
of the overflowing of the Nile must therefore have been known even in
the time of Herodotus, and some centuries earlier than Agatharchidcs.

AEGYPT. 361

from ours — the inhabited — zone, its streams would africa.
overflow in the winter-time in consequence of the ^"^^- "•
wintry storms of rain and snow; but as, on the
contrary, it overflows in the summer, it most proba-
bly rises in the southern zone, where the winter is
contemporaneous with our summer. This theory,
they added, would account for the fact that no one
had discovered the head-springs of the Nile, being
unable to penetrate the uninhabited region of the
south ; and as the Nile must necessarily flow through
the torrid zone between the north and southern re-
gions, the waters of the river are boiled by the sun
during their progress, and thus become the sweetest
river waters in the world. Diodorus, however, evi-
dently disbelieves this theory himself, though he
says that it is difiicult to confute it ; considering it
impossible that the river should flow up the southern
declivity of the torrid zone, in order to flow down
the northern slope towards the inhabited region.^

The sources of the Nile were another subject ^°"r??,^ °^
which engaged the attention of Herodotus. He Herodotus
made repeated inquiries of Aegyptians, Libyans, obSuany
and Greeks, but no one pretended to be able to offer information

1 • ' r 1- T L ' ru • concerning

him any miormation whatever concerning tne springs them.
of this mysterious river, with the exception of the
registrar of the treasury of the temple of Athene at ^''^'''"f,^,
Sais, who indeed professed to know all about them, the bursar
but was considered by our author to be only trifling ^tSne
with him. This registrar, or rather bursar, said |enipie at
that between the cities of Syene and Elephantine,
on the southern frontier of Aegypt, there were two
mountains terminating in peaks, named Crophi and

^ Diod. i. 40. I cannot here resist the temptation of pointing out the
similarity between the theory of the division of earth, taught accord-
ing to Diodorus, by the philosophers of Memphis, and the theory taught
by the Brahmins of Benares. According to Lieut. Wilford, {Asiat. Hes.
vol. iii.,) the orthodox Hindus divide the globe into two hemispheres,
which are both called Meru. The northern, or superior hemisphere, is
distinguished by the name of Sumeru, which implies beauty and ex-
cellence ; the southern, or lower hemisphere, is called Cumeru, which
signifies the reverse, and is represented as the dreary habitation of
demons, in some parts intensely cold, and in others so hot that the
waters are continually boiling.

162

AEGYPT,

AFRICA.

CHAP. II.

Effects pro-
duced by
the inunda-
tions.

Aegypt like
a sea, and
her cities
like islands.

Navigation
carried on
across the
plain of the
Delta.

Cities pro-
tected by
mounds.

Moplii. That between these two mountains were
the sources of the Nile, unfathomably deep ; and
that from thence one half of the river flowed north-
ward through Aegypt, and the other half southward
tlirough Aethiopia. He also added, that Psammiti-
chus had endeavoured to ascertain the depth of the
mountains with a sounding line, many thousand
fathoms in length, but could not find a bottom.
Herodotus thinks that if the bm^sar spoke the real
truth, his account would simply prove that at this
point there were strong whirlpools and an eddy,
which prevented a sounding line from reaching the
entire depth. ^

The inundation of the Nile totally changed the
whole appearance of Aegypt. Herodotus remarked
that when the river was at its height the country
became a sea, and the cities alone were to be seen
above its surface, like the islands of the Aegean.
Navigation was no longer confined to the channel
of the Nile, but was carried on across the plain ;
and voyagers from Naucratis to Memphis, instead
of sailing by the apex of the Delta and city of Cer-
casorus, took the shortest and more direct way by
the pyramids ; whilst the route across the plain from
the sea-port of Canopus to the city of Naucratis, lay
by Anthylla and the Archandropolis.^ The cities
were originally raised above the sm-face of the plain
by the same multitude of captives whom Sesostris
had forced to dig the canals ; and at a subsequent
period the Aethiopian king, Sabacon, obliged every
Aegyptian criminal to hea25 up mounds round his
own city.^ Sometimes the inundation of the river

^ ii. 28. Herodotus evidently thought that the bursar was hoaxing
him, and he was weU able to judge, for he himself had been up the
Nile as far as Ele])hantine, (ii. 29,) and had seen nothing of the moun-
tains Mophi and Crophi. By our author's remark about the whirlpools
and eddy, he may have thoiight it just possible that the fountains of the
nver were farther up towai-ds Tachompso, and above the first cataract.
Lieut. Wilford suggests {Asiat. lies. vol. iii.) that the bursar may have
been speaking of Azania, or Azan, when Herodotus supposed he was
speaking of Assouan or Syene. The suggestion however is not worth
much, for the bursar talked about half the river flowing northward, and
the other half southward.

^ ii. 97. ' "• 137.

AEGYPT. 363

carried away a portion of one or the otlier of the Africa.
square allotments with which Sesostris had divided ^"^^- "•
the country amongst the Aegyptians for the pur-
poses of taxation. When this took place the person
whose allotment had been injured reported the cir-
cumstance at court, in order that his payment of
taxes might be diminished in proportion to the land
he had lost.^

Lastly, we come to the mouths of the Nile. This seven

./■ „ , . mouths of

river flowed through Aegypt from the cataracts near the NUe.
Syene and Elephantine, which Herodotus considered
to be the southern frontier of the country, north-
wards, in a single stream as far as Cercasorus at the
apex of the Delta, thus dividing Aegypt in the mid-
dle. At Cercasorus it separated into three channels.
The eastern branch was called the Pelusiac mouth ; Peiusiac.
the western was named the Canopic mouth ; whilst canopic.
the central or direct channel divided the Delta in
the middle, and was called the Sebennytic mouth. Sebennytic.
This last had by no means the least quantity of
water, neither was it the least renowned. Two
other mouths diverged from it, namely, the Saitic Saitic.
and the Mendesian. The Bolbotine and Bucolic ^2^J^^'
mouths were not natural, but the work of men's bucoUc. '
hands. ^

It is not easy to identify the seven mouths of the Their iden-
Nile upon the modern map, for thejr have frequently jLTnodem
deserted their channels, and the river has entered ^^^p-
the Mediterranean at different points. 1. The Ca-
nopic mouth probably corresponded to the present
outlet from the Lake Etko, or else to that of the
Lake Abouldr, but it may at one time have com-
municated with the sea at both places. 2. The
Bolbotine mouth doubtless corresponded to the one
at Rosetta. 3. The Sebennytic mouth was proba-
bly the opening into the present Lake Bourlos.^ 4.
The Bucolic or Phatnitic mouth may be identified
with the one at Damietta, only Herodotus says that
the Bucolic mouth was artificial.^ 5. The Mende-

1 ii. 109. ' ii- 17. 1 , .

3 From the evidence of Herodotus, we thus learn that the only two

364

AEGYPT.

AFRICA.

CHAP. II.

Aegypt not
distinctly
divided by
Herodotus.

Supposed
by him to
have con-
sisted of
Lower
Aegypt, or
the Delta,
and of Up-

sian mouth is lost in the Lake Menzaleh, but is per-
haps represented by that of Debeh. 6. The Saitic
or Tanitic mouth seems to have left some traces of
its termination eastward of the Lake Menzaleh, un-
der the modern apjDollation of Om-Faridje ; the
branch of the Nile which conveyed its waters to the
sea corresponded to the canal of Moez, which now
loses itself in the lake. 7. The Pelusiac mouth
seems to be represented by what is now the most
easterly mouth of Lake Menzaleh, where the ruins
of Pelusium are still visible.^

The divisions of Aegypt are not distinctly pointed
out by Herodotus, and he nowhere separates the
country into the three usual portions of Lower,
Middle, and Upper ; and though, in estimating the
length of the Nile valley, he marks out the distance
from the Mediterranean to Heliopolis, and from
thence to Thebes, and again from thence to Ele-
phantine, yet this specification of stations will not
justify us in believing that he adopted any such
triple division. Lower Aegypt cannot have ceased
at Heliopolis, for Herodotus himself tells us, that
the Delta reached to Cercasorus ; and Middle Aegypt
cannot have extended to Thebes, as Chemmis, a
town northward of that city, still belonged to the
Thebaid. Bobrik retains the usual triple divisions,
and places in each the towns that are mentioned by
Herodotus. This arrangement may be useful to the
general geographer, but does not agree with the
character of our author's knowledge of the country.
Herodotus evidently considered Aegypt as being
divided into Lower Aegypt, or the Delta, and the
country above the Delta, which he calls Upper
Aegypt ; and in this latter division he doubtlessly
included the whole extent of the Nile valley, from

branches of the Nile which exist in the present day, namely, those of
Rosetta and Damietta, are artificial, and may be identified with the
Bolbotine and Bucolic mouths. This seems to fulfil a remarkable pro-
phecy of Isaiah, (xi. 15,) " That men should go over the Nile dry-shod."
' Rennell, ^'eo//. o/'7/e?-o(/. vol. ii. Mem. sur I'Egypte, vol. i. Mem.
sur les Bouches du Nil, par Dubois Ayme. Russell's E(jy;pL Wilkinson's
Mod. E(jypt and Thebes, vol. i, etc.

AEGYPT. 365

the apex of the Delta southward to Elephantine, africa.
The Delta he had apparently explored in every di- chap. h.
rection, and he mentions no less than eighteen towns per Aegypt,
and other localities, as being included in this por- ^jf^^P^^"""'
tion of the Aegyptian territory. On the other hand, Thebais.
he only appears to have visited four cities in all
Middle and Upper Aegypt ; namely, Memphis,
Chemmis, Thebes, and Elephantine ; and indeed if
it were not for his plainly telling us of his voyage
up the Nile to Thebes and Elephantine, we might
almost conclude that he never went farther south
than Memphis. We can however easily account for
this silence. The jealous and haughty character of
the Aegyptians of the interior, probably rendered it
extremely perilous for a Greek traveller to leave his
Nile boat and attempt to make any stay at the
towns and villages on the banks ; at the same time,
as our author carefully abstains from introducing
any personal adventures in any other part of his
history, we readily understand why no account of the
political or social state of the inhabitants of these
regions should have been handed down for the in-
struction and amusement of posterity. Accordingly
we shall develope our author's topographical descrip-
tion of Aegypt under two distinct headings, each of
which will form a separate chapter, viz. 1. Lower
Aegypt, or the Delta. 2. Upper Aegypt, including
Heptanomis and Thebais.

CHAPTER III.

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA.

AFRICA. General description of the Aegyptian Delta. — Aegyptian architecture,
CHAP. III. its religious character contrasted with the aesthetic character of the

' architecture of Greece. — Plan of an Aegyptian temple.^ — ^Approached by

an avenue lined with sphinxes. — Colossi and obelisks before the grand
entrance, which consisted of a lofty gateway between two oblong pyra-
midal moles. — Interior, consisting of an open court, a portico, an hjrpo-
stile hall, and a holy recess. — Frequent multiplication of the entrances,
courts, porticoes, and halls, both in front and on each side of the holy re-
cess.— Names and description of the several parts. — The sacred enclosure
or ieron. — The avenue or dromos. — The entrance or propylaea, consisting
of a gateway or pylon between two oblong flat-topped pyramids or ptera.
— The open court behind the propylaea surrounded by colonnades. — The
portico or pronaos supported by columns. — The second pronaos or hy-
postile hall. — The proper temple or naos, including the holy recess or
sekos, and the side adyta. — Chambers, galleries, and passages, for the
use of the priests. — Topography of the Delta. — Bubastis. — Magnificent
temple of Bubastis or Artemis. — Entirely surrounded by water, excepting
at the entrance. — Conspicuous site. — The enclosure or temenus, (ieron,) a
square of 600 feet each way, surrounded by a sculptured wall.— Propy-
laea (ptera) 60 feet high, and adorned with sculptures 9 feet high. —
Grove of trees planted round the naos. — Paved avenue or di-omos f of a
mile long, and 400 feet broad. — Ancient settlements of the lonians and
Carians. — Modern site of Bubastis indicated by the mounds of Tel Basta. —
Busiris. — Temple of Isis. — Sais. — Palace of Apries. — Temple of Athene.
— Splendid propylaea built by Amasis. — Colossi, obelisks, and andro-
sphinxes. — Huge rock chamber, or monolith. — Tombs of the Saite kings,
Apries, Amasis, etc. — Tomb of Osiris. — Circular lake. — Modern site of
Sais identified with that of Ssa. — Heliopohs. — Temple of Helios with
two obelisks 250 feet high and 12 feet broad, dedicated by Pheron. —
Papremis. — Temple of Ares. — Buto. — Temple of Apollo and Artemis. —
Temple and oracle of Leto. — Floating island of Chemmis with temple
of Apollo. — Naucratis. — Anciently the only Aegyptian port for Greek
ships. — The Hellenium sanctuary. — Sanctuaries built by the Aeginetans,
Samians, and Milesians. — Anthylla, given to the wife of the Persian
satrap. — Archandropolis. — Marea.^ — Apis. — Momemphis. — Pelusium. —
Daphnae. — Magdolus. — Buto. — Taricheia of Pelusium. — ^Tower of Per-
seus. — Temple of Heracles at Taricheia. — Lake Serbonis. — Mount
Casius. — Marshes of the Delta. — Island of Elbo. — Present state of the
Delta marshes. — Great canal from Bubastis to Suez, commenced by
Neco, and finished by Darius. — Survey of the course of the canal. —
Division of the route into four sections. — 1. Line from Suez to the Bitter

LOWER AEGYPT, OR l^HE DELTA. 367

Lakes. — 2. Basin of the Bitter Lakes, — 3. Elbow round through the
Wady of Tomlat. — 4. Channel from the Wady of Tomlat to Bubastis. —
Immense number of canals dug by Sesostris. — Nomes of Lower Aegypt.

Lower Aegypt, or the Delta, is a triangular tract Africa.
whose soil consists of the mud of the Nile resting ^"^.^- "^-
upon the desert sand. Its breadth along the Medi- General de-
terranean coast is now about eighty -five miles, and ^he 5^°'^ '^-
its length from the Mediterranean to the fork of the tian Delta.
Nile is about ninety miles. It is thus shaped like a
huge fan, whose green centre from the handle to the
broad end is represented by fertile meadows, plant-
ations, and orchards ; and whose semicircular border
is formed by successive bands of marsh, sand-hills,
and beach, beyond which is the blue expanse of the
Mediterranean. In the time of Herodotus this
region was covered with beautiftd cities, and adorned
with magnificent temples, obelisks, and colossal
statues. But now the scene is changed. Many of
the temples have famished materials for the building
of modern towns ; obelisks and colossi are buried
beneath earth and rubbish ; whilst smaller works of
art have been broken up or carried away by the
successive pillagers of the country. Monuments of
Aegyptian art have adorned the cities of Rome and
Constantinople ; and other European capitals besides
our own are enriched with the spoils of this ancient
land.

Before we commence our topographical descrip- Aegyptian
tion, it will be necessary to pay an imaginary visit tuie, its re-
to an Aegyptian temple, survey its different j)arts, Stoi"
and form a general idea of its plan and arrange- Jhe'^gJ-heS
ments. At first we are struck with the marked character of
difference between the architecture of Aegypt and tecture of
that of Hellas, which may be regarded as its off- ^'■'^^'^^■
spring. The traveller who visits the sanctuaries of
Greece, is filled with admiration at the beauty, the
harmony, and the grace of those exquisite creations
of refined and thoughtful intellect ; but he who
penetrates the gigantic masses which compose an
Aegyptian temple, is impressed with the deepest
awe and reverence ; he sees, not the elegance and

368

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA.

AFRICA.

CHAP. III.

Plan of an
Aegyptian
temple.

Approach-
ed by an
avenue
lined with
sphinxes.

Colossi and
obelisks be-
fore the
grand en-
trance,
■which con-
sisted of a
lofty gate-
way be-
tween two
oblong py-
ramidal
moles.

Interior
consisting
of an open
court, a por-
tico, an hy-
postile hall,
and a holy
recess.

Frequent
multiplica-
tion of the
entrances,
courts, por-
ticoes, and
halls, both
in front
and on each
side of the
holy recess.

loveliness of classic art, but tlie solemn approaches
to the inner dwelling-place of mysterious deity.
The pyi-amid seems to be the type of the whole
building. The walls and gateways are perpen-
dicular on the inside, but on the outside they slope
upwards, as if towards a common centre which they
never reach. The entire structure thus appears self-
reposing and immoveable. In ancient times it was
approached by a long paved avenue, lined on each
side with colossal sphinxes — mysterious compounds
of the human form with that of a lion or of a ram,
thus denoting the union of intellect and strength in
the attributes of deity. At -the termination of the
avenue, and in front of the vast entrance, stood
colossal figures in attitudes of profound repose, or
obelisks of granite placed in pairs. The entrance
itself consisted of a lofty gateway between two huge
wings or oblong pyramidal moles, flat at the top,
and of immense breadth, height, and thickness,
and covered with sculptures. Within these wings
probably dwelt the porters or priests. Over the
gateway in the centre was the emblem of the Good
Genius, Agathodaemon, consisting of a Sun sup-
ported by two asps with outspread vulture's wings.
Passing through the gateway the worshipper entered
a spacious court, open to the sky and surrounded by
colonnades. On the opposite side of this court was
the portico, supported by columns, and leading to a
covered court or hall, also supported by pillars.
Beyond this hall was the proper temple or holy
recess, in which appeared the image of the deity or
the sacred animal which formed his emblem.

Such was the general arrangement of the Ae-
gyptian temple — an avenue of sphinxes, a lofty gate-
way with pyramidal wings, an open court surround-
ed by colonnades, a portico, a covered hall supported
by columns, and lastly, the holy recess. It will
however readily be seen, that the vast entrances and
exterior courts and halls might be multiplied to an
indefinite extent, and not only in front of the sacred
recess, but on each of its sides. The holy recess

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA.

369

CHAP. III.

itself was frequently separated into three or four africa.
saloons, wliicli were probably intended for proces-
sions ; and only the last saloon, consisting of a mono-
lith of granite or porphyry, contained the sacred
animal, or statue of the deity. Again, on both sides
of the saloons as well as behind them were corridors
leading into chambers and apartments for the use of
the priests ; and these were all carefully protected by
outer walls from the ffaze of the vulvar crowd.

We must now mention the names oi the several descripti.

Names and

parts of the Aegjrptian temple, and enter into a ^-erarpaits.

11 ?-

Propylaea.
2 B

370 LO^VER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA.

AFRICA, more detailed description, wliicli will be best under-
CHAP. III. stood by a reference to the accompanying gromid-
z: ~ plan. The sacred enclosure, which we may call the
enclosure, temonus, or leron, was generally a square surrouna-
or leron. ^^ ^^ ^ wsiW, and it was within this square that the
TheaTcmxe, templc was most frequently situated. From a gate-
or diomos. ^^^ ^^ ^-^^ ^^^^ ^ broad avenue of sphinxes, called

a dromos, led to the great entrance of the temple,
but we have not room to represent the outer wall of
the temenus, or the dromos, upon our present plan.
The en- q^j^g ehtranco including the wings was called the

propyi'aea, propylaoa J tho gateway being called the pylon,
TgaSwal!^ whilst the wings or pyramidal moles were named
onjyion, ' -^i-^g ntera.^ The open com't with the colonnades

between 1 . •!! i 1 ' j_ n

two oblong -v^ras sometimes considered as belonging to the pro-
pyrSdsf pylaeum. In our ground-plan, which is that of the
'rhe*o?en tomplc of Edfou, there are sixteen columns, and the
court be- space betwocn the tops of these columns and the
projyiaea walls are roofcd over, and thus is formed the colon-
i^'cXn-''^ nade. This court seems to have been intended
nades. fop ^ho cougregatiou of the people, in order that they
might see the holy processions and ceremonies at a
The portico, certain distance. Beyond the court was the portico,
supported' which v/as called the pronaos, and was supported
by columns, ^y. three OT fouT TOWS of immonse columns. In our
ground-plan there are three rows of six columns
each, making eighteen in all; the intercolumni-
ation between the central ones being the greatest,
and forming the doorway. The intercolumniations
of the front pillars were built up to more than half
The second tho height. To this great pronaos a second pronaos,
hyp"os?no''' or hypostile hall, generally succeeded, as in our
hall, ^^th ground-plan. The roof of this hall, in the temple
Srsup- ' of Edfou, is flat, and formed by large beams of stone
columns.^ Tosting ou the pillars, and covered with thick flat
slabs. Light was obtained through small apertures
The proper {^i thc roo£ All bcvond the pronaos was called the

temple, or •'

' Straljo, p. 805, Casaub. There is however some uncertainty, as
Sfrabo has apparently confounded the ptera of the propylaea with the
pronaos. Herodotus sometimes refers to the propylaea, and sometimes
only to the ptera \mder the name of propylaea.

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA. 371

naos, or the proper temple, and included the holy africa.
recess, which was called the sekos,^ cella, or ady- chap. m.
turn, in which the image or emblem of the deity, naos, in-
was placed, together with the side adyta. By ^^^'I'^'^f^ess^
referring to the ground-plan it will be seen that orsekos, '
on leaving the hypostile hall there is a long and adytl/^"^^
narrow chamber, from which are two small entrances Chambers,

,-,. I'l • 1 • 1 galleries,

to the side-galleries, which are again connected with and pas-
two long but smaller chambers between the hall thruse°of
and the pronaos. Passing another doorway we *^^ pi'iests.
enter another chamber, with an apartment on each
side of it, probably for the use of the priests. In
this last-mentioned chamber there is a central door-
way, leading to the holy recess, or sekos ; and two
other doorways also communicate with the two
ends of a gallery which runs round the sekos. A
doorway in the gallery behind the sekos enabled
the priests to walk into a large, but perfectly re-
tired place, all round the sanctuary ; and a flight of
steps also permitted them to ascend to the roof and
enjoy the freshness of the open air. The reader
will thus bear in mind that the temple properly
consisted of a dromos, a propylaea, including a
pylon between two ptera,^ a court with colonnades,
a pronaos, a second pronaos or hy230stile hall, and
the naos, including the sekos or adytum, and the side
adyta ; and that numerous other chambers, galleries,
and passages for the use of the priests, were ap-
parently included in the sacred walls, whilst an
outer wall connected with the propylaea embraced
the whole.

We now proceed to visit the cities and temples of Topography
the Aegyptian Delta, which are mentioned by
Herodotus. The city of Bubastis is the first we Bubastis.
shall notice. Our author tells us that it contained a Magnificent
beautiful temple of the goddess Bubastis, the Ar- BubLfe, or
temis of the Greeks ; and though many temples ^i*<^™^^-
might have been larger or more costly, yet none were

^ In Greek temples where oracles were given, or where the worship
was connected with the mj^steries, the cella was called the adytum.
^ The two ptera, or wings, are however called propylaea by Herodotus.

2 B 2

372

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA.

AFRICA.

CHAP. III.

surrounded
by water,
excepting at
the en-
trance.

Conspicu-
ous site.

The enclo-
sure, or te-
menus, a
square of
600 feet
each way,
surrounded
by a sculp-
tured wall.
I'ropylaea
(ptera) 60
feet high,
and adorned
with sculp-
tures 9 feet
high.
Grove of
trees plant-
ed round
the naos.
Paved ave-
nue, or dro-
mos, three-
eighths of a
mile long
and 400 feet
broad.

SO pleasant to behold. Its site was an island, except-
ing at the entrance; for two canals branched off
from the Nile and flowed round it as far as the
entrance, one on the one side, and one on the other,
without coming in contact.^ Each canal was 100
feet wide, and the banks w^ere lined with trees.
The temple was situated in the centre of the city, and
could be looked down upon from every quarter ; for
its site had remained, whilst that of the city had
been mounded up to a greater height than at any
other place throughout Aegypt.^ The sacred en-
(jlosure (or temenus, as it is usually called, but which
Herodotus here names ieron) was an exact square,
each side measuring one stadia ; ^ and it was sur-
rounded by a wall adorned with sculptured figures.
The propylaea (or oblong pyramidal moles on each
side of the pylon or gateway) were ten orgyae or
sixty feet high, and carved with sculptured figures
six cubits or nine feet high. Within the w^all of the
square enclosure a grove of trees was planted round
the naos, which included the holy recess, or sekos,:
containing the image of the goddess. A pavecl-
road or dromos,'^ three stadia long and four plethra
broad, ^ led from the propylaea eastward across the
public market to the temple of Hermes,^ and was
lined on each side by very lofty trees. ^

^ Thus the temple was sm-rounded by water excepting at the entrance ;
the Nile being at its back, and a canal on each side.

2 Criminals, instead of being punished by death, were compelled to
heap up mounds against the city to which they belonged (ii. 137). The
superior height of the mounds of Bubastis, therefore, casts a decided slur
upon the character of its inhabitants ; and yet we are told that the fes-
tival of the titular goddess was more rigidly observed at Bubastis than'
that of any other deity in any part of Aegypt (ii. .59). This does not re-
flect much credit upon the Aegyptian religion, and indeed we find (ii. 60)
that drunkenness and indecency were considered to especially belong to
this rigidly observed festival. See further on, at chap. v.

3 i. c. about 600 feet. ^ Herodotus simply calls it oScq.
5 i. e. three-eighths of a mile long, and 400 feet broad.

' « Bubastis was the Aegyptian Pasht, the cat-headed goddess, of whom'
there are several figures in the British Museum. Bubastis is evidently
Pi-bast, or Pi-pasht, Pi being merely the Aegyptian article prefixed,
Hermes was the Aegyptian Thoth, the ibis-headed god of letters. The
Aegyptian mythology is developed and explained in chap, v., to which
the reader is refeired for a further account of these deities.

' ii. 1.37, 138. I have somewhat transposed the description of He-
rodotus in order to make it more intelligible to the general reader.

umls
Bastii

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA. 373

A little below the city of Bubastis, and on both afiuca.
sides of the Pelusiac mouth, were situated some lands ^^^^'- '"•
called Stratopeda, which were given b}^ Psammiti- Ancient sct-
clms to the lonians and Carians, who assisted him in JJj^'Srns
obtaining the kingdom. Amasis subsequently re- and cari-
moved the descendants of these settlers to Memphis,
where he formed them into a body-guard for him-
self against the Aegyptians ; and Herodotus himself
saw their docks and ruined buildings which still
remained at the time he visited the place.'

The site of Bubastis is distinctly indicated by Mode™ site
the lofty mounds of Tel Basta, which fully confirm Ldi^itcdby
our author's accounts of the great elevation of the 2^^™°
ancient city, and the position of the temple of
Bubastis. The temple is entirely destroyed, but the
stones that remain are of the finest red granite.
The plan however might possibly be obtained by a
little examination, but granite makes capital mill-
stones, and much of it has undoubtedly been carried
away by the Arabs. The total length of the temple
appears to have been about 500 feet, but its breadth
is no longer traceable. The sacred enclosure im-
mediately around it, was, as Herodotus tells us,
about 600 feet square ; and the outer circuit, includ-
ing the canals, measured, according to Sir J. G.
Wilkinson, 940 feet by 1200, the breadth exceeding
the length. The street leading from the temple of
Bubastis to that of Hermes has also been identified by
Wilkinson, and found to measure 2250 feet in length,
that is, from the circuit of one temple to that of the
other. This exceeds the three stadia of Herodotus,
which would only amount to 1818 feet. Qn the way
is the market-place, or public square, mentioned by
Herodotus. It is about 900 feet from the temple of
Bubastis, and is now about 200 feet broad, though, if
we make due allowance for the fallen houses with
which it is encumbered, we may suppose its original
size to have been much greater. The temple of
Hermes is in a still more ruinous state, and a few
blocks of red granite alone mark its site,^

1 ii. 154. - Wilkinson, Modern E(jijptund Thvhcn, vol. i.

374 LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA.

AFRICA. Biisiris was situated in the centre of the Delta,
CHAP. III. and the largest temple in honour of Isis was erected
~~T7 in this city.^

Temple of Sais Contained the splendid and magnificent palace
lais. of Apries,^ and also a large temple of Athene,^ the

Palace of Acgyptian Neith, of which Herodotu.s has fiu^nished
Temple of US witli somo interesting particulars. The beautiful
spkmM propylaea were built by Amasis, and far surpassed
p^pyj^^^^ all others in height and breadth, as well as in the
Amasis. massivo dimensions and fine quality of the stones.
Colossi, Amasis also dedicated colossal statues to be erected
and andro- in fi^out of the propylaca, and huge men-sphinxes
spMnxes. ^^^^ ^^iQ dromos or avenue leading to the great en-
trance.'^ Herodotus himself saw one of these colossal
statues, which was 75 feet long ; it had been over-
tm-ned, and was at that time lying on its back.^
Amasis likewise procured huge stones for repairs.
Some of inferior quality were quarried in the Li-
byan mountains, near Memj)his, close by the site
of the pyramids. Others of the largest size, and
composed of red granite, he brought from Elephan-
tine, which was about 20 days' journey fi:om Sais.
One work however attracted the admiration of Hero-
Huge rock- dotus more than all the others. This was a mono-
moiS.°'' lith, or chamber hewn out of a single stone. Two
thousand pilots^ were occupied for three years in
conveying this stupendous rock-chamber fcom Ele-
phantine. Outside it was twenty-one cubits long,
fourteen broad, and eight high. Inside it was
eighteen cubits and twenty digits long, twelve cu-
bits wide, and five cubits high.^ It was placed near
the pylon, or gateway, of the sacred enclosure, for

1 ii. 59. For a fui-ther account of Isis, called Demeter by the Greeks,
see chap. v.

2 ii. 163. 3 ii. 59. " ii. 175. ' ii. 176.

« The Aegyptian caste of river navigators were called pilots, because
the pilot or steersman was the captain or principal man of the vessel.
See further on, at chap. vi.

■^ This monolith was evidently intended to form the sekos, or adytum,
for the reception of the statue or emblem of Neith, the deity to whom
the temple was erected. On the outside it was 31^ feet in length, 20 feet
in breadth, and 12 feet in height ; inside it was 27 feet in length, 18 feet
in breadth, and 7.V feet in height.

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA. 375

Amasis would not, from a religious scruple, have it Africa.
brought within the temenus, because, as some said, chap. m.
the architect heaved a deep sigh from weariness, '

whilst it was being drawn along. Others however
said that it remained outside, because it crushed
one of the men who were employed at the levers.^
All the kings who had sprung from the Saite nome Tomb.s of
were buried in the sacred enclosure or temenus. The kings!' ^
tombs of Apries and his progenitors were very near ^p^^S, etc.
the temple, and on the left hand after passing the
gateway. The tomb of Amasis was farther off, but
still within the wall of the temenus. It consisted of
a large stone chamber, decorated with columns
shaped like palm trees, and other ornaments. In-
side the chamber were folding doors leading to the
sepulchre.^ The tomb of Osiris was within the same Tomb of
enclosure, but behind the naos and extending along
the entire wall of the temenus. Large stone obelisks
also stood in the temenus, and near them was a cir-
cular lake ornamented with a stone margin or facing, circular
about the same size as the circular lake in Delos ; ^
and at night, under the name of mysteries, the
Aegyptians performed on it a representation of the
adventures of that person, (Osiris,) respecting whom
Herodotus must observe a discreet silence, though
accurately acquainted with the particulars.*

The site of Sais is sufficiently indicated by some Modern site
lofty mounds, a little to the north of the village of lifted wiX
Sa-el-Hagar, or Sa of the stone ; and the remains of ^^^^ °^ ^'^■
the temple of Athene and the circular lake may
still be identified. A large enclosure, measuring
2325 feet by 1960, is surrounded by massive walls
70 feet thick, constructed of crude bricks, bound to-
gether by layers of reeds. The north side of it is
occupied by the lake mentioned by Herodotus ; but
as this lake is no longer circular, but long and irre-
gular, we may presume that it has, since the time of
our author, encroached upon the temenus, which was
situated more to the west. Parts of the wall, on

1 ii. 175. - ii. 169. =* ii. 170.

* ii. \7\. See further on, chap, v., on Mythology of Aegypt.

376 LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA.

AFRICA, two sides of tlie temenus, may still be traced, by
CHAP. in. which we see that it was about 720 feet in breadth.^
Heiiopoiis. Holiopolis contaiiicd a temple of Helios or the
HeHo^^tii ^^^1^?^ "^^^6 Aegyptian Ra.^ Here king Pheron, the
twoobeUsks SOU of Sosostris, out of gratitude for his restoration
highland 12 from bliuduess, dedicated to Helios two obelisks,
dediSted'' ®^^^ ^^ wliich wore one hundred cubits in height,
by Pheron. and eight cubits in breadth, and consisted of a single
stone.* The Heliopolitans were more learned in
history than all other Aegyptians ; ^ though Hero-
dotus says that the inhabitants of the Aegyptian
corn-lands generally were better acquainted with
past events than any other class of men with whom
he ever came in contact.''
Papremis. Papromis contained a sanctuary of Ares. The
Ares!' ^ ° nome of Papremis was the only one where the hip-
popotamus was regarded as sacred.''
Buto. The large city of Buto was situated on the Seben-

ApoUo and uytic mouth of the Nile at some little distance from
Tempirand "th© sca. It Contained a temple of Apollo and Arte-
Let? °^ mis,^ and another of Leto. The temple of Leto was
very spacious, and contained the oracle. The pro-
pylaea were ten orgyae, or 60 feet, in height, but
the most wonderful thing within the temenus was a
naos, or proper temple of the goddess, having all its
sides hewn out of a single stone, and forming a per-
fect cube, each side measuring 40 cubits, or 60 feet.^
Another block was laid on the top to form the roof,
w^of^ ^^" and this had a cornice,'" four cubits deep." The next
chemmis, most woudcrful tiling that Herodotus saw at Buto

^ Wilkinson, 3Iodern Ec/ypt and Thebes, vol. i. ^ ii. 59.

^ See chap. 5. Heiiopoiis was the On of Scripture, Gen. xli. 45.

Mi. HI. 5 ii. 3. « ii. 77. ' ii. 71.

^ Apollo and Artemi.s were Horus and Bubastis, or Pasht, the son and
daughter of Osiris and Isis. See chap. v.

" It is uncertain whether Herodotus means the naos, or proper tem-
ple, here described, was hewn out of a single rock, or whether each
side was formed of one stone, and was thus covered with the enor-
mous slab which overhung each side by four cubits, or six feet. As far
as the mechanical difficulty is concerned it is almost as easy to fancy it
one thing as the other.

'" Letronne observes, that in the Aegyptian architecture the cornice
generally occupies a ninth of the whole height of the edifice. In this
naos, or proper temple, of Leto it would seem to occupy a tenth.

»' ii. 15.3.

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA. 377

was the island called Chemmis, which was situated Africa.
in a deep and broad lake near the sanctuary. The chap. m.
x4.eo-vptians said it was a floatino;- island, but Hero- ~T~ T

o J r .., n , 1 "*^it" temple

dotus did not see it either lloat or move, and was of ApoUo.
much astonished at the information. Upon it stood
a large temple of Apollo, or Horus, in which their
altars were erected; and a great number of palm
and other trees, some producing fruit and others not,
also grew upon the island. Here Leto was said to
have concealed Apollo from Typhon, and from this
circumstance the island was made to float. ^

On the Canopic branch of the Nile was the city Naucratis,
of Naucratis, which in ancient times was the only theoniyAe-
haven in Aegypt where the Greek merchants were If/oreek"^
permitted to trade. If a man entered any other ships.
mouth of the Nile he was obliged to swear that he
had been driven there against his will, and then to
try in the same ship to reach the Canopic mouth.
If contrary winds prevented his effecting his purpose,
he was forced to unload his goods and carry them
in barges round the Delta, and thus to reach Nau-
cratis.^ Amasis gave this city as a residence for
those Greeks who wished to settle in Aegypt ; but
to those who only wish to trade with Aegypt by sea,
he granted places where they might erect altars and
sanctuaries. The largest and most celebrated of The Heiie-

n 1 1 TT n • 1 iimtn sanc-

these sanctuaries was called the Helienium, and was tuary.
erected at the common charge of the following cities :
namely, the Ionian cities of Chios, Teos, Phocaea,
and Clazomenae ; the Dorian cities of Rhodes,
Cnidus, Halicarnassus, and Phaselis ; and the
Aeolian city of Mitylene. The Helienium sanc-
tuary therefore belonged to the inhabitants of the
above cities ; and they appointed officers to preside
over the haven. Especial sanctuaries were also built ^^-'if ^y^the
by the Aeginetans to Zeus, by the Samians to Hera, Aegmetans,
and by the Milesians to Apollo.^ Previously, Psam- andMiie'si-
mitichus had given to the lonians and Carians the ^^^-
districts called Stratopeda, which we have already
mentioned.^

1 ii. 156. - ii. 1/9. ^^ ii. 178. ^ ii. 154, see page 3/3.

378

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA.

AFRICA.

CHAP. III.

Anthylla,
given to the
wife of the
Persian sa-
trap.

Archandro-
polis.

Marea.

Apis.

Momem-

phis.

Pelusiuni.

Daphnae.

Masdolus.

Taricheia of
Pelusium.
Tower of
Perseus.

Temple of
Heracles at

Taricheia.

Lake Ser-
bonis.
Mount Ca-

sius.

Marshes of
the Delta.

Sailing from Naucratis across the plain to the sea-
coast and Canopus, a vessel would pass the towns of
Anthylla and Archandropolis.^ Of these Anthylla
was a city of importance, and, after the Persian con-
quest, was assigned to the wife of each succeeding
satrap of Aegypt, k vwodrjixara, as pin-money. Arch-
andi'opolis appeared to Herodotus to derive its name
from Archander, the son-in-law of Danaus.^ The
town of Marea, which was garrisoned against the Li-
byans in the reign of Psammitichus, and also after the
Persian conquest,^ together with the town of Apis,
were both situated on the Libyan borders.'* Mo-
memphis is barely mentioned.^ Pelusium, and the
place called Daphnae, were garrisoned by Psam-
mitichus, and subsequently by the Persians, against
the Arabians and Syrians.*^ Magdolus,'' or Migdol,
was the place where Neco defeated the Syrians of
Palestine.^ Buto, a second city of that name, evi-
dently differs from the former, or Herodotus would
not notice it as being situated very near to a place
in Arabia.'^

Herodotus also mentions the Taricheia of Pelu-
sium, and the Tower of Perseus, as being situated
forty schoeni distant from each other, and each,
according to the lonians, forming the extremities of
the coast line of the proper Delta. ^"^ At Taricheia,
upon the Canopic mouth, was a temple of Heracles,
which was still standing in the time of Herodotus ;
and if a slave took refuge there and devoted himself
to the god, by having the sacred signs impressed
upon his body, no one could seize him.'^ Lake
Serbonis and Mount Casius lay 1000 stadia distant
from the Arabian Gulf.'^

In the swamps of the Delta the blind King Anysis
sought refuge from Sabaco the Ethiopian.^^ Here

98.

ii. 30.

ii. 18.

1 ii. 97.

5 ii. 163. « ii. 30. ' ii. 159.

^ Herodotus has here confused Mcgiddo, the plain at the foot of
Mount Carmel, where Josiah was defeated and slain by Neco, with
Maffdolus, or Micrdol, in Lower Aegypt, twelve miles east of Pelusium.

9ii.75. i"ii. 15. I'ii. 113.

^- ii. (>, 1.58. Lake Serbonis is now completely choked up with sand.

" ii. 137.

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA. 379

he lived fifty years, and as the Aegyptians secretly africa.
carried him provisions he requested them also to ^^^^- "^-
bring him presents of ashes. By these means he at island of
length formed the island called Elbo of ashes and -^^''°-
earth, about ten stadia square ; and for 700 years no
succeeding king was enabled to find out this island,
but at the expiration of that time it was discovered
by Amyrtaeus.'

' The marshes of the Delta still exist a little to the ^^^f"} ,
south of a ridge of sand banks which form the Delta
northern limits of the Delta. Perhaps the swamps ^^^■'^^'•
alluded to by Herodotus refer more immediately to
the coast between Rosetta and Damietta. This
portion of the shore consists for about eight or ten
miles inland, of desert and marshy sand, and more
than half its breadth is filled by the Lake Bourlos,
which is about twenty miles in length, and six in
breadth. The lake is shallow, and separated from
the sea by a narrow ridge, penetrated only in one
point by a channel, which seems to be that of the
ancient Sebennytic branch. In the present day it
is inhabited by a race of bold and rude fishermen,
who hold themselves nearly independent of the
national authorities.

The great canal leading from the Nile to the JJ^^fg^""^
Erythraean Sea was began by the Aegyptian king, bastisto
Neco, but subsequently completed by Darius. It meMeciTy
was a four days' voyage in length, and sufficiently ^^^"ig^'j,
wide to permit two triremes to sail abreast. It left Darius,
the Nile a little above Bubastis, and, passing near the
Arabian city of Patumos, at last reached the Ery-
thraean Sea, or Arabian Gulf. OjDerations were first
commenced in the plain which lay towards Arabia,
along the southern base of the mountain which
stretches towards Memphis, and contains the stone
quarries. Accordingly the canal left the Nile in an
easterly direction, and having stretched through the
defile of the Arabian mountains, elbowed round
towards the south, and thus reached the Arabian
Gulf. The shortest and most direct passage from

1 ii. 140.

380

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA.

AFRICA, tlie northern or Mediterranean Sea, to the southern
CHAP. III. or Arabian Gulf, would however have been at Mount
" Casius, where the two seas are only 1000 stadia
apart, for the canal is more winding and therefore-
very much longer. Neco stopped farther operations
after 120,000 Aegyptians had perished at the work,
because an oracle assured him that he was only
labouring for the Barbarian.^
Survey of Tlio prcciso liuo of this extraordinary canal was
otuic canal, ascertained by the French survey, made in 1799,
and fully confirms the truth of Herodotus's descrip-
tion. The length of a canal from the Mediterranean
to the Arabian Gulf, following the most suitable,
ground, w^ould be 93 miles ; that of the ancient ex-
cavation from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf was
about 92 miles.^ Herodotus says that it required
four days for a vessel to pass through it, an estimate
which supposes a day's sail to be 23 miles ; and as we
have already seen that he calculates a day's journey,
either on land or in a voyage in a vessel with oars, to
be about 20 miles, there is a remarkable coincidence
between his estimate and the results of the modern
survey. Again, he states that the canal was broad
enough to admit two triremes to move abreast,
whilst Pliny calculates its width at 100 feet, and
Strabo at 100 cubits, or 150 feet; and all three
authors may be correct, because the breadth must
have varied with the nature of the ground, and, as
the vestiges still show, did actually vary from 100
to 200 feet or upwards.^

We shall now endeavour, by the assistance of
the French survey, to point out the exact course
taken by the canal. It commenced, as Herodotus
states, in the neighbourhood of Bubastis, on the
Pelusiac or eastern branch of the Nile, and finally
conducted the waters of the river to Arsinoe, at the

1 ii. 158.

2 The direct distance from the northern extremity of the Arabian Gulf
to the nearest part of the Mcditen-anean is about 75 miles, and to the
site of the ancient Bubastis, on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, is about
the same.

■' Russell's Eijypt. Comp. also Edin. Phil. Journal, No. xxvi.

Division of
the route
into four
sections.

LOWER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA. 881

head of the western arm of the Arabian Gulf, now afkica.
called the Gulf of Suez. It comprehends four dis- chap. m.
tmct sections. The first section begins about a mile i. Line from
and a half to the north of the town of Suez, and ^^^J"" *^^
extends across the low, sandy isthmus, in a north- Lakes.
erly direction, for about thirteen miles and a half to
the Bitter Lakes. Throughout nearly the whole of
this route, the vestiges of the canal can be distinctly
traced. The remains of the banks on either side
are from twelve to twenty -four feet in height ; and
the space between them, or width of the water-
course, is e^enerally about 150 feet. The second 2. Basiii of

• • r>"^i 1 • en -r»'i_j_ T 1 the Bitter

section consists oi the basin oi the iJitter JLakes, Lakes.
twenty-seven miles long, and from five to seven
miles broad, running in a north-westerly direction.
Here no cutting or embankment would be required,
for the bottom of the valley is from twenty-five to
sixty feet below the high-water mark at Suez, and
about the same distance below the opposite waters
of the Mediterranean.^ At present however the
basin contains no water, excepting some pools in the
deepest parts ; but its boundary is accurately traced
on the declivities by lines of gravel, shells, and ma-
rine debris,. of the same kind, and precisely at the
same level, as those found at high-water mark on
the beach of the Gulf of Suez. The third section 3. Elbow
elbows round towards the west, through the Wady through the
of Tomlat, for a distance of nearly forty miles. This Siat^
valley is from half a mile to two miles in breadth.
Its bottom is about thirty feet lower than the level

1 It was supposed, until very recently, that the waters of the Mediter-
ranean were 30 feet below the level of the Arabian Gulf ; but Sir John
Stephenson, in siuveying the ground for the railroad, discovered that
there was scarcely any difference between the level of the two seas, be-
yond what might be occasioned by the difference in the tides. It is how-
ever certain that the Aegyptian engineers supposed the Mediterranean
to be lower than the Arabian Gulf. Diodorus (lib. i. c. 3) distinctly in-
forms us that the canal of Neco was left unfinished by Darius, because
the latter was told that if he cut through the isthmus all Aegypt would
be drowned, for the Arabian Gulf lay higher than Aegypt. Phny also
(lib. xvi. c. 29) tells us that the canal stretched only from the Nile to
the Bitter Lakes ; as its extension southward would have endangered
Aegypt, whose soil was calculated to be three cubits below the level of
the Arabian Gulf.

882

LOAVER AEGYPT, OR THE DELTA.

AFRICA, of the surrounding desert, and nearly as much be-
^^^^^^^^ low the tide of the Red Sea. The waters of the
Nile are shut out by transverse dykes. The canal
runs along the northern side, where the surface of
the ground is some feet higher than the rest of the
yalley, so that the water collected in it can be con-
veniently used for irrigation.^ The canal in the
western half of the valley is very entire, but in the
eastern half all traces of the work, excepting at par-
ticular spots, have been obliterated by the accumu-
4. Channel latiuff drift-sands of the desert. The foui'th section

extended from the western entrance of the valley to

from the
Wady of

Bubasti? Bubastis on the Nile, a distance of about twelve
miles. Here we lose the traces of the channel, as
the country is all under cultivation, and regularly
covered by the annual inundations of the Nile ; but
some of the aqueducts which traverse it, and which
are now used solely for the purposes of agriculture,
are believed to be the remains of the ancient canal.
The four sections may be summed up as follows :

Miles.

1. Channel from Suez to the Bitter Lakes .... 13|-

2. Basin of the Bitter Lakes 27

3. Basin of the Wady of Tomlat 40

4. Channel from the Wady of Tomlat to Bubastis . . 12

Immense
number of
canals dug
by Sesostris.

Total 921

Besides the canal of Neco, Herodotus mentions
that Aegypt was traversed by a countless number of
small canals. These were dug in ancient times by
Sesostris, who employed, for the purpose, the mul-
titude of captives whom he had carried away from
the countries he had subdued. Previously Aegypt
had been a level plain, and the inhabitants of the
inland towns had been obliged to drink a brackish

' The valley called the Wady of Tomlat, was formerly much broader
than it is at present ; for the moveable sands of the desert, which on the
southern side form hillocks thirty or forty feet high, are swept into it by
the wind, and are thus continually encroaching upon the arable surface.
There is good reason for believing that it may be identified with the land
of Goshen, the original settlement of the Israelites in Aegypt. Some
ruins found at Aboukeshed, are supposed to mark the site of HeroopoHs,
an ancient town of some importance, and usually identified with the
Pithom of the Scriptures. — See Russell.

LOWER AEGYPT, OE TPIE DELTA. 888

water, which they procured from wells, excepting africa.
at such times as the Nile overflowed its banks, chap. m.
These canals therefore, which intersected Aegypt in
every direction, obviated this evil, but rendered the
country impassable for chariots or horses.^

The nomes in Lower Aegypt mentioned by He- Nomes of
rodotus are as follows : Busirites, Saites, Papremites, gypt?"^
and the island Prosopitis, which was nine schoeni in
circumference, and included numerous cities, espe-
cially Atarbechis, which contained the temple of
Aphrodite, where the bones of all the dead bulls were
interred.^ Also the nomes of Natho,^ Pharbaethites,
Amphthites, Tanites, Mendesius, Sebennytes, Athri-
bites, Thmuites, Onuphites, Anysius, and Myce-
phorites, which last was situated in an island op-
posite the city of Bubastis.'^ The nome of Thebes
is also mentioned, which was evidently different
from the nome of the same name in Upper Aegypt.^

1 ii. 108. 2 ii, 41, 3 ii, 165, * n igg.

^ ii. 4, 9L See Donniges, p. 66, quoted by Bobrik.

CHAPTER IV.

UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA. Upper Aegypt of Herodotus included Heptanomis and Thebais. —
CHAV. IV. Memphis. — Built by Menes on a site recovered from the Nile. — Ex-

. planation of Herodotus's description of the ancient and modem channels

of the Nile. — Description of the canal of Joseph. — Site of Memphis
identified with that of Mitranieh. — Celebrated temple of Hephaestus, or
Pthah, built by Menes. — Northern propylaea built by Moeris.— Six
colossal statues erected before it by Sesostris. — Western propylaea, and
two statues of Summer and Winter, erected by Rhampsinitus. — Eastern
propylaea built by Asychis. — Southern propylaea, and court for Apis,
constructed by Psammitichus. — Colossus, 75 feet high, dedicated by
Amasis. — Stone statue of Sethon, with a mouse. — Temenus of Proteus,
including the temple of Aphrodite the stranger. — Phoenician settlement,
called the Tyrian Camp. — Temple of Isis. — Walls. — Suburb. — White
Fortress. — Temple of Demeter. — Pyramids described by Herodotus
identified with those of Gizeh. — General description of their site and
relative position. — Recent explorations of Col. Howard Vyse and Mr.
Perring. — Herodotus's description of the causeway 3000 feet long, 60 feet
wide, and 48 feet high, laid down by Cheops. — Explanation of the de-
scription.— Traces of the ancient causeway still existing. — The Three
Great Pyramids. — I. The Great Pyrainiid of Cheops. — Herodotus's
description. — Time and labour employed. — Dimensions. — Mode of con-
struction.— Ascent by steps, or altars. — Machines constructed of short
pieces of W'ood. — Summit first completed. — Burial vault of Cheops sur-
rounded by a channel conducted from the Nile. — Inscription declaring
the sums expended upon provisions for the workmen. — Comparison of
the account of Herodotus with modern investigations. — Ancient and
modem measurements. — Three kinds of materials employed. — 1st,
Blocks quarried from the Libyan rock used for the internal masses. —
2nd, Compact limestone from the Arabian mountains used for casing
stones. — .3rd, Red gi'anite from the cataracts at Syene, also used for
lining and casing stones. — Character of the mechanical agencies em-
ployed.— Internal blocks not so large as Herodotus describes. — Holes
for the insertion of the machines still visible. — Exterior coating of
casing-stones, of limestone, or granite, carefully cemented and beauti-
fully polished. — Mr. Perring's observations on the mode of construction. —
Interior of the Great Pyramid. — Sloping passage descending towards
the centre. — Passage divides : one continuing the descent till it reaches
the Subterranean Chamber; the other ascending, and then again divid-
ing, one branch running horizontally to the Queen's Chamber, and the
other inclining upward to the King's Chamber. — Description of the Sub-
tpiranean Chamber. — Burial vault of Cheops not to be found. — ^Queen's
Chamber. — King's Chamber, containing an empty sarcophagus. — Inscrip-

CHAP. IV.

UPPER AEGYPT. 385

tion mentioned by Herodotus not to be found on account of the removal AFRICA,
of the casing-stones. — II. Pyramid of Chephren. — Herodotus's de-
scription.— ^Site, and present dimensions. — 'Herodotus's statement that
there were no subterranean chambers in it, confuted by the investiga-
tions of Belzoni.— Entrance discovered by Belzoni. — Sepulchral room
called Belzoni's Chamber. — -Lower Chamber. — Aethiopian stone used for
the first course found to be granite from the cataracts. — Upper casing
formed of limestone. — Mr. Perring's view of the construction of the in-
terior.— III. Pyramid of Mycerinus. — Herodotus's description. — Pre-
sent dimensions irreconcileable with Herodotus's estimate. — More ela-
borately finished than the pyramids of Cheops and Chephren. — Entrance
discovered by Caviglia and Col. Vyse. — Upper Sepulchral Chamber. —
Lower Sepulchral Chambet. — Sarcophagus in the Lower Chamber. —
Extraordinary discovery of the mummy-case and bones of Mycerinus in
the Upper Chamber. — Undoubted identity of the rernains. — Mr. Birch's
interpretation of the hieroglyphics on the lid of the mummy-case. —
Bones and mummy-case to be seen in the British Museum. — Mode of
construction adopted in the pyramid. — The three small pyramids, in-
cluding the pyramid of the daughter of Cheops. — Herodotus's descrip-
tion.— Present state.— Brick pyramid of Asychis. — Probably the same
as the northern pyramid of Dashoor. — Character of Herodotus's descrip-
tion of the pyramids and reasons for his various omissions. — State of the
pyramids at the time of his visit. — His ignorance of the interiors of the
pyramids of Chephren and Mycerinus. — Origin of the pyramids un-
known.— Called by the Aegyptians after Philition, and therefore sup-
posed to have been built by the Hyksos. — Recently discovered to have
been built prior to the Hyksos, by the kings of the fourth dynasty of the
old monarchy of Menes. — Cheops identified with the Suphis and Souphis
of Manetho through the shields discovered by Col. Vyse. — Chephren
not yet identified. — Mycerinus, or Men-kah-re, identified with the
Mencheres of Manetho. — The pyramids undoubtedly erected as sepul-
chres, the inclined passages being intended for the conveyance of the
sarcophagi into the internal chambers. — Interesting discovery made by
Dr. Lepsius relative to pyramidal construction. — Effect produced by the
pyramids upon the modern traveller. — Other buildings, or mounds,
similar to the pyramids. — Birs Nimroud. — Tumulus of Alyattes. — Pyra-
mids of Mexico and India. — Silbury hill in Wiltshire. — The Labyrinth
and Lake Moeris. — DescriptiQn of the oval basin of Fayoum. — Consists
of three different levels. — Watered by a branch from the Canal of Joseph.
— Geological constitution of the soil. — First or eastern terrace, com-
prising the Labyrinth. — Herodotus's description of the Labyrinth. —
Erected by the twelve kings. — Cost more labour and money than all the
public buildings in Greece. — Consisted of twelve courts in two parallel
ranges of six courts each, and included 3000 chambers, half above
ground and half under. — Upper chambers visited by Herodotus. —
Lower chambers, tombs of the twelve kings, and sacred crocodiles. —
Recent discovery of the remains of the Labyrinth by the Prussian ex-
pedition under Dr. Lepsius. — General confirmation of the truth of He-
rodotus's statement. — Doubtful as to whether it really included 3000
chambers, and whether it was built by the twelve kings and contained
their tombs. — The pyramid probably the place of sepulture, and the
Labyrinth the royal palace. — Pyramid at present known as the pyra-
mid of Howara. — Discovery of the name of Ammenemes III., the last
king of the old monarchy of Menes. — Dimensions and construction of
tfie pyramid. — Lake Moeris. — Herodotus's description. — Attempt to
find its site on the modern map. — Generally identified with Lake
Keiroun. — Present aspect of Keiroun. — Reasons brought forward by M.
Linant for disbelieving in the identification of Moeris with Keiroun. — ■

2 c

386 UPPER AEGYPT.

Linant's discovery of a dyke enclosing the second terrace of Fayoum.—
Identification of the enclosed site with that of Lake Moeris.— Further
explanation of Linant's identification. — His identification of the two
pyramids described by Herodotus. — General remarks upon Linant's dis-
covery.— Remaining topography of Middle Aegypt. — Erythreobolus. —
Crocodilopolis. — Hermopolis. — Docks in the Arabian Gulf. — Upper
Aeg}rpt Proper, not described by Herodotus. — Extreme paucity of his to-
pogi-aphical notices. — His.accountof Thebes and temple of Zeus, or Am-
mon. — Chemmis. — Temple of Perseus. — Elephantine. — Crophi and
Mophi. — Southern boundary of Aegypt.

AFRICA. Upper Aegypt according to Plerodotus included,
CHAP. IV. as we have seen, the whole of the Nile valley from
~ — 77 the apex of the Delta southwards to Elephantine.
gyptof He- This rogiou is usually divided into Middle Aegypt,
ciudedHep- or Hoptanomis, and tipper Aegypt, properly so call-
Thebais'^'^'^ ed, or the Thebais. Our author's account of both
Middle and Upper Aegypt will therefore be develop-
ed in the present chapter: his topography of the
former comprises a description of the city of Mem-
phis, the pyramids of Grizeh, the great Labyrinth,
and the Moeris lake ; whilst that of Upper Aegypt
only consists of a few notices of the cities of Thebes,
Chemmis or Panopolis, and Elephantine.
BuS''' Memphis was the great city of Middle Aegypt
Menesona dcscribod by Hcrodotus, and it was here that he
ed fromThe obtaiucd Ms principal information respecting the
^"^^^ country.^ Menes, the first king of Aegypt, built this

city at a time when all the Delta was under water,
and he obtained a site by the following contrivance.
The Nile had previously flowed close by the sandy
mountain of Libya on the eastern side. Menes dug
a canal elbowing out more in the centre of the
valley between the Libyan and Arabian mountains ;
and then, having dammed up the old channel of the
Nile about 100 stadia to the south of the site of
Memphis, he conducted the river into the canal.
Upon the ground thus recovered Menes built the
city of Memphis, and protected it by a mound; and
in after-times the banks of the canal, which formed
the new channel of the Nile, were carefully secured
by the Persians, lest the river should break through
and flood tlio city. Memphis was situated in the

' ii. 3.

UPPER AEGYPT. 387

narrow part of Aeg5;^t where the valley is contract- Africa.
ed between the Arabian and Libyan mountains, c"^^- ^^■
On the east was the river Nile, and on the north Lake exca-
and west Menes excavated a lake which was supplied ^g^^^^y
by the river.

The foregoing description requires a few words of Expiana-
explanation. That Menes excavated an entirely roTotus's^
new channel for the great body of water brought J tEn-"^
down by the Nile, is evidently an exaggeration of the ^ient and
priests of Memphis. The story however is based upon channels of
fact. The Nile in reality has two channels. One, ^^^ ^'^^"
which Herodotus calls the ancient channel, and which
he describes as flowing close to the Libyan moun-
tains, was the northern part of the Bahr Yusuf, or Ca-
nal of Joseph ; ^ the other, which he supposed to have
been dug by Menes, and which flowed more in the
centre of the valley, is the present bed of the river.
A brief description of the Canal of Joseph is here ne- -^/t^e'canai
cessary . It breaks off from the Nile at Farshout in of Joseph.
Upper Aegypt, near the ancient city of Chemmis,^
and flows in a northerly direction, along the foot of
the Libyan chain, and parallel with the Nile, until it
finally joins the Bolbotine or Rosetta branch. Its
average width is 170 feet. The northern part is
evidently an ancient branch of the river, and not an
artificial canal ; for no mounds of excavated soil are
to be seen along its banks like those which accom-
pany the courses of all ancient canals; and the
windings of its bed are alone almost sufiicient to
prove that it was not dug by the hand of man.^
There is no occasion however for believing that
the change in the course of the Nile was effected

' It is now generally believed by scientific ti'avellers, that the apex of
the Delta was much farther to the south in ancient times than in the
present.

^ The Bahr Yusuf is generally said to begin at Devint-el-Sherif, and
the southern continuation of it, which extends to Farshout, is called Sou-
hadj. But both the Bahr Yusuf and the Souhadj maybe regarded as
all one canal.

^ Memoire sur le Lac Moeris, par Linant de Bellefonds, etc. Alexan-
drie, 1843. This valuable tract may be found in Mr. Borrer's Journey
to Naples and Jerusalem, etc. We shall have especial occasion to refer
to it when developing our author's description of Lake Moeris.

2 c 2

388

UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA.

CHAP. IV.

Site of
Memphis
identified
■with that of
Mitranieh.

Celebrated
temple of
Hephaes-
tus, or
Pthah,buat
by Menes.

Northern
propylaea
built by
Moeris.
Six colossal
statues
erected be-
fore it by
Sesostris.

Western
propylaea,
and two sta-
tues of Sum-
mer and
Winter,

by Menes, for it may have been brought about by
natural causes ; though it certainly was important
for a city like Memphis to have such a barrier as
the Nile on its eastern side. Aegypt was in no fear
of invasion from scattered desert tribes on her west ;
but the nations beyond her eastern frontier, the
Arab, the Syrian, the Mesopotamian, the Persian,
and even the savage Scythian, frequently proved
formidable and dangerous aggressors.

The site of Memphis is identified with that of the
modern village of Mitranieh, about ten miles to the
south of Cairo ; and the district still bears amongst
the Copts the traditional name of Mimf. The
position of the village accords with the account of
Herodotus that Memphis was situated in the narrow
part of Aegypt, for it stands in the contracted part
of the Nile valley, having the plain of the Delta on
the north, and the expansion towards Fayoum on
the south, thus commanding the communication
between Upper and Lower Aegypt.

Memphis was especially celebrated for its vast and
wonderful temple of Hephaestus,^ or Pthah. This
was originally constructed by Menes, but many of
his successors contributed something towards its
enlargement and decoration. Moeris built the pro-
pylaea facing the north. Sesostris employed the
multitude of captives which he had brought from
the various countries he had subdued in conveying
huge masses of stone to the temple ; ^ and he erected
in front of the propylaea six colossal statues, namely,
himself and his wife, each thirty cubits, or forty-five
feet, high, and his four sons, twenty cubits, or thirty
feet, high.^ Rhampsinitus built the propylaea facing
the west, and erected two statues before it, each
twenty-five cubits high. The one standing to the
north, the Aegyptians called Summer, and wor-

1 ii. 99. See chap. v. « ii. 108.

^ ii. 110. Sesostris corresponded most nearly with Rameses II. and
III., and in the neighbourhood of Mitranieh there still lies a colossal
statue of Rameses II. of crystalline limestone, mutilated at the upper
and lower extremities, but which, when perfect, must have been nearly
forty-three feet in height. Bonomi, quoted by Kenrick.

UPPER AEGYPT. 389

shipped and honoured ; that on the south they called Africa
Winter, and treated in quite a contrary manner.^ chap. iv.
Asychis built the eastern propylaea, which was by erected by
far the largest and most beautiful ; for it was decor- JJ^ampsiui-
ated with sculptured figures more than all the others, Eastern
and exhibited the greatest variety of architecture.^ buXby^'^
Psammitichus erected the southern propylaea,^ and s^^tE^
opposite to it he built a court for Apis. This court pi-opyiaea,

^ ^ ^ , , jii ^ and court

was surrounded by a colonnade, supported by coios- tor Apis,
sal statues twelve cubits, or eighteen feet, high, in- by''psam-*''^
stead of pillars, and covered with sculptured figures, miticiius.
Apis, the supposed manifestation of Osiris in the form
of a calf, was entertained in this court whenever he
appeared in Aegypt.* A colossus, seventy-five feet coiossus
high, was dedicated by Amasis, and in the time of dedfclted^
Herodotus lay before the temple in a reclining ^^ ^i^^asis.
posture. On the same base with it were two statues
of Aethiopian stone twenty cubits, or thirty feet, high,
standing one on each side of the temple.^ Finally, ^j*°g'^^^^f^'^
there was standing in the time of Herodotus the with a-
stone statue of the priest-king Sethon, with a mouse '''°^^'^"
in his hand,*' and bearing this inscription: ''Who-
soever looks on me, let him revere the gods ! " ''

On the south side of this splendid temple ofTemenusof
Hephaestus was a sacred enclosure, or temenus, of eimiing'the'
Proteus, very beautiful and richly decorated. With- J?^^p^^ ^^
in this temenus was a temple (ieron) of Aphrodite ^p^™'^^^^
the stranger, which, according to Herodotus' s con-
jecture, originated in Helen's sojourn in Aegypt,
where she lived for some time under the protection

1 ii. 121. 2 ii, 136.

^ It will be seen from the foregoing description, that the temple of
Pthah at Memphis presented many points of resemblance to the temple
at Karnac, and was an illustration of the multiphcation of propylaea
and courts already noticed.

* ii. 153. 5 ii. 176.

" This statue was erected to commemorate the destruction of the As-
syrian army of Sennacherib. According to holy writ, the army was de-
stroyed by an angel of Jehovah. Herodotus says that the destruction
was occasioned by field-mice, who ate up the bowstrings, quivers, and
shield-handles of the invaders. Our author was most probably misled
by the sculptured mouse in the hand of the stone image of Sethon, for a
mouse is the symbol in Aegyptian hieroglyphics for destruction and
slaughter. '^ ii. 141.

390 UPPEK AEGYPT.

AFRICA, of Proteus ; for no other temple was ever dedicated

c"Af • ^^- to this foreign Aphrodite. Around the temenus

Phoenician dwelt the Phoenician settlers from Tyre, and the

caiiecUhe* ^ract was called the Tyrian camp.^ Amasis also

Tyrian built iu Mcmpliis a larffe and curious temple of

camp. T • 2

Temple of iSlS.

Wails. Memphis was apparently surrounded by walls ;^

Suburb a suburb also is mentioned/ and the Wliite Fortress,

WTiite For- . • • •

tress. which was garrisoned by the Persians and their
allies, who were annually supplied with 120,000
measures of corn by the satrapy of Aegypt and

Temple of Libya. ^ Twenty stadia from the city lay a temple

Demeter. ^f Demetcr.^

Pyramids Ou tlio routo from Mcmphis to Naucratis were

by^Herodo- the Celebrated pyramids,^ known in modern times

fiTd'tltb' ^^ ^^6 Pyramids of Gizeh. They commence at Gri-

those of zeh, nearly opposite to Cairo, and about five miles

General de- wcstward of the Nile ; and they extend for a con-

theksite"^ siderable distance towards the south. Herodotus

and relative dcscribos them as standing upon a hill,^ about 100

feet high,'' and we still find them seated on a

rocky platform, rising at its highest part about 100

feet above the plain, and forming the first step in

the ascent of the Libyan mountains. This rocky

range, which thus supports the pyramids, projects

from Fayoum along the western border of the Nile

valley, rising in height as it advances towards the

noii;h-east.

Six pyramids are mentioned by Herodotus, three
large and three small. Of the three large pyramids,
the first, or Great Pyramid of Cheops, lies the nearest
to the Nile, and the farthest towards the north ; the
second, or Pyramid of Chephren, is placed about as
much more to the west as the breadth of the first ;
and the third, or Pyramid of Mycerinus, in like man-
ner, retires towards the west by somewhat more than
the breadth of the second.''' The three small pyra-

1 ii. 112. 2 ii. 176. •'' iii. 13. " iii. 14. ' iii. 91.

« ii. 122. 7 ii. 97- » ii. 124. » ii. 127.

'•^ A fourth large pyramid is described by Herodotus as having been
built of brick by king Asychis, but it is impossible to identify it with

UPPER AEGYPT. 391

mids, of which the centre one is said to have been Africa.
built by the daughter of Cheops, lie near the south- chap. iv.
eastern angle of the great pyramid. We append a
ground-plan of their relative size and situation, re-
duced from the plan in the great French work.^

North.

Pyramid of

Cheops. n

Q Pyramid of Cheops' Remains of stone

daughter. causeway repaired

LJ by the Caliphs.

Pyramid of
Chephren.

I Pyramid of

L I Mycerinus.

South.

The pyramids themselves have been recently ex- Recent ex-
plored in a more complete manner than before by of colhoV
Colonel Howard Vyse, and we are indebted to his ""^^^^{^^
liberality and enterprise, and to the intelligence of Perring.
his engineer, Mr. Perring, for much valuable inform-
ation. Accordingly we shall proceed to develope
the description of Herodotus, and then explain and
illustrate it as far as we are able from the results
worked out by Colonel Vyse and Mr. Perring, and
the researches of other travellers and antiquarians.

The first thing to be noticed is the polished cause- Herodotus's
way, which was laid down by Cheops upon the same of the cause-
principle as we should now lay down a line of rails. feeUong, co
Herodotus tells us that the stones used in the erec- f^*^!^ ^i^^'i^' ,

-1 and 4b feet

tion of the pyramids, were brought from the quar- high, laid

Cheops.
certainty. We shall, however, notice what our author says concerning
it further on.

^ Description de V Egypte, vol. v. pi. G.

392 UPPEE AEGYPT.

AFRICA, ries in the Arabian mountain ; then carried over
CHAP. IV. the Nile in boats; and at length drawn across a
road or causeway to the Libyan mountain, where
the pyramids were to be erected. This causeway
was constructed of polished stone, carved over with
figm-es of animals. It was five stadia, or 3000 feet,
long, ten orgyae, or 60 feet wide, and eight orgyae,
or 48 feet, high, in the highest part. Cheops em-
ployed the Aegyptians for ten years, in constructing
this road and forming subterranean apartments in
the hill on which the pyramids were built. ^
Expiana- Accordiug to tlic forcgoiug account, this causeway
Sriptiori. "^^s 3000 feet long, 60 feet, wide, and in its loftiest
part 48 feet high ; and it appears to have been an
inclined plane, rising from the level below, towards
that of the rocky plateau, on which the pyramids
were seated. It has been said that Herodotus makes
the causeway too low, for the plateau itself is 100
feet above the plain ; but he is not speaking of the
absolute height of the causeway above the level of
the plain, but of the magnitude of the work itself,
which in some parts, owing of course to the inequal-
ities of the ground, were, as he tells us, as much as
48 feet high.
Traces of The remains of a causeway still exist, beginning

the ancient n n jt» • i i • i t r

causeway ucar tlic (jrrcat I'yramia, and running eastward lor a
stm exist- considerable distance across the plain, in the direction
of the Nile. It can still be traced for 1400 or 1500
feet, but beyond that point has been buried under
the alluvial soil left by the Nile, after its yearly in-
undations. This causeway has been identified with
the one described by Plerodotus. The polished stones,
covered with carved figures of animals, are however
no longer to be seen. It has therefore been supposed
by others that the ruins now existing are the re-
mains of a causeway constructed by Asadi, the emir
of Saladin the Great. Saladin directed Asadi to
build the citadel and walls of Cairo, and to quarry
his materials at Memphis and the jiyramids ; and
Abdollatiph, a contemporary writer, plainly states

' ii. 124.

Uf'PER AEGYPT. 393

that the causeway between the pyramids and the africa.
Nile was constructed by Asadi.^ But the present chap. iv.
ruins may be remains of both the causeway de-
scribed by Herodotus and the one mentioned by
Abdollatiph. It is very probable that Asadi merely
repaired the one laid down by Cheops, and this sup-
position would fully account for the non-existence
of the polished marble, and figures of animals. It
is also certain that the size of the blocks of which
the present causeway is composed, suits with an-
cient Aegyptian, rather than with Saracen, work-
manship.^

We now proceed to Herodotus's account of the The three
three larger pyramids, which we shall describe in S. ^^^^
regular order, viz. first, that of Cheops ; secondly,
that of Chephren ; and thirdly, that of Mycerinus.

1. The (jeeat Pykamid of Cheops was a work of i- '^^%,

jsi-i . I T n • Great Pyra-

twenty years. Cheops was a tyrannical and proHi- mid of che-
gate sovereign, who barred the avenues to every dotus's de-"
temple, and forbade the Aegyptians to offer sacri- ^[me and
fices to the gods ; after which he compelled the labour em-
people at large to perform the work of slaves. Some ^ °^^ '
he condemned to hew stones out of the Arabian
mountains, and drag them to the banks of the Nile ;
others were stationed to receive the same in vessels,
and transport them along the causeway to the edge
of the Libyan desert. In this service 100,000 men
were employed, who relieved each other every three
months.^

The pyramid was of a square form, each side Bimensions,
measuring eight plethra in length, and as many in
breadth.* It was composed of polished stones, fitted ^"'^^ °^
together with the utmost exactness, and none of tion.

^ Richardson, Travels along the Mediterranean, etc., vol. i.

"^ The traces of another causeway have also been discovered on the
eastern bank of the Nile, and about nine miles to the south of Cairo. It
appears to have served for conveying to the river the blocks which were
quarried in the Gebel Mokattam, and which were then carried across the
stream in boats, and at last brought along the causeway of Cheops to the
scene of operations.

3 ii. 124.

* The measurements will be found reduced to English terms fur-
ther on.

394 UPPEE AEGYPT.

AFRICA, tliem were less than thirty feet in dimension,' The
CHAP. IV. ascent was regularly graduated by what some called

j>^scent by crossac, or stcps, and others bomides, or altars.

steps, or ai- ^Ylien tlic workmon had finished the first tier they ele-

tars. . '^'

Machines vatcd the stoncs to the second by the aid of machines,
of shorT*^*^ constructed of short pieces of wood ; from the second
pieces of tier the stones were raised by a similar machine to
the third; and so on to the summit. Thus there
Avere as many machines as there were courses in the
structure of the pyramid ; though there might have
been only one machine, which, being easily manage-
able, could be raised from one layer to the next in
succession : both modes were mentioned to Herodo-
tus, but he does not know which of them deserves
Summit most Credit. The summit of the pyramid was first
pieted!™' finished and coated, and the process was continued
downward till the whole was completed.^ Subter-
ranean chambers were excavated in the hill on
which the pyramid was built, and amongst them
Buriaivauit was the burial vault containing the body of Cheops.
surrounded ^his vault was constructcd in a kind of island,
by a channel being surroundcd by an artificial channel of water,
from the conductcd thithcr from the river Nile.^ Upon the
iSciiption exterior of the pyramid was an inscription, in
fhf sum! Aegyptian characters, showing how much had been
expended cxpcndcd in radislics, onions, and garlic, for the
^onsfor the workmcu ; and the interpreter, who read it to Hero-
Avorkmen. dotus, told him that the whole amounted to 1600
talents of silver. If this was really the case, says
our author, how much more must have been ex-
pended in iron tools, bread, and clothes for the
labourers ?* Cheops indeed was so pressed for money
that it was said he raised money by the prostitution
of his daughter, whom we shall have further occa-
sion to mention.
Comparison Wc must uow comparo Herodotus's account in
count of' detail with the results of modern investigations ; and
Herodotus ]iqyq ^^Q sliall liavc cspccial occasion to remark upon

■with mo- ^ . 1 1 • ^ • • c i^l

derninves- his mcasurcments, and his description or the ma-

tigations.

' ii. 124. - ii. 125. ^ ii. 127. ^ "• 125.

UPPER AEGYPT. 395

terials employed, the mode of construction, the ex- Africa.
terior casing, and the subterranean chambers.

and modern
measure-

First, as regards the measurement. Herodotus Ancient
describes the pyramid of Cheops as a square mea-
suring eight plethra, or, according to a rough cal- i^ents
culation, 800 English feet, every way, and also
eight plethra, or 800 feet, in height. It is exceed-
ingly remarkable that scarcely any travellers agree
in their estimate of the magnitude of this or of the
other pyramids.^ The measurements however of
Colonel Vyse and Mr. Perring may be regarded as
thoroughly trustworthy, and we accordingly append
a few of those which refer to the G-reat Pyramid.

Feet. Inches.

Former base 764 0

Present base 7^6 0

Former height perpendicular by casing-stones 480 9

Present height perpendicular . , . 450 9

Former height inclined . . . . 611 0

Present height inclined .... 568 3
Angle of casing-stones 51° 50'.

It will thus be seen that our author's estimate of
the base was very near the mark, but that, with re-
spect to the height, he culculated the slant, or in-
clined height, from the base to the summit, which
Mr. Perring found upon measurement to be 611 feet.
Here however, as elsewhere, Herodotus preferred
round numbers to exactness, and he doubtless

^ The difference is so great between the estimates of the several writers
as to justify the suspicion that either their standards were different, or
that the summit of the Great Pyramid has been considerably lowered
in modern times. The following table will exhibit a few of the discre-
pancies.

Height of the

Length of the

Great Pyramid.

side.

Ancients.

Feet.

Herodotus

. 800 .

. 800

Strabo .

.625 . .

600

Diodorus

. 600 .

. 700

Phny .

—

708

Moderns.

Le Brun .

. 616 .

. 704

Prosper Alpinus

625

750

Thevenot .

. 520 .

. 612

Niebuhr

440

710

Greaves

. 444 .

. 648

Davison

461

746

French Savans

. 440 (470 English)

. 704

396 UPPEE AEGYPT.

AFRICA, thought it would be less burdensome to the memory
CHAP. IV. Qf ijjg readers if he calculated the length of every
side, and the height, from base to summit, at eight
plethra, than if he entered into more minute, though
more correct, detail. From Colonel Vyse's mea-
surement this Great Pyramid is calculated to be
about 100 feet higher than St. Paul's. Supposing
its contents to be entirely solid, they would exceed
tlnee millions of cubic yards, and the mass of stone
contained in it would be six times as great as that
contained in the Plymouth breakwater.^
Three kinds "^g noxt couic to the materials. Herodotus says

of materials ni i in tat-

employed, that all tiio stoue was brought irom the Arabian

mountains, or the Gebel Mokattam, on the eastern

side of the Nile valley. Mr. Perring discovered

that three qualities of stone were employed in the

1st, Blocks construction of the pyramids. 1. The internal

from the masses were chiefly quarried on the spot, being taken

used fOT the ^om tlio Libyan rocks on which the massive struc-

internai tm'os are crected. These rocks are of a loose and

granulated texture, abounding with marine fossils,

and consequently unfit for fine work and liable to

^actSm"^- ^Gcay. 2. The stone for the casing of the exterior

stone from aud for tlic linino; of the chambers and passages,

the Arabian ,. ■, ^ ... ^ ^ i ^

mountains cxceptiiig wberc graiiitc IS expressly named, was
cas^na-'^ brought from the Grebel Mokattam, near the Gebel
stones. Attaka, on the Arabian side of the Nile valley, as
Herodotus distinctly states ; and the ancient quarries
seem to have been in the neighbourhood of the
modern village of Tourah, a little to the south of
Cairo. ^ It is a very compact limestone, containing
but very few fossil remains, and is called by geolo-
gists, swinestonc, or stinkstone, because when struck
Irankc*^ itcui its Si foctid odour. 3. A beautiful red granite
from the was also uscd for similar purposes to the limestone,

^ Comp. Egyptian Antiquities, vol. ii. Lib. of Ent. Knowledge.

^ The face of the Tourah is not cut away according to the most common
mode of quarrying, hut excavated in spacious chambers, whose openings
resemble those of a line of sepulchral grottoes. Beside the quarry marks
of the workmen, there are inscriptions recording the sovereigns under
whom the (juan-ies were wrought, and the buildings erected or repaired
by them. Perring in Vyse,vol. iii. Kenrick, vol. i.

UPPER AEGYPT. 397

and was apparently obtained from the granite region africa.
between Syene and Philae, being brought down in chap. iv.
boats on the river Nile to the polished causeway cataracts of
which led to the Great Pyramid.^ sjene, also

The mechanical means adopted in constructing ing and cas-
the pyramids cannot be clearly ascertained. He- charSerof
rodotus says, as we have seen, that none of the ^^'^ mecha-

1 1 1- c ^ 11 1 meal agen-

stones were less than thu^ty leet long, and that they eies em-
were raised to their respective places on the several internal
tiers by machines constructed of short peices of jQ^°{!j^.^„g °*
wood.^ The first statement, respecting; the size of Herodotus

, 1 . . . . -, ' ^ ^ T describes.

the stones, is incorrect, and may have been a mere
exaggeration on the part of his priestly informants ;
for the exterior coating, which we shall presently
describe, prevented his ascertaining the real truth.
The loss of the casing, which was stript off at a sub-
sequent period, shows us that from 5 feet to 12
is the common size of the stones ; that they were laid
in courses varying from 2 feet 2 inches to 4 feet
10 inches in depth; and that each course project-
ed about a foot beyond the one above it, and thus
now present the appearance of steps, and farnish
an easy ascent to the summit, though originally
presenting a smooth surface, having the spaces be-
tween the courses filled up by casing-stones. The
blocks composing the Grreat Pyramid appear to have
been finally prepared on the level rock in front of its
northern face. Here there are several rows of holes.

1 A short sketch of the geology of Aegypt may perhaps assist the
student in bearing in mind the physical geography of the country.
Lower Aegypt is, as we have already seen, principally composed of
alluvium deposited by the waters of the Nile. In Upper Aegypt three
geological regions can be distinguished. 1. The limestone region, ex-
tends from the Delta to some days' journey south of Thebes, near
Esneh. 2. The sandstone region, extends from Esneh to Syene, and is
a comparatively recent deposit. Its colours are white, grey, and yellow.
It is very soft and easily united, but was used in building the great temples,
and many pillars and obelisks, which were however protected from the
weather by being covered with a coloured varnish. 3. The granite region,
extends from Syene through the cataract region to Philae, and besides
granite affords syenite and some other crystalline primitive rocks, which
are red and highly crystallized, and remarkable for the durabiUty and
the fine polish which they are capable of receiving. Colossal statues,
pillars, obelisks, and even whole temples are constructed of these beau-
tiful rocks.

2 ii. 125.

398 UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA. Each row being" about four or five feet from the

CHAP. IV.

others, and inckiding three or four holes of about a

foot in diameter and eight or ten inches deep.
These holes were apparently cut for the insertion of
shears, or for the erection of scaffolding for turning
Holes for ^^id uioviug tlio blocks. Wliorever also the courses
tionofthe are exposed, circular holes are to be observed in the
SmyisTbie. stone, eight inches in diameter and four inches deep,
which probably supported the machinery made of
short pieces of wood described by Herodotus/
Exterior "VV^e HOW como to the exterior coating. Herodotus

casing? ° tells lis that the summit was first finished, and that
wsto°ne tl^6 process was continued downward till the whole
or granite, ^^g completed.^ Tliis without doubt is perfectly
cemented, accuratc. Tho casing-stonos were of a far finer
fuUy^poSh- quality than the interior blocks, and, as we have
^^- seen, were brought either from the limestone quar-

ries in the Arabian mountains, or from the granite
region between Syene and Philae. Those for the
Grreat Pyramid were brought from the Mokattam
quarries in the Arabian mountains, as Colonel Vyse
discovered under the rubbish accumulated at thebase,
two of the casing-stones in their original position.
Those found were 4 feet 11 inches in perpen-
dicular height, and 8 feet 3 inches long, the outer
face sloping with an angle of 51° 50'. They
were carefully cemented with a mortar composed
entirely of lime, which was also employed in the
lining of the passages ; whilst in the body of the
pyramid a mortar was used, made of ground red
brick, gravel, Nile earth, and crushed granite, or of
calcareous stone and lime ; and in some places the

^ See Vyse, vol. ii. Mr. Perring suggests that the machine mentioned
by Herodotus may have resembled the polyspaston described by Vitru-
vius. If however I may judge from the drawing of the polyspaston in
. the second volume of Newton's Vitruvius, it is a kind of crane in which
numerous pullies are employed ; and though doubtless very well adapted
for the elevation of such blocks as those of which the pyramids are com-
posed, yet totally unlike a machine made of short pieces of wood. I
would suggest that a succession of wedges were introduced, which gra-
dually raised the blocks on short supports, or piles, and that it was to these
wedges or piles that Herodotus is alluding when he talks of machines.

2 ii. 125.

UPPER AEGYPT. 399

blocks were only joined together by a grout or liquid africa.
mortar of desert sand and gravel. Part of the casing chap. iv.
being left unfinished in another of the pyramids,' Mr. Per-
Mr. PerrinsT was enabled to make the folio wina^ ad- ring's ob-
ditional observations. He found that the beds ou the mode
and sides of the casing blocks were worked to a tfon?'"'^'''""
perfect surface, so that when put together the joints
were scarcely visible ; but the faces of the blocks
were roughly hewn, and projected so as to preserve
the edges from being injured in raising the stones
required for the higher parts of the edifice above
them. When the whole was completed, the levelling
commenced from the summit downwards, one set of
workmen probably trimming off the projecting parts,
whilst another planed down the whole to a perfect
and beautiful surface.

The reader must now go with us into the interior interior of
of the Great Pyramid. We may here remark, that pyramid.
every pyramid has each of its sides facing one of the
four cardinal points ; that the entrance to each of
them is to be found on the north side in or near the
centre ; and that the passage leading towards the
interior invariably slopes downward at an angle of
about 26° 41'. Over the entrance of the Great sloping pas-
Pyramid is a block of unusual size, on which rest scfnding

to-

wards the
centre.

four others, meeting so as to form a kind of pointed
arch ; an arrangement which lessened the pressure
from above, and preserved the opening from being
crushed in. The sloping passage before us is 3
feet 5 inches in height, and the same in width, and
is roofed and paved with broad flat blocks of red
erranite, smooth and hiffhly polished. After a slop- Passage di-

<^ /» /^ «/ i X "vIcIgs ' oriG

ing descent of 63 feet the passage divides, one con- continuing
tinning the descent, and the other ascending towards SiiJ^^''^''*
the centre of the pyramid. The descending passage ^^^^i^J^g^j^ane-
is prolonged for 320 feet from the exterior entrance, an cham-
and with such exactness that we can see the sky other &s-
from the further end ; it then runs for 27 feet further ^^^f^^^'^
in a horizontal direction, and terminates in a Subter- again divid-
ranean Chamber, 90 feet below the base of the pyra- bilnch run-

1 The eighth, which is not noticed hy Herodotus.

400

UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA.

CHAP. IV.

ning hori-
zontally to
the Queen's
Chamber,
and the
other inclin-
ing upward
to the
King's
Chamber.

mid. The ascending passage continues for 125 feet
at an angle of 26° 18', when it again divides ; one
branch runs horizontally for 110 feet to the Queen's
Chamber ; the other branch in the shape of a great
gallery leads to a vestibule, which forms the entrance
to the King's Chamber. This gallery ascends in
the same angle as the previous passage ; it is 1 50
feet long, 28 feet high, and 6J feet wide ; but this
width is lessened by a projecting stone seat or ramp
which runs along each side, 19 inches wide and 2
feet high. The side walls are formed of eight assizes
of stone, which projecting inward over each other,
give the passage the appearance of being arched.
The accompanying diagram exhibits the course of
the passages and position of the chambers.

North.

South.

N. air channel

Entrance.

S. air channel.

i==ilj King's Chamber.
•^ Queen's Chamber.

\ Well.

Subterranean Chamber.

Great Pyramid of Cheops. Sections from North to South.

?/the'sui" Having thus hastily run through the various pas-
terranean sagcs, WO will visit thc chambcrs in succession. The

Subterranean Chamber is 46 feet long and 27 broad.

No sepulchral remains have been found in it. On

UPPER AEGYPT. 401

its southern side there is a passage 2 feet 7 inches Africa.
high, which continues for a little more than 50 feet, '-'"^^- '^-
but ends in nothing. Herodotus mentions a chan- BuriaWauit
nel supplied with water from the Nile, and surround- °J^^^^Z'
rag a burial vault containing the body of Cheops, found.
Col. Yyse was most anxious to discover this chan-
nel, being convinced, by the distinctness of our au-
thor's description, that such an artificial tunnel does
really exist. Accordingly he sought for it in con-
nexion with the Subterranean Chamber, which is
the lowest apartment hitherto discovered. But this
chamber is considerably above the level of the Nile,
even at its highest inundation, and must have been
much more so in ancient times, when the bed of the
river was considerably lower. Col, Vyse, however,
sunk a shaft through the floor of the Subterranean
Chamber to the depth of 36 feet, but though he thus
reached the level of the Nile, yet his labours were
attended with no discovery. Notwithstanding this
failure, the existence of a secret water communica-
tion may still be presumed, and Col. Vyse tells us
that there is yet a chance of finding it by removing
the sand and earth along the foot of the rocky plat-
form which supports the pyramids, from the north-
ern dyke to the Sphinx, and as low down as the
level of the Nile ; by which means any subterranean
canal that might have been made must necessarily
be discovered.^

^ Lieutenant Wilford tells ns, (Asiat. Res. vol. iii.,) that on describing
the Great Pyramid to several very learned Brahmins, they at once de-
clared it to have been a temple ; and one of them asked if it had not a
communication under-ground with the river Call (or Nile)._ When he
answered that such a passage was certainly mentioned as having existed,
they unanimously agreed that it was a place appropriated to the worship
of Padma-Devi, (the goddess in the lotos,) and that the supposed tomb
was a trough which on certain festivals her priests used to fill with the
sacred water and lotos flowers.

This information would be exceedingly valuable if it could be trusted.
That there are pyramidal temples at Benares, which are said to have a
similar communication with the Ganges, cannot be doubted ; but after
the painful though manly acknowledgment which Wilford makes, in a
subsequent volume, of the impudent forgeries imposed upon him by an
ungrateful pundit, and which even deceived Sir William Jones himself,
it is very difficult to say how far the above statements of the Brahmins
are to be believed.

2 D

402

UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA.

CHAP. IV.

Queen's
Chamber.

The Queen's Chambee is 17 feet long, 16 feet
wide, and 20 feet higli. It stands immediately un-
der the apex of the pyramid, and is roofed with
blocks meeting in a point. From the carefal finish
of the slabs with which it is lined, it appears to
have been intended for the reception of an embalmed
body ; but nothing whatever has been found in it,
and if a sarcophagus be concealed anywhere, it
must be under the paved floor. It is from the pas-
sage leading to this chamber, and just at the point
where the ascending line of way diverges in a
horizontal direction, that a well may be noticed,
descending partly through the masonry of the pyra-
mid, and partly through the solid rock, till it meets
the passage leading to the Subterranean Chamber.
It is called a well, though it seems intended for the
purposes of ventilation and communication. It is
191 feet in depth, and about 2 feet 4 inches square,
and it can be ascended or descended by means of
projections, which still remain. It is perpendicular
for the first 26 feet, but afterwards more or less
inclined.^

'' Mr. Davison, who was the British consul at Algiers in 1764, and
who, having accompanied Wortley Montague to Egypt, resided 18 months
at Cairo, describes this downward passage as a succession of wells or
shafts. The account of his descent is exceedingly interesting. Con-
ceiving it to be very deep, he provided himself with a large quantity of
rope, one end of which he tied round his waist; and letting down a
lantern attached to a small cord, he resolutely prepared to follow. With
no small difficulty he prevailed on two of his servants and three Arabs
to hold the line ; for the latter assured him that there were ghosts be-
low, and that he must not hope to return. Taking with him a few
sheets of paper, a compass, a measure, and another lighted candle, he
commenced the descent, and soon reached the bottom of the first well
or shaft. Eight feet fi'om the spot where he landed, he saw a second
opening, which descended perpendicularly to the depth of five feet only.
Five feet from the bottom of this he discovered a third shaft, the mouth
of which was nearly blocked up with a large stone, so that there was
barely sufficient opening to permit a man to pass it. Here he let down
his lantern to ascertain the depth, and whether the air was pernicious or
otherwise. The shaft however was so tortuous that the lantern soon
became invisible. The consul however was determined to descend to
the bottom, but such was the superstitious dread of the Arabs, that it
was only after many prayers and threats, and promises of money, and of
all the treasure that should be discovered, that he prevailed upon one
man to come down to him and hold the rope, whilst he proceeded farther.
Here the poor Arab stared about him, pale and trembling, and appeared
more like a spectre than a human being. Mr. Davison however pushed

UPPER AEGYPT. 403

The King's Chamber is the principal apartment africa.
in the j)yramid, and is approached through a vesti- chap. iv.
bule, which terminates the large gallery already King's
described. This chamber is 34 feet long, 17 feet ^^^^l'„
wide, and 19 feet high, and it is situated not ex- an empt/'
actly in the centre of the pyramid, but a little to gus?^ ^
the south and east of the vertical line. Its name, as
well as that of the Queen's Chamber, rests upon no
better authority than the caprice of tourists now
converted into a local tradition. Its magnificence
however entitles it to the distinction which it has
obtained. It is lined all round with large slabs of
highly -polished granite, reaching from the floor to
the ceiling ; which last is flat and formed of nine
immense flags, which stretch from wall to wall.
Towards the west end of the room stands the sarco-
phagus lying north and south. It is 7 feet 6 inches
long, and 3 feet 3 inches broad. It consists of red
granite highly polished, but without either sculpture
or hieroglyphs. No body, nor any indication of the
former presence of one, is to be found, nor is there
even a lid. In the projecting stone seat or ramp,
which runs along each side of the large gallery, holes
are cut at intervals, apparently for the insertion of
the machinery by which the sarcophagus was raised.

forward with the rope round his body, and keeping the lantern a Kttle
before him, and avaiUng himself of little holes made in the rock, he at
length reached the bottom, where he found all further passage precluded
by a large accumulation of sand and rubbish. At this point he began
to be afraid "of two things ; first, that the multitude of bats which he
had distm'bed would put out his candle ; and second, that the immense
stone at the mouth of the shaft might slip down and close the passage
for ever. On looking about the bottom he found a rope-ladder, which,
though it had lain there for sixteen years, was as fresh and strong as
when it was new, and which is supposed to have been used by Mr.
Wood, the celebrated author of the work on Balbec and Palmyra, to as-
sist his progi'ess downwards. Mr. Davison at last effected his return to
the man whom he had left at the bottom of the first shaft ; but here the
candles fell and went out. The poor Arab now thought himself lost.
He laid hold of the rope as Mr. Davison was about to ascend, and de-
clared that he would rather have his brains blown out than be left alone
there with the devil. The consul therefore permitted him to go before,
and though it was much more difficult to ascend than to descend, yet he
scrambled up with a rapidity which presented a laughable contrast to
the reluctant and dilatory manner in which he had made his descent.
See Waljwle's Memoirs, RusseWs Eqyjjt, etc.

2d 2

404

UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA.

CHAP. IV.

Inscription
mentioned
by Herodo-
tus, not to
be found, on
account of
the removal
of the casing
stones.

II. Pyra-
mid of Chc-
phren.
Herodotus's
description.

Site, and
present di-
men.sions.

The vestibule was also evidently intended to have
been closed by four portcullises of granite. Three
of these had been lowered, but the fourth remained
in its original position, as the lower part of the
groove, by which it was to have been lowered, had
never been cut away to allow of its descent. The
King's Chamber was ventilated by two air passages,
one on the north, and the other on the south, which
terminate in the exterior faces of the pyramid.
Above the chamber are five vacant spaces, one over
the other, and about ten feet apart from each other.
They are each 38 feet long, and 17 feet wide, and
from 2J feet to 3^ feet in height. The four lowest
have flat roofs ; the highest has its roof formed of
blocks meeting at an angle, and is 8|- feet high in
the centre. They have been apparently left vacant,
in order to lessen the pressure upon the King's
Chamber.^

The inscription mentioned by Herodotus, which
recorded the sum spent on vegetables for the work-
men, and which was translated to him by an inter-
preter, cannot of course be now found upon the sur-
face ; neither can the numerous inscriptions, noticed
by Abdollatiph and other Arabian writers, be dis-
covered.^ The casing-stones, as we have related,
have all been removed. Many of them were ap-
parently used by the emir of Saladin in the build-
ings of Cairo, and there they can still be traced, but
they bear no marks of ever having been inscribed.

II. The Second Pyramid, or that of Chephren,
stood, according to Herodotus, on the same hill as the
pyi^amid of Cheops, but was 40 feet less in height,
and had no canal nor subterranean vaults. The first
course was composed of variegated Aethiopian stone. ^

Such is all the information concerning this pyra-
mid which we can derive from Herodotus. It stands

' The chamber above the King's Chamber is called Davison's Cham-
ber, after Davison, who first discovered it. The fom* others above it
have been successively named, by Col. Vyse, who discovered them,
Wellington Chamber, Nelson's Chamber, Lady Arbuthnot's Chamber,
and Col. Campbell's Chamber.

'^ Vyse, vol. ii. ^ ii. 127.

UPPER AEGYPT. 405

about 500 feet from the Grreat Pyramid, and as the africa.
Libyan rock rises to the westward it was necessary ^"'^-i'- "'•
to level it for the site of the pyramid. At the south-
western and north-western angles, however, a portion
of the rocky superstructure is included in the body
of the pyramid, and is here stepped up in horizontal
layers to correspond with the courses of the masonry.
The dimensions of the pyramid, which we give on
the authority of Col. Yyse and Mr. Perring, are but
little inferior to those of the pyramid of Cheops.

Feet. Inches.

Former base 707 9

Present base 690 9

Former height perpendicular . . 454 3

Present height perpendicular . . 447 6

Former height inclined .... 572 6

Present height inclined . . . 563 6
Angle 52° 20'.

From this table we can see that Herodotus's mis-
take in estimating the height of the Great Pyramid
arose not from his ignorance of the truth, but from
his fondness for round numbers. The pyramid of
Chephren, he says, was 40 feet less in height than
the pyramid of Cheops. The following is their
respective heights according to Col. Vyse's measure-
ment.

Feet.

P3'ramid of Cheops — former height inclined . .611
Chephren ditto . . . 572^

Difference in height between the two pyramids . 38| feet.

Of subterranean passages Herodotus tells us there Herodotus's

,1' • n -r» ,• ,T • . , statement

were none m this pyramid. Kespectmg this point that there
however he was misinformed. The truly great and g^btenane-
enterprising Belzoni was enabled to discover and an chambers
give his name to a subterranean chamber, whose futedbythe
existence was denied by the father of history.' It is li'o^ifof'''
now ascertained that this pyramid has two entrances, i^eizoni.
The first, which was discovered by Belzoni, is at Entrance
about the same relative height as the entrance of the by Beko*^

izoni.

^ The pyramid had been opened and closed again some centuries
previously by the caliphs, but this fact, which was only first discovered by
Belzoni, does not in the slightest degree detract from the merit of his
discovery, the result of the most indomitable perseverance and industri-
ous intelli":ence.

406

UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA. Great Pyramid, and descends at the same angle.

CHAP. IV. The second is from the pavement at the base, and
rmis first in a horizontal direction, but then inclin-
ing upwards it meets the former passage, and the

rown called two United proceed in a horizontal line to the

Chamber, scpulchral room called Belzoni's Chamber.^ This

1 It is impossible to pass over this account of the second pyramid, or
that of Chephren, without some notice of the circumstances connected
with Belzoni's discovery. The French savans who accompanied Buo-
naparte's army into Aegypt made several efforts to find an entrance, but
were compelled to leave it in despair. Belzoni however, by his solitary
exertions, accomplished more than this united band of philosophers.
His success in detecting the sepulchral labyrinths of Thebes inflamed
him with the desire and hope of penetrating the secret chambers of
Chephren. He began by forcing a passage in the centre of the north
side, which he was soon obliged to abandon as hopeless to himself and
dangerous to his work-people. He next minutely examined the exterior
of the Great Pyramid. He saw that the passage ran in a straight line
to the eastern extremity of the King's Chamber. Now as this chamber
was in the centre of the pyramid, a straight passage running to its
eastern extremity must necessarily begin as far to the east of the centre
of the exterior as it ends eastward of the centre of the chamber. He
therefore concluded, that if there were any chamber at all in the pyra-
mid of Chephren, the entrance to the passage leading to it could not be
in the centre of the northern side where he had commenced this excava-
tion, but, calculating by the position of the passage in the Great Pyramid,
nearly 30 feet farther to the east. Accordingly he recommenced opera-
tions at this spot, and so correct was his theory and measurement, that he
subsequently found that he had not deviated more than two feet from the
mouth of the passage which was to lead him into this vast edifice.
After clearing away a great deal of rubbish and cutting through massive
stones, during which labours he was cheered by hearing the native work-
men occasionally muttering their opinion of him in the expressive term
" magnoon," denoting madman or fool, he at length had the satisfaction
of seeing a Hock of granite inclining downward at the same angle as the
entrance passage of the Great ■ Pyramid. At last the right entrance
was opened, and proved to be a passage 4 feet high and 3^ feet wide,
formed with granite, and descending 104 feet towards the centre. This
passage had to be cleared of large stones which had fallen from the
upper part and slid down the slope. Last of all Belzoni reached a
portcullis, which being a fixed block of stone, appeared at first sight to
stop all further progress, for it made a close joint with the groove at each
side, and the top seemed as firm as the rock which formed the passage.
On a closer insj)ection however he perceived that at the bottom it was
raised about eight inches from the lower part of the groove, which was
cut beneath to receive it; and he found by this circumstance that the
barrier before him was nothing more than a large slab of gi-anite,
1 foot 3 inches thick. Observing a small aperture at the top, he
thrust a straw into it upwards of three feet, a discovery which convinced
him that there was a vacuum above prepared to receive the portcullis.
The raising of this slab however was a task of no small difliculty, on
account of the smallness of the passage. As soon as it was elevated
high enough for a man to pass, an Arab entered with a candle and
announced that the place was ycvy fine. A little more room enabled

UPPER AEGYPT. 407

chamber is 46 feet long, 16 broad, and 22 high, africa.
Belzoni found it to contain a sarcophagus, of red ™^^- ^'^•
granite, 8 feet 7 inches long on the outside and 7
feet within, without sculpture or hieroglyphics.
No mummy was within the sarcophagus, but some
bones were discovered mixed with sand and gravel,
which on examination were ascertained to belong to
the bovine species, and have been generally supposed
to be the remains of a sacred bull. No argument
however can be drawn as to the destination of the
pyramid from the state in which Belzoni found it,
for he perceived an inscription at the western end of
the chamber which distinctly proves that it had
been previously opened by the caliphs.^ Beneath
the lowest point of the lower passage is another Lower
chamber excavated in the rock, and resembling the ^^^"^^^^■•
Queen's Chamber in the Great Pyramid. It has an
angular ceiling, and is 34 feet long, 10 broad, and 8
high in the highest part. It is supposed to have
been intended for a sepulchral chamber, but only
contained some loose stones. The following dia-
gram, on the top of the next page, is intended to
represent the general course of the passages and
position of the chambers.

Mr. Belzoni to squeeze his person through, and thus, after thirty days,
find himself in the way to the central chamber. See Belzoni, Narrative
of Operations and Discoveries in J^gypt and Nubia, vol. i.

^ This inscription was translated by Mr. Salame for Belzoni, as fol-
lows : — " The master Mohammed Ahmed, lapicide, has opened them ;
and the master Othman attended this (opening), and the King Ali Mo-
hammed, from the beginning to the closing up." Professor Lee, how-
ever, in a letter to Lord Aberdeen, quoted by Col. Vyse, translates it as
follows : — " The master Mohammed, son of Ahmed, the stone-cutter, first
opened them (i. e. the chambers in the pyramid) ; and upon this occa-
sion were present, El Melee Othman, and the master Othman, and Mo-
hammed Lugleik."

408

UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA.

CHAP. IV.

North

South.

Eatfance discovered
by Belzoni

Lower entrance.

Aethiopian
stone used
for the first
course
found to be
granite
from the
cataracts.

Upper cas-
ing formed
of lime-
stone.

Mr. Per-
ring"s view
of the con-
sti-uction of
the interior.

Lower Chamber.

Pyramid of Chephren. Section from North to South.

The first course of this pyramid, described by
Herodotus as being constructed of variegated Aethi-
opian stone, is composed of granite brought from
the cataracts between Syene and Philae. Loose
blocks of this granite are still to be found at the
base, and fully confirm the accuracy of our author's
statement. Above the course of granite right up to
the summit the pyramid was cased with the same
fine limestone from Mokattam as the Great Pyra-
mid, and for about 130 to 150 feet from the summit
the limestone casing still remains. The general
masonry of the pyramid, with the exception of the
granite casing and the passages which are lined
witli granite, is decidedly inferior to that of the
Great Pyramid. Mr. Perring thought that the inte-
rior was divided, by massive walls of wrought stone,
into various square compartments, wliich had been
filled up by a sort of gigantic rubble-work composed
of large blocks and mortar. Indeed tlic v/liole is so
irregularly Ijuilt, that since the removal of the casing
the desert sand and rain have penetrated in several
places to a considerable distance.^

' Vyse, vol. ii. It was this looseness of construction which impeded
the operations of Belzoni.

UPPER AEGYPT. 409

III. The Third Pyramid, or that of Mycerinus, is africa.
described by Herodotus as being still smaller than ^^^^- ^^•
the preceding ones. The length of each side was ^
20 feet less than 3 plethra. It was constructed half Pyramid of
way up of the Aethiopian stone. Some of the Greeks Herodotus's
supposed it was the work of the courtesan Rhodopis, 'i6^'='^ip*i°''-
but, in the first place, she flourished at a much later
period, in the reign of Amasis ;^ and, secondly, she
could not possibly have been able to expend so many
thousand talents as would have been required for
the erection of so vast a building.^

Herodotus thus calculates the base of the pyramid Present di-
of Mycerinus to be about 280 feet. This cannot be ineconciia-
reconciled with the real measurement, which was Herodotus's
ascertained by Col. Vyse and Mr. Perring to be as estimate.
follows : — ■

^ Rhodopis was a Thracian by birth, and the servant of ladmon the
Samian. Aesop, the writer of the Fables, also belonged to the same
master at the same time, and was thus the fellow-servant of Rhodopis.
Subsequently, in the reign of Amasis, Xanthus the Samian took Rho-
dopis to Aegypt in order to gain money by her person. Here she was
ransomed for a large sum by Charaxus of Mitylene, the brother of Sap-
pho the poetess ; and when Charaxus returned to Mitylene his sister
ridiculed him in an ode. Rhodopis having thus obtained her freedom,
continued to reside in Aegypt, and being exceedingly lovely, acquired
great riches for a person of her condition, but certainly not sufficient to
build a pyramid. A tenth of her wealth might be seen at Delphi in the
days of Herodotus ; for, being desirous of leaving behind her such a
memorial as had never before been dedicated in a temple, she set aside
that portion of her property for the purchase of iron spits, which were
then piled up behind the altar in the Delphian temple.

Such is the account given by Herodotus. Sappho seems to have ac-
cused Rhodopis of robbing her brother of his px'operty, calling her by
the name of Doricha. Probably Doricha was her real name, and she
received that of Rhodopis, which signifies the "rosy-cheeked," on account
of her beauty. The origin of the story recorded by Herodotus has been
explained, with great probability, by Zoega and Bunsen. In conse-
qiience of the name Rhodopis, " rosy-checked," she w^as confounded with
Nitocris, the beautiful Aegyptian queen, and the heroine of many an
Aegyptian legend, who is said by Julius Africanus and Eusebius to have
built the third pyramid. Another tale about Rhodopis, related by Strabo,
(xvii. p. 808,) renders the supposition of her being the same as Nitocris
still more probable. It is said, that as Rhodopis was one day bathing
at Naucratis, an eagle took up one of her sandals, fiew awaj^ with it, and
dropt it in the lap of the Aegyptian king, as he was administering jus-
tice at Memphis. Struck by the strange occurrence, and the beauty of
the sandal, he did not rest till he had found out the fair owner of the
beautiful sandal, and as soon as he had discovered her made her his
queen. The reader can scarcely forget the story of Cinderella. Cf.
also Smith, Diet, of Gk. and Rom. Bior/. and Mytlu, art. Rhodopis.
2 ii. 134.

410

UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA.

CHAP. lY.

Base

Former height perpendiciilai-
Present height perpendicular
Former height incUned
Present height inclined .
Angle of casing, 51°.

Feet. Inches.

354 6

218
203

278
261

More elabo-
rately fin-
ished than
the pyra-
mids of
Cheops and
Chephren.

Entrance
discovered
by Caviglia
and Colonel
Vyse.

Upper Se-
pulchral
Chamber.

Lower

Sepulchral

Chamber.

The only suggestion I can offer is, that his mea-
surement applies not to the length of each side, but
to the inclined height, which we see was anciently
278 feet 2 inches. Though of much smaller dimen-
sions than the two others, this pyramid was the most
elaborately finished. The site was levelled, not by
cutting away the rock, but by raising, on the eastern
side, a superstructure ten feet in height, composed
of two tiers of immense blocks. There was no ves-
tige of an entrance, nor tradition of the pyramid
having ever been opened, until the operations begun
by Caviglia, and concluded by Col. Vyse in 1837,
upon which it appeared that, like the others, it had
been previously opened in the time of the caliphs.
The entrance was found as usual on the north side,
and about 13 feet above the base. The passage
descends at the same angle as that of the Great Py-
ramid for a distance of 104 feet, when it reaches an
ante-room, the walls of which are panelled with
sculptured partitions. Beyond the ante-room are
the usual j)ortcullises of granite, and a horizontal
passage terminating in a large chamber, 46 feet long
and 12 broad, lying nearly under the centre of the
pyramid.

Two passages lead from the chamber ; one, near
the top of the side-wall, returns toward the exterior,
and probably reached it, but was closed again by
the builders themselves ; the other descends from
the floor for about 30 feet, and ends in a Lower Se-
pulchral Chamber, 21 feet long, 8 broad, and 11
liigh.^ The following diagram exhibits the course
of the passages and position of the Upper and Lower
Chambers.

■ Seven steps further down from the lower chamber is a third room,
with two niches on each side, which were probably designed for the re-
cej)tion of upright mummies. This niche room is liot represented in the
diagi'am. It is 17 feet long, and 6 feet in breadth and height.

UPPER AEGYPT.

411

North.

Courses showinaf
the construction
of the mass

AFRICA.

CHAP. IV.

South.

n Upper Chamber, containing the bones of Mycerinus.
Lower Chamber, containing the Sarcophagus.

Pyramid of Mycerinus. Sections from North to South.

It may here be remarked, that the pyramid has
been enlarged from its original dimensions, and
upon that occasion the mouth of the upper passage
was closed up by the added masonry, and the lower
23assage was extended, being, as Mr. Perring ob-
serves, cut outwards from within.^

The two apartments included in this pyramid Sarcopha-
consist, as we have seen, of an Upper and Lower iowTr
Chamber. At one end of the Upper Chamber there Chamber.
is a depression in the floor evidently designed for
the reception of a sarcophagus, though nothing was
found in it. The Lower Chamber, which is lined
with granite, contained a sarcophagus of basalt
without inscriptions or hieroglyphics, but sculptured
in slender and graceful compartments, and having a
deep cornice.^ The sarcophagus had evidently been

' The reader must not fall into the error of supposing that this en-
largement took place since the time of Herodotus, and that it would
account for his calculating the base of the pyramid so much less than
its actual size. We shall have occasion to return to the subject further
on, when we mention the discoveiy of Lepsius, in connexion with pyra-
mid architecture.

2 This sarcophagus, which weighed nearly three tons, was got out
with great difficulty, for it was not much smaller than the passages
through which it had been introduced. It was sent to England, but the
vessel in which it was embarked was lost ofFCarthagena in 183S.

413 UPPER AE6YPT.

AFRICA, violated and the mummy removed by some previous
CHAP. IV. visitor.^ The lid was broken, and the greater part
of it was found near the entrance of the passage
Extij^iorc^in- which descends from the Upper Chamber. In the
Very of the Uppcr Chamber itself were also discovered the
case'and fragments of the top of a mummy-case inscribed
M"cm°nus ^'^^^ hicroglyphics, and lying on a block of stone ;
in the Up- and close by were a skeleton consisting of ribs,
ber. '^''^ vertebrae, and bones of the feet and legs, enveloped
in a coarse woollen mummy cloth of yellow colour,
which exhibited some remains of the resinous gum in
which the body had been embalmed. It therefore
seems that the previous visitors had opened the
sarcophagus in the Lower Chamber, but being un-
able to move it up the inclined passage, had taken
out the wooden case containing the body, and carried
it into the Upper Chamber, which was nearly twice
as large, for more minute examination.
UndouUed Thcro is cvcry reason for believing that the
theremains. rcmaius tlius discovcrcd are those of the king whom
Herodotus names Mycerinus. The masses of granite
and calcareous stone which filled up the entrance,
together with the portcullises and in some places solid
masonry, which secured the apartments, sufficiently
indicate the veneration in which the sepulchre was
held, and therefore the importance of the personage to
Mr. Birch's whoui it bclongcd. The two lines of hieroglyi^hics
t^orof the upon the lid of the mummy-case have been made
^liTcS'the ^^^ ^y ■^^'- I^ii"ch of the British Museum. In these
lid of the the king Mycerinus is called Men-kah-re, but we
caTr™^ append the literal meaning of the liieroglyphics as
given by Mr. Birch.

" Osirian, king Menkahre of eternal life, engender-
ed of tlie Heaven, child of Netpe who

extends thy mother.
" Nctpc over thee, may she watch thy abode of rest
in Heaven, revealing thee to the God (chastiser?)

' Edrisi, quoted by Vyse, says that the Red Pyramid (the name which
the Arabian writers appHed to the present one) had been opened a few
years before, and in the sarcophagus the decayed body of a man had
been found, with golden tablets beside him, inscribed with characters
which no one could read.

UPPER AEGYPT. 413

thy impure enemies, king Menkahre living for africa.

ever." ^ chap. iv.

Men-kali-re, or Mycerinus, belonged to the fourth
dynasty of the old monarchy of Menes, and as he
must have lived some time before the invasion of
the Hyksos, we cannot suppose him to have been
posterior to the patriarchs. Herodotus, who visited
Aegypt about the time of Nehemiah, gazed upon his
pyramidal tomb, and tells us the story of his reign —
his love for his daughter, and his efforts to falsify the
oracle. The reader of the present volume may now Bones and
enter the mummy-room of the British Museum, and cas^to be
there, amid embalmed cats, and painted coffins, and ??«=.^.^? ^^."^

IT f 1 iii*n !• British Mu-

other relics ot a bygone world, he will see on a plain scum.
shelf on his right hand all that remains of the bones
and coffin of Men-kah-re ; a monarch who reigned
long ere the siege of Troy, and probably before the
little ark of Moses was set adrift upon the ancient
Nile.

But to return to our descrij)tion. The Aethi- Mode of
opian stone of which, according to Herodotus, the tron'adopt-
pyramid was cased to half its height, was apparently ^'^ ^^^¥^
the red granite from the cataracts between Syene
and Pliilae, hence it is called the Red Pyramid by
the Arabian writers. Diodorus^ describes the first
fifteen courses as covered with black stone, and
Strabo ^ says that half the height of the pyramid
from its base upwards was cased with the same
material. Both authors however appear to have
taken their information from Herodotus, and to have
supposed that he meant black stone.* A portion of
the casing was removed by Osman Bey, as may be
seen by the diagram. We thus see that the pyramid
was built in steps or stages, gradually diminishing,

^ Osiris was the son of Netpe by Seb, or Chronos. Netpe seems to
have presided over births and nm-sing, and was called the mother of
the gods.

^ Diod. i. 64. » strabo, xvii. 808.

* If the casing-stones had been really black, they must, as Mr. Ken-
rick remarks, have been of basalt, which however is not to be found
amongst the fragments. Grobert (Denon, vol. i.) speaks of remains of
black marble, of which however no mention has been made by subse-
quent travellers.

414 UPPER AEGYPT.

AFEicA. the angular spaces being afterwards filled up so as

CHAP. IV. to complete the pyramidal form.

ITTT The Theee Small Pyramids mentioned by He-

ine inree -j

smaJi Py- rodotus, and mcludmg the Pyramid of the Daugh-
cf^ingThe TEE OF Cheops, are stiU to be found near the south-
Se™^h°-^ eastern angle of the Great Pyramid. The centre of
terof the three was the one which, according to our
Herodotus's author, was erected by the Aegyptian princess. He
description. ^g|jg ^^^ ^j^^^^ Clicops was SO prcsscd for money that

he even stooped to raise a sum by the prostitution
of his daughter, and that the lady in her turn wish-
ing to immortalize herself in the same manner as
her father, requested each of her lovers to bring her
a stone, (or finished block,) with which she built the
pjrramid in question. The base he describes as
being one plethron and a half,^ or 150 feet, which
corresponds pretty well with the measurement of
Col. Yyse, who makes it 172 feet.
Present Tho thrco pyramids appear to have been origin-

state. -"^ "^ . -*■ . ^

ally about 100 feet in height, but are now much
lower. They have all inclined passages, beginning
either at the base or a little above it, and leading
into a subterranean chamber, but in neither of them
has anything been found by which the original
occupant could be identified. It may be remarked,
that a few casing-stones which have been found at
the foot of the central pyramid, resemble those
which covered the Great Pyramid of Cheops, and
therefore afford some countenance to the strange
tradition recorded by Herodotus.
Brickpyra- ^ pyramid of brick is also mentioned by He-

mid of Asy- t,"^ i • i ^ -i , ^ a i" rm •

chis. rodotus as having been built by Asycliis. Inis

king, says our author, was desirous of surpassing all
his predecessors, and therefore left behind him a
pyramid made of bricks, upon which the following
inscription was carved in stone.

"Despise me not because of the pyramids of stone,
for I excel them as much as Zeus surpasses the other
gods. For by plunging a pole into a lake and

1 ii. 126.

UPPER AEGYPT. 415

collecting the mud which hung to the pole, men africa.
made bricks and erected me." ' chap. iv.

This pyramid cannot be identified with the same p^.^^^^,
certainty as the others. The most northern of the the same as
pyramids of Dashoor, which are situated some little em pyra-
distance to the south of those of Gizeh, has, however, ^ashoL.
been generally supposed to be the one mentioned by
Herodotus. It is composed of crude bricks, and
cased with stone from the Mokattam quarries, and
is not only the most considerable of all the brick
pyramids, but is also within a short distance of the
temple of Hephaestus which Asychis assisted to
embellish. The solidity of its construction is most
remarkable, and almost justifies the boasting inscrip-
tion preserved by our author ; for it is difficult to
imagine a mass more solid, and also more durable,
as long as it was protected by an external casing of
stone from the effects of the atmosphere. As how-
ever the whole of the bricks are not composed of
alluvial soil, the latter part of the inscription can
only refer to those formed of the mud or clay drawn
out of one of the sacred lakes. ^

Such then were the pyramids of Aegypt, as seen g^'''.''^^*'*^^^[°^
and described by Herodotus. That they excited in description
him an extraordinary interest cannot be questioned, ^1*^ a^/d^'
thousch a feelina: of reliarious awe probably restrained masons for

o . & . n ^ r . ./ ^ ^ his various

him from nnpartmg much miormation, which he omissions.
might otherwise have given. Moreover, it is re-
markable that he describes only those of whose
builders he is enabled to give some account; and
he only names the three little pyramids before the
Great Pyramid of Cheops, because he wished to de-
scribe the central one, which he had been told was
erected by Cheops' s daughter.^ Such omissions how-
ever are in perfect keeping with the general tone of
his narrative. He only cared for antiquities so far
as they illustrated or explained his history ; and his
description of the pyramids and other public works
in Aegypt are not included in his account of the

1 ii. 136. - Vyse, vol. iii. ^ n \2Q,

416 UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA, country, but in his chronological annals of the
CHAP. IV. Aegyptian kings. That he may have seen numer-
ous other pyramids besides those he has named, we
may take for granted, from the exceedingly careless
manner in which he refers to the one on each side
of that built by the daughter of Cheops.^ Probably,
however, as he could obtain no information concern-
ing them which came within the scope of his epic
history, he did not think it advisable to load his
work with details of a purely architectural charac-
ter. If however the origin, or description, of any
building would illustrate any historical fact, he pur-
sued his investigations to the utmost, and we find
him making a voyage to Tyre, for the special pur-
pose of ascertaining the origin of the temple of
Heracles, in reference to the antiquity of the wor-
ship of that deity.^ It was his religious reserve, or
the absence of trustworthy information concerning
its founder, that doubtless prevented him from de-
scribing the Great Sphinx, though it stands on the
same rocky plateau as the pyramids of Gizeh, and
is only about 650 yards to the east of the Pyramid
of Chephren.^ We shall also find in his account of
Upper Aegypt, that he makes no mention of the
magnificent temples of Thebes, but merely notices
the wooden colossi of the chief priests, which seem-
ed to him to throw some light upon the antiquity
of the Aegyptian nation and deities.^
state of the The stato in which Herodotus found the pyramids
thltSie^of 2300 years ago, may to some extent be gathered
his visit, f^om his description. They must have appeared to

1 ii. 126. 2 ii. 44

^ It is singular that neither Herodotus, nor Diodorus, nor any ancient
author before the Roman age, mentions the sphinx, especially as the in-
scriptions, which have been found on it, prove it to be at least as old as
the i-eign of Thothmes IV. in the fourth dynasty of the Old Monarchy.
Most probably its existence is coeval with that of the pyramids them-
selves, and certainly, the design of carving a rock, which broke the view
of the pyramids, into a gigantic sphinx, was worthy of the grandeur of
Aegyptian conceptions in architecture and sculpture. For a description
of the sphinx, I cannot do better than refer the reader to Mr. Kenrick's
Ancient Ef/yjjt, vol. ii. An account of the discoveries of Caviglia, who
cleared away much of the sand, and a translation of the inscriptions, may
be found in Col. Vyse's work, vol. iii.

< ii. 14.3.

UPPER AEGYPT. 417

him to be solid quadrangular masses, covering an africa.
immense area, and presenting on each of their four chap. iv.
sides a beautifully polished and perfectly even sur-
face, gradually narrowing until it terminated at the
summit. He appears to have entered the interior His ignor-
of the Great Pyramid of Cheo23S,^ but denies the fnteriors of
existence of any chambers in the Pyramid of Che- mWs^oRiie-
phren ; ^ and we may also infer that he was equally phren and
ignorant of the interior of the Pyramid of Myceri-
nus. His notions of the material of which the pyra-
mids were constructed, were evidently derived from
an examination of the exterior casing only ; thus he
says that the Pyramid of Cheops was built of stone,
brought from the Arabian, or Mokattam, moun-
tain ; ^ that the first course of the Pyramid of Che-
phren was composed of variegated Aethiopian stone,*
or, rather, of granite brought from Syene ; and that
the Pyramid of Mycerinus was constructed half way
up of the same material.^ But recent researches, as
we have already shown, distinctly prove that the
limestone and granite, of which he speaks, were
only employed for the exterior casing, and the
lining of the internal passages and chambers ; and
that the masses, which form the body of the pyra-
mids, were quarried from the rocky plateau on
which they stand. His information concerning
the manner in which the works were carried on, is
most likely accurate, though he was apparently
misled by his informants concerning the size of the
stones employed.

The circumstances connected with the first build- origin of
ing of the pyramids are as much unknown to the mids un-
modern explorer as they were to the great father of ^"^°'™-
history three and twenty centuries ago. "TheCaiiedby
Aegyptians," says Herodotus, "call the pyramids tians afte?'
after Philition,^ a shepherd, who at the time of their Pi^'i^tion,

' ii. 127. ' Ibid. ^ jj. 124. 4 jj. 127. » ii. 134.

^ The name Philition bears a strong resemblance to that of the Philis-
tines, though we shall presently see that the builders of the pyramids
flourished some centuries before the invasion of the Hyksos, or Shep-
herd kings. Ancient traditions seem to indicate that the Shepherd
kings, after their expulsion, separated into three divisions. One passed

2 E

418

UPPEK AEGYPT.

AFRICA.

CHAP. IV.

and. there-
fore sup-
posed to
have been
built by the
Hyksos.

Recently
discovered
to have been
built prior
to the Hyk-
sos, by the
kings of the
fourth dy-
nasty of the
Old Mon-
archy of
Menes.
Cheops
identified
with the
Suphis and
Souphis of
Manetho,

erection kept his cattle in that region; and so strong
is tlie hatred of the people against them that they
are not very willing to name them." ' From this
passage it has been generally concluded, that the
princes who constructed these stupendous works be-
longed to the foreign dynasty of Hyksos, or Shepherd
kings ; and, as our author also states with an emphatic
distinctness, that during the whole period of their
domination the temples were shut and the sacrifices
prohibited,^ it has been taken equally for granted
that the invaders professed a religion hostile to the
animal worship of the Aegyptians. But, since the
pyramids have been explored, no doubt can remain
that they are the work of native kings who reigned
long before the invasion of the Hyksos. The
period of the Hyksos extended over what is called
the Middle Monarchy, and thus stretched from the
thirteenth to the seventeenth dynasties inclusive.^
But the three builders of the three great pyramids
mentioned by Herodotus — Cheops, Chephren, and
Mycerinus, have been discovered to belong to the
fom-th dynasty in the Old Monarchy of Menes. In
Manetho the second, third, and fourth kings in this
dynasty are named Suphis, Souphis, and Mencheres.
Cheops of Herodotus has been identified with both

over into Greece under Tnachus ; a second occupied south-western
Palaestine, and were called Philistines ; whilst a third, or remnant, ac-
companied the Israelites part of the way after the exodus under the de-
signation of a mixed multitude.

' ii. 128. 2 ii, 124.

^ Aegyptian history, during what may be called the Pharaonic period,
has been divided into three distinct periods. 1. The old empire of
Menes, comprising the first twelve dynasties. 2. The middle empire of
the Hyksos, comprising the five dynasties following, or the thirteenth to
the seventeenth inclusive. 3. The new empire of the eighteenth dy-
nasty downwards.

The Aegyptian history of Herodotus is nothing more than a narration
connected with public monuments, and on monuments too either in,
or near, Memphis ; indeed we may restrict ourselves to the single temple
of Hephaestus, or Phtha. The history commences with Menes, the
founder of the temple ; it mentions three of his successors who embellished
it ; it treats those kings as tyrants who made no addition to it ; and of
those princes who left no monuments the priests could only give a dry
catalogue of names. Hence the line of kings contains many wide
chasms (ii. 137); it is also interwoven with allegorical narrations, (ii.
Ill, 121, 122.)

UPPER AEGYPT. 419

Supliis and Souphis. In the chambers above the africa.
King's Chamber in the Great Pyramid, already ^^^^- ^'^'
described/ Col. Vyse discovered some shields in the through the
common phonetic character drawn with red paint shields ais-
upon the walls. One of these shields contained four 0^1? vyseT
characters, which it is agreed should be pronounced
Chufu, or Shufu ; whilst another shield presented the
same group of characters, but having the same jug
and ram prefixed to it which are found with the
figures of Kneph, the ram-headed god of Thebes.^ It
has been supposed that Cheops or Shufu. was buried in
the Queen's Chamber, and that his successor, Kneph
Shufu, finished the pyramid, and was buried in the
King's Chamber ; and that as they were both en-
gaged in the building, and were both buried in it,
they were supposed by Herodotus to be one and the
same person. Chephren cannot be found in Mane- chephren
tho, but m the tombs near the becond Pyramid the identified.
shield of a king, whose name reads Shafre, has been
found together with the figure of a pyramid. My- Mycerinus,
cerinus, we have already shown, can be identified klh-reT
with Mencheres by the hieroglyphics on his mummy- J^ft'^^'^e*^
case, which have been translated by Mr. Birch.^ Mencheres
All therefore that we can gather from the statement
of Herodotus is, that the Aegyptians hated the very
memory of the pyramid kings, and would gladly have
regarded them as a foreign race. The popular dis-
like against Cheops is exhibited in the story pre-
served by Herodotus, of his compelling his own
daughter to raise money by prostitution ; ^ and even
Mycerinus, who is acknowledged to have been a
pious, just, and able monarch, is charged with having
indulged in an unnatural passion for his own daugh-
ter,^ and with deceitfully endeavouring to convict
the oracle of falsehood.^

That the pyramids were specially erected as '^l^^'
sepulchres for kings is now generally admitted, doubtediy
The inclined passages were for the conveyance of the sepulchres,
sarcophagi ; the blocks which filled up the entrance *^® "ichned

^ See page 404. - See chap. v. ^ See page 412.

* ii. 126. 5 ii. 131. « jj. 133.

2 E 2

420

UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA.

CHAP. IV.

passages
being in-
tended for
the convey-
ance of the
sarcophagi
into the in-
ternal
chambers.

Interesting
discovery
by Dr. Lep-
sius relative
to pyramid-
al construc-
tion.

Effect pro-
duced by
the pyra-
mids upon
the modem
traveller.

were intended to prevent disintemient and violation;
andj as the pyi^amids were closed with solid masonry,
it is certain that they could not have been used for
astronomical observation, nor for initiation or other
mysterious purposes. Around the larger structures
are smaller pyramids, in which queens may have
been deposited ; whilst the chief officers of state and
religion were buried in excavated tombs near the
vast sepulchres of their masters.

These latter theories however maybe considered as
almost exploded by the discovery of Lepsius, whose
examination of a pyramid, in which the interior was
partly laid open, enabled him to arrive at the follow-
ing results. At the commencement of each reign
the rock chamber, destined for the monarch's grave,
was excavated, and one course of masonry erected
above it. If the king died in the first year of his
reign, a casing was put upon it and a pyramid form-
ed; but if the king did not die, another course of
stone was added above, and two of the same height
and thickness on each side : thus in process of time
the building assumed the form of a series of regular
steps, which, on the death of a monarch, were cased
over with limestone, or granite. The different sizes
of the pyramids is therefore to be accounted for, by
the difference in the duration of the several reigns,
and the length of a reign might be ascertained if it
were possible to learn the number of courses over
the internal rock chamber, in which the monarch
himself was deposited.

The traveller approaching the pyramids for the
first time, views them without enthusiasm, and almost
without emotion. From the clearness of the atmo-
sphere the larger ones seem to be close at hand, when
they are four or five miles off; and the want of a
proper standard by which to measure them disables
him from forming any idea of their size, until he
stands at their base and gazes up the slanting side
of the quadrangular mass. Gradually he compre-
hends the magnitude of the pile. Plis ideas become
colossal, and his imagination, expanding as he con-

UPPER AEGYPT. 421

templates tliese vast sepulchres of primeval royalty, africa.
is filled with visions of ancient greatness and bygone chap. iv.
empires. The plain narrative of Herodotus how-
ever breaks somewhat rudely upon these day-dreams.
The old Halicarnassian was of a truly practical turn
of mind. He tells us of a great people harassed by
toil and hating their oppressors ; of temples closed,
sacrifices forbidden, and families starving; and of
wealth wasted, and time and labour lost, upon these
useless monuments. Most plainly is it to be seen,
that religious awe alone prevented his expressing his
sympathies with a nation so enslaved by its priestly
and superstitious rulers.

It is difficult to leave the subject of the pyramids other buM-
without remarking upon the other buildings, or mounds si-
mounds, in various parts of the world, and even in pyJaLlds*^
the western hemisphere, which seem to have been
erected after a similar pattern, though in a rougher
fashion. Passing over those of Upper Aegypt and
the ancient Meroe, we think of the huge mass of
Birs Nimroud, which brought down the vengeance Birs Nim-
of Jehovah himself upon the presumptuous and idol-
atrous builders;^ the great tumulus of Alyattes,^ Tumuius^^
and the pyramids of Mexico^ and India.* Lastly, pyraimds''^"
we may mention the remarkable mound in Wilt- ancfindia.
shire, called Silbury hill, which is about the same ?j^^|;^y.^^^^

shire.

I See pp. 258, 259. ^ gee p. 230, and note.

3 The great teocalli, or pyramid of Cholula, in Mexico, stands in the
extensive plain of Puebla. It consists of four receding platforms of
equal elevation, and appears to have its sides exactly opposite to the four
cardinal points ; but in its present state it seems impracticable to deter-
mine this fact with certainty. Humboldt calculates its perpendicular
height to be only 177 feet, and each side of its base to be 1440 feet; the
area of its base is consequently more than three times that of the great
pyramid. It is apparently constructed of alternate layers of clay and
brick. A square chamber has been found in its interior, containing two
dead bodies, two basalt idols, and a great number of vessels varnished
and painted. A description of other Mexican pyramids may be found
in Humboldt, Vue des Cordilleres, tom. i., quoted by Long.

* The pyramidal buildings of India have their sides also turned to the
four cardinal points. Some temples of this form, near Benares, have a
subterraneous communication with the Ganges, which forms a curious ,

point of resemblance between the Hindoo building and Herodotus's
story about the Nile communicating with the chamber of Cheops, which
we have already noticed at page 401. Bohlen, Altes Indien, quoted by
Long.

422 UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA, lieiglit as the pyramid of Mycerinus, but has been
CHAP. IV. calculated to cover a space of double its area.^ We
have however already trespassed too niuch on the
attention of our readers, and must now return to our
author.
The Laby- Two otlicr great works, the Labyrinth and Lake
Lake Moe- Mocris, excitod the wonder and admiration of Hero-
"^- dotus ; but, before we proceed to develope his de-

scription, it will be necessary to glance at the face
of the country, which is presumed to include their
ancient sites.
Description ^he Nile valley, as we have already seen, is
basin of formed on its western side by the Libyan range.
Fayoum. ^i^q^^ 59 milcs south of Cairo, this range elbows
round towards the west, and then again approaches
the bank of the river; it thus encloses the oval-
shaped basin of Fayoum,^ anciently called the nome
of Arsinoe, whilst the narrow gorge of Illahoun
alone connects the basin with the Nile valley. This
OA^al valley of Fayoum is 40 miles from east to west,
and 30 miles from south to north, and included the
Labyrinth, the Moeris Lake, and the city of Croco-
consists of diles. It consists of three terraces of different ele-
IntTeveS!''' vatious. The first and highest occupies the eastern
portion of the valley. The second, nearly 24 feet
lower, encompasses the first on the west and north.
The third is a hollow, in the deepest part of which
lies the Lake Ke'iroun,^ whose surface is 65 feet
lower than the second terrace. In short, the whole
valley may be said to decline gradually from east

^ Silbury hill is in the form of a truncated cone. The circumference
of the base is 2027 feet; the diameter at the top 120 feet; the sloping
height 316 feet ; and the perpendicular height 170 feet: it covers an area
of 5 acres and .34 perches. It is chiefly composed of chalk, upon which
a thin soil has formed, now covered with short gi'ass.

2 The name of Phiom, " the sea," ( Quatremere Recherches, vol. i.,) was
probably given to this district from the inland sea, the Lake Moeris, the
Piom of Chamj)ollion ; or, because at some primeval period, it may have
formed the basin of a large sea. The name Fayoum, now retained by
the Arabs, is thus but a slight modification of the ancient Aegyptian
appellation.

3 Lake Keiroun is more properly called Birket el Korn, i. e. Lake of
the Cape, or of the promontory of a mountain jutting forward into a flat
country.

UPPER AEGYPT. 423

to west, but much more decidedly as it approaches afric^
the borders of Lake Keiroun. Through the gorge chap. iv.
of lUahoun, which is about six miles in length, a -^J^^^
branch of the Canal of Joseph, already described,^ a branch
cuts its way through the rock, and, as it approaches caimi^'f Jo-
the centre of Fayoum, spreads out into various small ''^p^^-
branches, which render the province exceedingly-
fertile. The eastern portion of Fayoum is also torn
by ravines formed by torrents, which, in compara-
tively modern times, have broken through from the
Canal of Joseph, and flowed in a westerly direction
towards Lake Keiroun. By means of these ravines Geological
we are enabled to learn the geological constitution of'thf S'^
of the soil. About 20 feet beneath the slimy sedi-
ment, deposited by the inundations of the Nile and
of the Canal of Joseph, we find calcareous strata of
20 or 25 inches in thickness, separated one from the
other by argillaceous strata, which present nearly
the same declination, from Illahoun down to the
lake, as the surface of the land.^ The banks of the
channel, which flows from the Canal of Joseph, are
connected at the entrance of the gorge by a bridge
of three arches, and provided with a number of re-
servoirs to regulate the masses of water during the
inundation.^

On the first or eastern terrace, are the remains First or
of the ancient city of Crocodiles, and between 5 and race!™ m-'
6 miles towards the south are the ruins of the Laby- ^^^^y^ith!
rinth. It is therefore certain that the site of Lake
Moeris must be in the immediate neighbourhood.

^ See page 387.

2 Linant, Memoire sur le Lac Moeris. To the translation of this
valuable Memoir, appended to Borrer's Travels, I must refer the reader
as ,my authority, for most of the information which I have been able to
bring together respecting Fayoum. M. Linant was a surveyor in the
service of the pasha of Aegypt, and surveyed the Fayoum as an engineer ;
and to him is due all the merit of having discovered the supposed site of
Lake Moeris.

3 The channel which connects the Canal of Joseph with Fayoum is
cut through the solid rock, and can therefore have never been at a lower
level than at present. Its level at the entrance of Fayoum is now 150
feet lower than the level of the canal itself, where the latter receives its
waters from the Nile, 180 miles farther off to the south.

424 UPPEE AEGYPT.

AFRICA. But before we attempt to point it out, we must re-
cHAP. IV. tupn to our author.

Herodotus's Tlio Labyrintli was built by the twelve kings,
description y^\^Q shared the country amongst them, between the
byrinA.''' reigus of Sethon and Psammitichus.^ These twelve
Se tweivJ kings determined to leave behind them a common
ki'igs- memorial. Accordingly, they constructed a Laby-
rinth a little to the south of Lake Moeris, and near
Cost more the city of Crocodiles. Herodotus himself saw this
money than wondcrful monumont, and found that it exceeded all
SbuHdm^s ^^^^^ ^^^ heen said of it ; for it must have cost, he
in Greece, says, morc labour and money than all the public
buildings in Hellas put together, not excepting the
temples of Ephesus and Samos, and it even surpassed
Consisted the pyramids themselves. This Labyrinth consisted
courts'^in of twclvo courts cncloscd with walls, and having
ran eiSsix ^^^^^ doors oppositc to cach other, six facing the
courts each, north, and the other six facing the south. One wall
ed^soo?""^" surrounded the whole. Three thousand chambers
Sraw were included in these twelve courts ; one suite, of
ground and fifteen liundrcd chambers, being above ground, and
upp^i^ ^'' another of the same number being beneath. Of the
ylSTy former Herodotus can speak from his own know-
?ubto?a"'" l^^g^ ^^^ observation, but of the chambers under
nean chara- ground lio Can Only speak from the information
bei^^ tombs ^yi^i^j^ Yie received, as the Aegyptians in charge
kTnirand "^'oulcl uot permit him to enter them, alleging that
of the sa- they were the sepulchres of the twelve kings, and of
cre^^croco- ^^^^ gacrcd crocodilcs. The upper chambers how-
ever he describes as surpassing all human works that
he had ever seen. The almost infinite number of
winding passages, which led through the different-
courts and corridors, presented a thousand occasions
for wonder; and he passed from spacious halls
through smaller chambers, and from these again to
large magnificent courts, in the utmost amazement
at the infinite variety of the communications. The

1 According to Herodotus, the Dodecarthy, or government of twelve
kings, was established soon after the destruction of Sennacherib. The
period of the government is fixed at 671 — 650, B. c.

UPPER AEGYPT. 425

ceilings and walls were all of stone, and the walls africa.
were richly carved with sculptured figures. Each chap. iv.
court was surrounded by a colonnade of white stone
closely fitting together, and at the extremity of the
Labyrinth was a pyramid, 40 orgyae, or 160 cubits,
in height, which communicated with the interior of
the Labyrinth by a subterranean passage. Large
figures were carved on the exterior of this pyramid.^

The foregoing description is rendered doubly in- Recent dis-
teresting at the present moment, from the circum- thrrJmains
stance of the remains of the Labyrinth having been rfnth b'y Se
recently explored by the Prussian Expedition, sent Prussian
out under the direction oi l)r. Lepsius. It consists, under Dr.
according to Lepsius, of three mighty clumps of General
buildings, surrounding a square 600 feet long, and ^^J^^g^^^j^g
500 feet wide. The fourth side is bounded by the truth of
pyramid, which is 300 feet square, and therefore statemente.^
does not quite come up to the side wings of the great
building. The square included the two ranges of
halls, which were probably separated from each other
by a wall, and thus had their faces turned in oppo-
site directions towards the innumerable chambers of
the Labyrinth, which formed the sides of the quad-
rangle. This square is covered with the remains of
great monolithic pillars of fine red granite, in the
old Aegyptian style with lotus-bud capitals. Frag-
ments of this costly material also lie about, and
show that it had been also used for shrines and
statues. Numerous columns are also to be seen, of
hard white limestone, gleaming like marble, which
had been brought from the Mokattam quarries. Of
the chambers there are literally hu.ndreds, by and
over each other, often very small, by the side of
others larger and greater, supported by pillars, and
with thresholds, niches, and remains of pillars, and
single wall slabs, and connected together by corri-
dors, according to the description of Herodotus,
without any serpentine cave-like windings. We
may however reasonably doubt whether there were

1 ii. 148.

426 UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA, really 3000 chambers, as Herodotus mentions; for
CHAP. IV. the exactness of the statement must entirely rest on
Doubt as to ^li6 fidelity of his guides. He himself was evidently
Avhetherit {n ^ statc of uttcr bewilderment, and only came
ciudJd 3000 away with a vague impression of '' no end " of halls,
aSd"?he-' chambers, colonnades, and corridors. It is also
built VThe ^^^y improbable that the Labyrinth should have
twelve been commenced and completed by the twelve
contained kiugs ; and though it certainly was an Aegyptian
their tombs, f^gi^on for a priucc to prepare a tomb for himself
during his lifetime, yet it is not at all likely that
the Dodecarths should have been deposited there
after Psammitichus had dethroned them. Besides,
the statement of Herodotus to that effect is contrary
to Aegyptian usages, which would scarcely permit
the same building to be used as a palace and a
cemetery, though it is not unlikely that embalmed
The Pyra- crocodilcs wcro deposited in the vaults. Most pro-
biy the° ^ bably the Pjrramid mentioned by Herodotus was
?uTtureVand the placc of scpulturc, and the Labyrinth was the
theLaby- royal palace, and it is thus that Strabo describes
royaipaiace. them ; ^ and the subterranean communication be-
tween the two may have led to our author's con-
Pyramid at founding them with one another. The Pyramid is
known as plainly to be identified with that of Howara, which
SdS''^ stands about 5|- miles to the south of the ruins of
Howara. CrocodilopoKs, and near the point where the gorge
from the Canal of Joseph spreads out into the basin
Discovery of of Fayoum. Its scpulchral chamber has been ex-
Ammenl-° plorcd by Lcpsius, who discovered the name of Am-
theksVking menemes III., the last king in the twelfth dynasty
of the Old" of the Old Monarchy. The shield of this sovereign

Monarchy , y • ,i • f n t i

ofMenes. also occm's everywhere m the rums oi the Ijaby-
rinth, nor has any other name been found by the
Prussian Expedition.^ This discovery removes all
doubt respecting the time and purpose of the erec-

1 Strabo, lib. xvi. pp. 787, 811.

2 The name of Ammenemes also occurs in a quarry of hard white
stone, in the Mokattam mountains. Here there is an inscription, which
records the working of the quarry in the reign of a sovereign of that
name. Vyse's Fi/ramids of Gizeh, vol. iii.

UPPER AEGYPT. 427

tion of the pyramid, and enables ns with tolerable africa.
certainty to assign the foundation of the Labyrinth ^^^^- ^^-
to the same monarch, Ammenemes.^

The Pyramid is about 80 feet from the remains Dimensions
of the Labyrinth, and is composed of bricks of im- struction of
mense size, which appear to be very ancient. When mfd.^^'^'
entire it must have been about 348 feet square.
Strabo says it was 400 feet square, and of equal alti-
tude. Herodotus says it was 40 orgyae, or 240 feet,
high. Its present height, according to Mr. Perring,
is about 106 feet, and its base 300 feet, as already
mentioned. It appears to cover a rock, which rises
to a height of about 40 feet within it. Several stone
walls, intersecting it in regular lines, act as .binders
to the intermediate mass of brickwork, built in be-
tween them ; and the outside was apparently origin-
ally coated with a stone casing.^

Lake Moeris is described by Herodotus as being J^g^^;Jfg°^;
even a more surprising work than the Labyrinth, dotus'sde-

•^ scription.

1 Cf. also Kenrick, Ancient Egypt, vol, ii. Probably the erection of
the Labyrinth was attributed to the twelve kings, from the circumstance
of its including twelve principal courts. Strabo (xvi. p, 787, 811) de-
scribes the Labyrinth as consisting of the same number of palaces as
there were anciently Aegyptian nomes. Herodotus, as we have seen,
mentions that there were twelve courts or palaces ; and the establish-
ment of an oligarchy of twelve, during the temporary suspension of mon-
archy, points to the previous existence of a territorial division into twelve
nomes, which probably corresponded to that of the temples of the twelve
gods of the second class.

The account of Diodorus differs from that of Herodotus. Diodorus
(i. 66) follows Herodotus in stating that the twelve kings wished to
leave behind them a common memorial, and he describes them as build-
ing a square fabric of polished marble, measuring one stadium in length
on every side, and supported round by pillars, forty on each side ; whilst
the roof was composed of a single stone, splendidly carved and painted.
The site of this enormous sepulchre he fixes near the Lake Moeris, and
consequently on or near the same spot as the Labyrinth. The Laby-
ainth however he says, (i. 61,) was built by a king who lived before the
foundation of the pyramids, and who was called Mendes by some, and
Marrus by others. Mr. Kenrick has pointed out that even here there
is some analogy between Diodorus and Herodotus. Mendes, or Marrus,
was made king immediately after the termination of the Aethiopian
invasion under Actisanes, and was followed by an inten-egnum of five
generations ; and in Herodotus the retreat of the Aethiopians was fol-
lowed by an interregnum of the priest Sethos, and then by the builders
of the Labyrinth. Mendes was also of the same peaceful character as
Sethos.

2 Wilkinson, Modern Egypt and Thebes, vol. ii. Vyse and Perring,
Pyramids of Gizeh, etc., vol. iii.

428 UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA. It was situated near the Labyrinth, and near the
CHAP. IV. city of Crocodiles. It was 60 schoeni, or 3600 sta-
dia, in circumference, an extent equal to the sea-
coast of Aegypt. It stretched lengthways from
north to south, and was fifty orgyae, or 300 feet,
deep in the deepest part. That it was all artificial
was proved by the circumstance, that two pyramids
stood in the middle of the lake, each rising fifty
orgyae, or 300 feet, above the surface of the water,
and extending just as deep down, under the water.
Upon each pyramid was a stone statue, sitting on a
throne.^ The water did not spring from the ex-
cessively dry country in the neighbourhood, but
was conducted from the river Nile by a canal ; and
for six months it flowed from the Nile into the lake,
and for the other six months out of the lake again
into the river. Whilst the water was flowing out,
the fish from the lake yielded a silver talent every
day to the royal treasury;^ whilst however the
water flowed in the fish only produced twenty
minas per diem.^ The natives assured Herodotus
that the lake discharged itself through a subterra-
nean passage, running westward into the Libyan
Syrtis ; and that the excavated soil was thrown into
the Nile, and soon dispersed by the river.*
Attempt to In endeavouring to find Lake Moeris on the
of^Lake^'**^ modcm map, the reader must bear in mind the
the mod°ern P^ysical fcaturcs of Fayouui — an oval basin, 40 miles
map. by 30, sloping in three distinct terraces, from east to

west, and terminating in a rapid decline at the low
salt lake of Ke'iroun. A branch from the Canal of

^ Thus the pyramids were one hundred orgyae in height, which were
equal to a stadium of six plethra ; the orgyae measuring six feet, or four
cubits ; the cubit being six palms, and the foot four palms. Herod,
ii. 149.

^ Lake Keiroun is now farmed for 30 purses (£210) annually. Of
every 90 j)iastres derived from the sale of fish, 10 are paid for the boat,
40 to the fisherman, and 40 to the farmers of the fish. In 1837 there
were only six boats in the lake.

3 ii. 149.

* ii. 1.50. From the saltness of the waters, and the sandy nature of
the surrounding soil, Strabo also conjectured that this lake had once
been connected with the Mediterranean. No such communication, or
outlet, however is at present known.

UPPER AEGYPT. 429

Joseph enters a gorge at the eastern extremity, and africa.
spreads in various small channels over the district ; chap. iv.
and the remains of the city of Crocodiles, and those
of the Labyrinth, are both situated near the entrance
of the basin. ^ Lake Moeris has been generally
identified with Lake Keiroun. Pliny however says Generally
that the Lake Moeris was between the nome ofwithLaL
Arsinoe and that of Memphis f and Lake Keiroun is ^^''^^^'i-
not situated between the two districts, but at the
western extremity of the nome of Arsinoe. Pom-
ponius Mela also says that the site of Lake Moeris
was formerly a champaign country ; ^ but this is an
aspect which Lake Keiroun could never have pre-
sented. In the present day it is on a level with the Present as-
sea ; its water, as well as its soil, must always have E-oun.
been impregnated with various salts ; and it must
always have been either covered with water or else
have been a salt marsh. Accordingly, it has been
supposed that the Lake Keiroun anciently extended
from the mountains, which now bound it on the north-
west, to the line which terminates the second terrace
of Fayoum.^ To this hypothesis the following Reasons
objections have been raised. Between the line forward by
which terminates the second terrace and the east- fordX"*
ern borders of the lake there are some ruins ; and Jj^^J^^^j^j^,
along the chain of mountains north-west of the lake cation of
are some excavated sepulchres, in which mummies xeViwr.^
have been discovered. Consequently it is difficult to
grant that the waters of the lake ever reached either
points.^ Herodotus also says that for six months

1 See also page 423.

2 Pliny, V. 9. It must be remarked that Pliny uses the word "fuit,"
and is therefore speaking of the Lake Moeris at a time when it had
ceased to be.

3 Pomp. Mela, De situ Orbis, lib. i. c. 9.

* The line here alluded to is not the line which separates the second
from the first, or highest terrace, but the one which separates the second
from the third, or lowest terrace. It is the north-western extremity only
of this third platform which is at present occupied by Lake Keiroun.

^ Some slight layers of mud however are still to be seen in various
places along the north-western borders, and also some shells ; but if
those places had been under water during all the period of the existence
of Lake Moeris, the mud would entirely have covered them, and
the mark of the level of the water and some remains of shells would

430 UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA, the Lake Moeris flowed into the Nile ; ^ and that for
CHAP. IT. the other six months the Nile flowed into the lake,
and the statement that Lake Moeris was intended as
a receptacle for the surplus waters of the inundation
is confirmed by Diodorus ^ and Strabo.^ But Lake
Keiroun is 15 or 16 feet deep; and the surface of
the second terrace is 65 feet above the surface of the
lake, and yet 6 or 7 feet lower than the bottom of
the channel which communicates betwen Fayoum
and the Canal of Joseph, and which is cut through
the rock. Thus all the mass of water below the
level of the bottom of the channel leading to the
Canal of Joseph would have been useless for irrigat-
ing purposes ; and if it ever rose to that level it
must have covered the whole of the second terrace,
and thus have converted nearly all Fayoum into an
immense lake, a state which is totally irreconcile-
able with the existence of the numerous towns whose
ruins still remain. The second terrace, in short,
presents no symptom, either in its soil or in its super-
ficial configuration, of having been ever covered with
water. On the other hand, the first or highest
terrace has evidently been formed by the deposition
of sediment on a portion of the second terrace.
Linant's Thoroughly dissatisfied with the identification of

a dy'ke end- Lake Mocris with Lake Keiroun, and convinced that
coldterrtce Lake Mocris ought to be looked for in the highest
of Fayoum. p^rt of Fayoum, M. Linant at length discovered a
dyke composed of flint, gravel, and in some 'places
of masonry, and extending round the whole of the
limits of the first terrace.'^ Numerous gaps were of

also have been seen at the same height. But these phenomena do not
exist, and the ground is either stony or sandy. The small quantities of
mud which are to he seen may be attributed to the deposits left from
great inundations, or to the rupture of dykes in the Fayoum, when the
water would flow in vast quantities towards the Lake Keiroun. Linant.

^ i. e. the Canal of Joseph, which communicates immediately with the
Nile, through a branch called Tourat el Magnoun, a Httle to the north
of the spot where the other branch flows by lUahoun into the basin of
Fayoum.

2 Diod. Sic. lib. 1. ' Strabo, lib. xvii. p. 811.

* The circumstances connected with the discovery of the dyke are
very interesting, and convey to the reader of the Memoire a pleasing
impression of its author. M. Linant was resting himself in the ravine

UPPER AEGYPT. .431

course found at intervalSj where portions of the dyke Africa.
had been probably washed away by the breaking ^hap. iy.
through of the waters ; but so many traces were to
be seen, that there could be no difficulty in forming
them into a continuous line. The breadth of the
dvke could not be measured with accuracy on ac-
count of its very easy slope towards the interior, but
M. Linant estimated it to be about 200 feet.^ Its
height was about 7 feet above the ground which it
enclosed, but about 27 feet above the ground without.
The surface soil within the dyke was probably at so
much a higher level than that of the soil without it
in consequence of the deposition of the mud in the
interior, where the dyke served to confine the water.
On the southern side, at a spot called Shiek Ahmed,
the line of level of the waters may be seen on the
edge of the desert at a height which they never
attain in the present day. According to the tradi- identifica-
tions of the country this dyke is said to be the work endowed sL
of the Pharaohs, and M. Linant is of opinion, that 1^^%^^^^'
the whole extent of country enclosed by the line, ns-
along which he is enabled to find traces of the dyke,
is the site of Lake Moeris, enclosing an area of 156
square miles.^

of the Bahr-bela-Ma, a canal which runs almost directly north and
south. On the top of the deep and sloping bank opposite to him, and
above the ordinary layers of stone and clay, he saw the transverse sec-
tion of a mound, chiefly composed of gravel and flint, which must, of
course, be running from east to west. On the other side of the ravine,
namely, on that which he was sitting, he saw a similar section, which
exactly corresponded with the other. M. Linant immediately climbed
the slope of the ravine, and saw distinctly that the mound was an im-
mense artificial dyke sloping down more to the north than to the south,
and continuing in a very straight line from east to west. At a long dis-
tance off" he found that it changed its course and turned towards the
south, and subsequently enclosed the area which we shall presently
describe.

1 M. Linant, of course, gives the results of his measurements in
metres, each of which is about 3^^^ of a foot. I have generally con-
verted these into English measures, and in round numbers.

2 M. Linant traced the boundaries of this area, which the reader may
easily identify on the modern map. The results of this survey are as
follows : — The dyke at its eastern extremity begins at the dry bed of an
ancient, and now abandoned, canal, called the Canal of Warden, and
from thence runs in a tolerably straight line over the ravine of the Bahr
bela-ma, as far as El-EUam. Here it disappears, but is again to be seen
in the neighbourhood of Biarao, towards the north-west, where it encloses

432

UPPER AEGYPT,

AFRICA.

CHAP. IV.

Further
explanation
ofLinant's
identifica-
tion.

His identi-
fication of
the two py-
ramids de-
scribed by
Herodotus.

It is scarcely necessary to add, that the area thus
pointed out falls very far short of the enormous
dimensions of 3600 stadia in circumference, assigned
to the lake by Herodotus. But little reliance how-
ever is to be placed on our author's measurement ;
though, in the present case, it is certainly remarkable
that he should give his statement additional em-
phasis by saying that the circumference was equal
to the sea-coast of Aegypt. This enormous exag-
geration may have arisen from his having been
unable to see the northern boundary of the lake, and
consequently supposing it to be coextensive with the
Libyan hills, whose eastern face he had seen in his
journey from Memphis. In other respects the
recently discovered site satisfies every condition, and
particularly the object of utility. Thus the fertility
of Fayoum, and especially of its highest terrace, is
now explained. Its soil is the fine sediment de-
posited by Lake Moeris. When, in consequence of
neglect and dilapidations, the dykes gave way and
the waters were drained off, the Aegyptians naturally
gave to the rich and newly acquired land, the ap-
pellation of Phiom, or "the sea."

The two pyramids mentioned by Herodotus are
identified by M. Linant with the two structures of
hewn stone, which had been previously mistaken for
pedestals of statues, and which stand at the north-

the two stone stmctures which have been taken for the pedestals of
statues. Thence going towards the south-west, between the village of
Zawiet and the ruins of Crocodilopolis, are to be seen the remains of
some portions of the dyke extending towards the ruins. South-east of
Medinet it appears again, and M. Linant supposes that it must have
passed by Ebgig, and thence to Attamne. After that he found it con-
structed of good masonry, near Miniet el Heit, where it crosses the Bahr
Neslet, and so on to Chidimo ; thence to Lake Garac, where it termin-
ates in the desert. In this latter part it was not of masonry. "Let a
line," says M. Linant, "be now drawn, starting from the beginning of
the dyke, and continuing, as I have just pointed out, as far as the Lake
of Garac, thence returning northwards by Shiek Ahmed, and then pass-
ing by Calamcha, Deir, turning to Dimishquine upon the right, follow-
ing the dyke of Pillawan, and passing on to Arrarat Equilan ; thence
proceeding to the bridge of Illahoun, going north-westward by the dyke of
Guedalla, returning to the west by Arrarat el Macta, and from that point
regaining, by Demo, its point of departure at Selle. " The whole extent
of country enclosed by this line," adds M. Linant, "is, in my opinion,
the site of Lake Moeris."

UPPER AEGYPT. 433

west corner of the supposite site. These two masses africa.
are each surrounded by a square enclosure, con- ^"^p- ^'^-
structed of large square stones, and in some places
three layers of these stones may be seen ; the others
have probably been removed for other buildings.
They are called in the country Pharaoh's chairs, and
were supposed to be pedestals of statues; and this
agrees with the statement of Herodotus, that on the
top of each pyramid was placed a stone statue seated
on a throne.

Thus far I have endeavoured to explain the views General re-

. -, . ^ , . . marks upon

of M. Linant, and give due prommence to his m- Lmant's
teresting discovery. The latter has been generally ""'^^^'^^y-
taken for granted by modern commentators, and
appears to be approved by Lepsius. If however
we are to accept it, we must believe that Herodotus,
Diodorus, and Strabo have passed over one of the
most remarkable objects in Aegypt, namely, Lake
Keiroun. Mr. Kenrick seems to consider that the
embankment traced by Linant was that of an arti-
ficial reservoir in the centre of Fayoum, which re-
tained the water of the inundation, to be dispersed
when it was needed over the adjacent country.
It is presumptuous for one who has never visited the
Fayoum, to offer any suggestion after Linant ; but
I do not think, judging from the Memoire, that the
embankment from Biamo to Shiek Ahmed has been
satisfactorily traced, nor do I think that it has been
sufficiently proved that Lake Moeris, which Herodo-
tus says was 50 orgyae, or 300 feet, deep in its deep-
est part, did not include Lake Keiroun, and extend to
the eastern embankment, near Crocodilopolis and
the Labyrinth. The discovery however of the
northern and southern dykes by Linant is most in-
teresting, and may at some future time lead to a
more satisfactory settlement of the disputed site.

The remaining topography of Middle Aegypt is ^'^^j'j™^^^
but little noticed by Herodotus. The town of Fry- of Middle
threbolus is mentioned, where King Pheron burnt Erfthrebo-
all the unfaithful wives ; ' the city of Crocodiles, near J|"jopo^-"°^°'

ii. 111.

2 F

434

UPPER AEGYPT.

AFRICA.

CHAP. IV.

Hermeopo-
lis.

Docks in
the Arabian
Giilf.

Upper Ae-
gypt proper,
not describ-
ed by
Herodotus.

Extreme
paucity
of his topo-
graphical
notions.

His account
of Thebes
and temple
of Zeus, or
Ammon.

the Labyrinth ;' and Hermeopolis, where the ibis
was buried.^ The docks on the Arabian Gulf, where
King Neco built his triremes, were also still to be
seen in the time of our author.'^

Upper Aegypt, properly so called, is scarcely
noticed by Herodotus at all, and we have no allu-
sion to the magnificent temples at Luxor and Kar-
nac, nor indeed any description whatever of those
marvellous structures, whose ruins are still existing
on the great plain of Thebes. That he resided some
time at Thebes, and entered the magnificent temple
of Zeus, or Ammon, is certain ;* we may also take it
for granted that he examined the Memnonium, for
he tells us, in a decided manner, that those persons
who supposed that the sculpture in Ionia was the
image of Memnon were greatly mistaken/ It is
difficult to say whether his silence arose from the
loss of any portion of his writings, or from his hav-
ing been unable to acquire such historical informa-
tion as could be illustrated by descriptions of what
he saw.*' We shall merely follow in his steps, and
present the reader with his plain narrative without
further embellishment ; for a general description of
the temples of Thebes would stretch to a great
length, without illustrating the pages of our author.

Thebes contained a splendid temple of Zeus, who
was also called Ammon; and here a woman con-
stantly resided, and, like the female in the Babylo-
nian temple of Belus, had no intercourse with mortal
man.' Every high priest in succession left a wooden
colossal statue of himself within this sanctuary ; and
Herodotus, on his visit to the city, was shown three
hundred and forty-five of these statues, each of
which represented a generation, and was called a
Piromis, which signifies in the Greek language " a
noble and good man."^

' ii. 148. '' ii. 67. ^ ii. 159. ^ ii. 143.

^ ii. lOG. Compare also p. 234. *■' Compare p. 415.

^ i. 182.

^ ii. 143. The name piromi probably refeiTecl to the nobility of the
sacerdotal descent. The Cojjtic word romi signifies a man ; Pi is only the
article prefixed. Cf. Jablonslu, Prolcfj. ad ranth. Aeyypt, § 18.

UPPER AEGYPT. 435

Chemmis was a large city in the Theban nome, afrioa.
not far from Neapolis. It contained a sacred en- "^'"^p- ^v.
closure, (ieron or temenus,) in the shape of a quad- chemmis.
ranffle, which was dedicated to Perseus. The pro- Temples of
pylaea were built oi stone, and very spacious, and
before them were placed two large stone statues. The
naos within the sacred enclosure was surrounded by
palm trees, and contained a statue of Perseus. The
Chemmitans declared that Perseus often appeared
both within and without the temple, and that they
sometimes found his sandal, which was two cubits
long; and they added, that whenever this latter cir-
cumstance took place it was followed by general
prosperity throughout Aegypt.^ Elephantine is also Eiephan-
mentioned, where, in the reign of Psammitichus,
and again in the time of the Persian rule, it was
garrisoned against the Aethiopians.^ Between this
city and Syene were the two pointed mountains,
Crophi and Mophi, from whence the Nile was said crophi and
to have originated.^ °^ ^'

The southern boundary line of Aegypt cannot be Southern
drawn satisfactorily. It would appear that Ele- of Teg^ypt.
phantine was the most southerly town, but that the
Aegyptians also inhabited the half of the island of
Taciiompso, the other half being occupied by the
Aethiopians.* We shall however return to this
subject when treating of Aethiopia, and consider
Elephantine as the actual frontier, which was doubt-
less formed by the cataracts ; and, having thus con-
cluded the topography of Aegypt, we proceed to
develope our author's account of the mythology and
manners of the Aegyptian people.

^ ii. 91. For an account of the Chemmitan worship of Perseus, see
chap. V.
2 ii. 30. ^ ii. 28. See also p. 361. ' ii. 17, 29.

2 F 2

CHAPTER V.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA. Aegyptian mythology ; its effect upon Herodotus. — His initiation in
CHAP. V. the mysteries.— His religious reserve. — Traces the deities of Greece to an

Aegyptian origin. — Effect produced on the modern student. — Religious

conceptions of the Aegyptians themselves, dependent upon the spiritual
and mental state of the worshipper. — Modern ideas of Aegyptian deities
dependent upon the student's own state of religious culture. — Identifica-
tion of Aegyptian conceptions with revealed truths, contradicted by the
idolatry and conduct of the people. — Valuable character of Herodotus's
information, both as an introduction to the study of Aegyptian antiqui-
ties, and a proof that no religion framed by human invention can render
man pure and holy. — Herodotus's account. — Aegyptians the most pious
of mankind, and the first who instituted the forms and ceremonies of
religious worship. — Astrology. — Prodigies. — Omens. — Divination.— Ora-
cles held in the highest veneration. — Aegyptian deities, divided by He-
rodotus into three classes. — 1st, The eight gi-eat gods. — 2nd, The twelve
gods. — 3rd, The gods sprung from the twelve. — No heroes worshipped.
— Chronology of the gods. — Explanation of the triple division. — Primeval
behef in one great God. — 1st Class of gods — deified attributes. — 2nd
Class — lower emanations. — 3rd Class — physical objects, abstract ideas,
etc. — Identification of the eight primary gods with Aegyptian deities. —
The four great deified attributes : the spirit, the intellect, the creative
power, and the generative principle. — Aegyptian representation of Kneph
the divine spirit, and Amun the divine intellect. — Identification of both
Kneph and Amun with the Zeus of Herodotus. — Zeus worshipped in
the nome of Thebes. — No sheep sacrificed. — Mythic story of Zeus and
Heracles. — Horned serpents sacred. — Temple and oracle of Zeus. — Sa-
cred women. — Aegyptian representation of Pthah, the creative power. —
Identified with Hephaestus, and especially worshipped at Memphis. —
Aeg}fptian representation of Khem, the generative principle. — Identified
with Pan, and especially worshipped at Mendes. — No goats sacrificed. —
Herodotus's statements doubted. — Four primary Aegyptian goddesses. —
Sate, or Hera, not mentioned. — Maut, or Buto, identified with Leto. —
Pasht, or Bubastis, identified with Artemis. — The festival at Bubastis. —
Shameless conduct of the people during the pilgrimage. — Immense con-
sumption of wine. — Neith identified with Athene. — The festival of burn-
ing lamps at Sais. — Confusion between second and third class deities,
and consequent necessity for an independent and arbitrary division. —
I. Miscellaneous divinities mentioned by Herodotus. — Hehos, or the
Sun. — Identified with the Aegyptian Re, or Ra. — Heracles cannot be
identified.— His oracle and temple. — Greek story of the attempt to sacri-
fice him to Zeus, and his slaying the whole crowd of worshippers. — Dis-
believed by Herodotus, because the Aegyptians would not offer human
sacrifices, and Heracles the hero could not single-handed have slain

AEGYPTTAN MYTHOLOGY. 437

thousands. — Hermes, perhaps a mummy-formed god.— Subsequently AFRICA,
identified with Thoth.— Ares, perhaps a form of Typhon, or the evil (,jj^p ^,
principle. — His oracle. — Festival at Papremis. — Mock-fight between the '
priests and votaries. — Popular legend to account for its origin. — Perseus
and Proteus. — Temple of Perseus at Chemmis. — His enormous sandal. —
Gymnastic games celebrated at Chemmis in his honour. — His legendary
history according to the Chemmitans.— Temenus at Memphis sacred to
Proteus.— Aphrodite identified with Athor. — Represented with cow's
horns, and confounded by Herodotus with Isis.— Wooden cow at Sais
probably connected with her worship and -that of Osiris.— The foreign
Aphrodite, or Helen the stranger. — ^Hera, Hestia, and Themis also to be
identified with Aegyptian deities, though not known as such to Herodo-
tus.— II. Osiris, Isis, Horus, and the calf Apis. — Dualistic character of
Osiris as mortal King of Aegypt and Divine Ruler of Hades. — Herodo-
tus's hesitation and reserve in alluding to Osiris.— General division of
the subject. — Mythic history of the earthly adventures of Osiris. — Rhea
delivered of five children in the five intercalary days obtained by Hermes,
viz. Osiris and the elder Horus, begotten by the Sun ; Typhon, by Cro-
nos ; Isis, by Hermes ; Nephthys, by Cronos. — Typhon marries Neph-
thys.— Osiris marries Isis, and begets the younger Horus. — Osiris king
of Aegypt. — Instructs his subjects and mankind generally in the arts of
civilization. — Typhon, the evil principle, conspires against him, encloses
him in a chest, and casts it into the Nile. — Isis hears of the disaster,
and discovers Anubi^, the son of Osiris by her sister Nephthys.— Obtains
the chest which had been stranded at Byblos ; Typhon subsequently re-
covers it, tears the body into fourteen pieces, and scatters them about
Aegypt. — Isis in a boat of papyrus regains all the pieces excepting one,
and consecrates the phallus as a memorial of her loss. — Osiris retui-ns
from Hades, and assists in the final overthrow of Typhon. — Traces in
the myth of a reference to astronomy. — Physical interpretation of the
myth as given by Plutarch.— Herodotus's account of Osiiis, Isis, and
Horus. — Osiris, or Dionysus, and. Isis, or Demeter, the two national dei-
ties of Aegypt. — Isis represented like lo, and perhaps regarded as the
moon. — Horus the son, and Bubastis the daughter, of Osiris and Isis,
concealed by Leto in the floating island of Chemmis from Typhon. — ■
Osiris, his tomb at Sais. — Annual representation of his allegorical adven-
tures on the circular lake. — Isis the greatest Aegyptian goddess. — Re-
presented like the Greek lo. — Her temple and festival at Busiris. — Bul-
locks sacrificed to her, whilst the votaries beat themselves and lament
for Osn-is. — Cows sacred to her. — Osiris and Isis considered by the
Aegyptians to be the rulers of Hades. ^ — ^ Immortality of the soul pro-
pounded in the dogma of metempsychosis. — Cycle of 3000 years. — Illus-
tration of the Aegyptian ideas of Hades in the story of Rhampsinitus. — •
"Worship of Osiris and Isis universal. — Its peculiarities. — Swine, though
considered an impure animal, sacrificed at the full moon to both deities.
— At the festival of Isis the tail, spleen, and caul of the pig burnt, but the
rest eaten : pigs of baked dough offered by the poor. — At the festival of
Osu'is a pig slain at every door, and Dionysiac orgies celebrated. — Hero-
dotus's account of Apis. — Begotten on a cow by a flash of lightning. —
Known by his black hair, white square mark on his forehead, eagle on
his back, beetle on his tongue, and double hairs in his tail. — Public re-
joicings on his appearance. — Court for Apis built at Memphis by Psam-
mitichus. — Sacrilegious conduct of Cambyses. — Further notices of Apis
from Pliny, Strabo, and Diodorus. — Aegyptian conceptions of Osiris. —
Represented in the monuments as Judge of the Dead and Ruler of
Amenti, or Hades. — Actions of deceased persons recorded by Thoth, and
weighed by Anubis in the scales of Truth. — If found wanting, the soul
sent back to earth in the form of an animal : if justified by its works,

438

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

Aegyptian
mythology :
its effect
upon
Herodotus.

His initia-
tion in the
mysteries.

His reli-
gious re-

Traces the
deities of
Greece to
an Aegyp-
tian origin.

Effect pro-
duced on
the modern
student.

the soul introduced Ly Horus into the presence of Osiris. — Osiris to be
regarded as the " di^^ne goodness." — Manner of his manifestation on
earth involved in mystery. — Speculative and allegorical character of the
theory.' — Sjonbolical figm'e of Osiris. — Isis variously represented on the
monuments, and often confounded with Athor and other deities. — Aegyp-
tian ideas of Apis. — Conclusion.

The Aegyptian people made a more powerful im-
]3ression upon Herodotus than any other nation with
which he Avas acquainted. Their peculiar civiliza-
tion and extraordinary monuments would alone
have attracted his attention. But when, by vigorous
research, he began to learn the remoteness of their
origin, and to penetrate the depths of their mys-
terious theology, his ovni religious fervour gave
fresh keenness to his pursuit, and he persevered in
his anxious inquiries until he himself had been in-
itiated into their inner mysteries. Henceforth his
tongue was chained, and the pious reserve with
which he names a divinity, or alludes to a sacred
legend, strangely contrasts with the general open-
heartedness of his history, and the familiar tone of
the ancient epic. Nor can we be sm-prised at the
effect so produced upon a thoughtful and earnest
observer. The antiquity of the gods of Aegypt
made those of Greece seem to him but as of yester-
day; and he discovered with trembling awe that
the deities, to whom he had prayed from childhood,
were many of them living upon earth when Aegypt
was ruled by mortal kings, and more than a hundred
centuries after those primeval Aegyptian divinities,
from whom their attributes and individualities had
been chiefly borrowed.^

The modern student turns to Aegypt with the
same ardour, and but too often arrives at a similar
result. He can learn the ceremonies of her religion

^ This was undoubtedly our author's first impression. Subsequently,
after considerable research, he an-ived at the conclusion that the Greeks
traced the origin of some of their gods only to the time when they first
learnt their names, (ii. 146,) and that men were even sometimes named
after the gods, and confounded with them. Therefore those Greeks
apj)eared to him to have acted most correctly, who built two kinds of
temples to Heracles, and sacrificed to the Olympian Heracles as an im-
mortal deity, and paid honour to the other Heracles, the son of Am-
phitryon and Alcmenc. as a hero (ii. 43, 44).

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 439

from her pictured walls and sculptured monuments, africa.
He may know tlie names of the deities that were t"^i'- ^^■■
invoked, the sacrifices that were offered, and almost ^~[J~^
the prayers that were addressed ; but he finds it ^"'^^^i^^^"'^"
utterly impossible to arrive at the conceptions which Aegyptians
were expressed in the splendid ritual. The religious dependent'
conceptions of the Greeks and Romans receive a ^^^P^.^^^
certain reality and fixedness from the historical and mental
character of their mythology ; but the ideas attach- worshipper.
ed to those intellectual abstractions which have been
symbolized by Aegyptian art must have depended
upon the worshipper's spiritual development, or
mental culture. The ideas of the modern student Modem
must likewise be affected by similar influences. Aegyptian
His conceptions of Aegyptian deities will take a J^jJ^\g'j^f '
colouring fi^om his own mind, and be brought more upon the
or less into harmony with that revealed religion ownltateof
which is our faith and anchor. From the presumed ^Sr
existence in primeval times of a pure and universal
belief in one great Father Almighty, and from the
known connexion between Aegypt and the chosen
people of God, he expects to find in that primeval
theology in which Moses himself was initiated,' a
body of profound truths, and scriptural dogmas.
He interprets for himself the intellectual abstractions
of the Aegyptians into ideas which are conformable
to his own intellectual and religious culture, and is
but too often disposed to ascribe revelation itself to
a mere human and Ae2:yptian orierin. But if he Mentifica-

1 • 1 j_ J.1 tionof

turns from his own speculations to contemplate the Aegyptian
actual state of the people, he may find that no ideas wTtTreveai-
corresponding to the teachings of our church and poiuradict-
religion, could possibly have existed amongst the edbythe
masses; that under no system of pantheism can the conduc'tof
truths of a divine revelation be preserved, or man *® people.
be saved from idolatry and corruption; and that
however elevated and refined, and even half scrip-
tural, may have been those esoteric doctrines which
were- retained by the priestly orders and more

' " And Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Aegyptians."
Acts vii. 22.

440 aegyptian mythology.

AFRICA, learned classes of the community, yet the natural
^"•^^" ^'- depravity of the human heart led the initiated to
practise a vain hypocrisy, and the great body of the
people to indulge in the grossest superstition and
Valuable vilcst materialism. Here the evidence of Herodotus
Herodotus's IS cspccially valuable. Profoundly impressed by
tiou™'^ the mythology of Aegypt, and deeply affected by
the mythic sufferings of her mysterious deities, yet
he hesitates not to tell us of the shameless conduct
of the people at their religious festivals, and the
utter disregard for truth evinced by the priests them-
selves. Such a relation is profitable for all time ;
and if, in our development and explanation of our
author's statements concerning the Aegyptian nation,
we are carried beyond our usual limits, we must
plead the greater importance of this branch of our
subject, and the vast advantage of obtaining through
the medium of the great father of history a fixed
and positive view of the religion and civilization of
both as an tlic peoj)le. Tlius may we hope to do full justice to
tk)n°to'the the Aegypt of Herodotus ; earnestly endeavouring
Aegjpti^^n by his assistance to present a key, which will un-
antiquities lock tlio portals of Aogyptiau learning, and an anti-
that'noreii- doto, wliich wlll corroct any false notion that the
by human '^ unaidcd powor of man can ever enable him to attain
invention {[-^^^ rco^eneration of the heart, and reconciliation of

man pure tllC SOul tO God, wllicll tllO gOSpol of Clirist SO

° ^ ■ peremptorily and emphatically requires.
Herodotus's Jn arranging and illustrating; om* author's state-
mcnts and remarks in a continuous and digested
form, we have thought proper to observe the follow-
ing order. We shall develope, first, his conviction
of the peculiarly religious character of the people ;
secondly, his division of the Aegyptian gods into
classes, and accounts of the worship of each indi-
vidual deity ; and, thirdly, in the succeeding chapter
we shall enter upon his description of the civil and
religious institutions, and manners and customs of
the people at large.
Aegyptians Tlio Acgyptiaus, accordiug to Herodotus, were
pious of of all men the most excessively attentive to the

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 441

worship of tlie gods.^ They were the first who africa.
assigned altars, images, and temples to the several chap. v.
deities,^ and who introduced public festivals, pro- ^^^^^^^"^
cessions, and solemn introductions ; ^ they were also and the first
the first who made it a point of religion that men tuted the
should abstain from female intercourse in the sacred cer^mo'l^es
precincts, and should perform an ablution before they ^^^^.^l^f"^^
entered a temple/ They also claimed the merit of Astrology.
having invented the science of astrology, which was
subsequently borrowed by the Greeks. Each month
and day was by them consecrated to a particular
deity; and, according to the day upon which a
person was born, they foretold his future fortunes,
the life he would lead, the character he would ex-
hibit, and the death he would die. More prodigies Prodigies.
were also discovered by this people than by all the
rest of mankind. Whenever one occurred, they
carefully observed and noted down the result, and
if the prodigy was ever repeated, they predicted a
similar issue." Omens were frequently drawn from omens.
common accidents as tokens of good and bad luck.
Thus the deep sigh of the engineer, who superin-
tended the transport of a monolithic shrine from
Elephantine to Sais, was sufficient to prevent its
introduction into the sacred precinct intended for its
reception ; and Amasis, though a man of strong
mind and singularly free from the prejudices of his
countrymen, was induced to give way to this super-
stitious fancy.*' The power of divination was attri- Divination.
buted to no human beings but only to some of the
gods.^ Oracles were of very remote date in Aegypt, in tL^high-

^ ii. 37. ' ii. 4.

^ ii. 58. The Trpocraywyai, or hitroductiG^is, are frequently represented
on the monuments, and refer to the introduction of a worshipper into
the Sekos, or holy recess of the god.

* ii. 64. Herodotus tells us in the same chapter that almost all other
nations, excepting the Aegyptians and Greeks, had intercourse in sacred
places, and entered the temples without any previous ablutions. This
they did because they thought mankind were like other animals ; and as
they saw animals and birds coupling in the shrines and temples, they
considered that it was not displeasing to the gods, who otherwise would
not have permitted it. " But they who argue thus," he says, " act in a
manner that I cannot approve."

5 ii. 82. ^ ii. 175. ^ ii. 83.

442

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. V.

est vener-
ation.

Aegyptian
deities di-
Tided by
Herodotus
into three
classes.
1st, The
eight great
gods.
2ud, The
twelve
gods.
3rd, The
gods spning
from the
twelve.
No heroes
■worshipped.
Chronology
of the ffods.

and the ancient oracle at Dodona in Epirus was al-
lowed, even by the iDriestesses themselves, to be of
Aegyptian origin.^ The principal oracles in Aegypt
were those of Heracles, Apollo, Athene, Artemis,
Ares, and the Theban Zeus, and above all that of Leto,
in the city of Buto. The mode of divining differed in
all of them.^ These oracles were consulted on all
occasions of importance ; and sometimes messages
were sent spontaneously to those whom an oracle
desired to advise. Mycerinus was assured of his
approaching death because he had acted contrary to
the divine will ; ^ Sabaco retired from the kingdom,
because of a prediction ;* Psammitichus was banished
from the dodecarthy on account of an oracular
prophecy ; ^ and Neco was warned not to continue
the canal fr-om the Nile to the Arabian Gulf, lest he
should expose his country to foreign invasion.^
Oracles were also consulted, like the magicians of
the present day, in cases of theft ; and we are told
that Amasis bestowed presents on those which he
found from his own experience to be capable of
delivering true responses, but that he utterly disre-
garded those which had given incorrect replies/

The gods of the Aegyptians were divided, according
to our author, into three classes, though he does not
mention all their several names. The first class con-
sisted of the eight original gods, and included Pan ^
and Leto.^ The second class consisted of twelve gods,
and included Heracles. ^'^ The third class was com-
posed of gods, who had sprung from the second class
deities, and included Dionysus.'^ No religious hon-
ours were paid to heroes.'^ The ages of these classes
of deities were as follows. From the time of Hera-
cles, who belonged to the second class, down to the
reign of Amasis was a period of 17,000 years ;'^ and
from the time of Dionysus, who belonged to the third
class, to the reign of Amasis was a period of 15,000

ii. .5.3—57.

See rilso page 89.

2 ii. 83, 152. « ii. 133.

ii. i;w.

' ii. 147, 151.

« ii. 15S. ■> ii. 174.

li. 4f;, 14.5.

■' ii. 15G.

1" ii. 4.3, 14.5.

ii. 14.5.

'^- ii. .50.

'•'' ii. 43.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 443

years ; and the Aegyptians declared that they knew africa.
these dates accurately because the years had always chap. v.
been computed and registered.^

This division of the Aegyptian deities into three Expiana-
classes, can be easily understood, and need not be Jr-pie divf-
doubted, though it does not correspond with Ma- ^ion.
netho's division into gods, demigods, and manes, nor
do the monuments furnish any traces of such a classi-
fication. In the early ages of mankind, the existence
of a sole and omnipotent Deity, who created all
things, seems, as v/e have already mentioned, to have
been the universal belief, and was undoubtedly the
belief of the Aeoi-yptians. Whether they really Primeval

, 1 1 ^"^ ^ f. , . . -, J, -.''. . "^ belief in one

represented under any lorm their idea oi tnis unity great God.
of the Deity, is still a doubtful question.^ Probably
his name was regarded by the Aegyptians, as it was
by the Jews, with such deep awe and reverence, as
never to be uttered ; and the Being of Beings, " who
is, and was, and will be," was perhaps never even
referred to in the sculptures, nor supposed to be ap-
proachable, unless under the name and form of some
deified attribute, indicative of his power and con-
nexion with mankind. Accordingly the first class istciassof
of divinities, who were considered to be the great led^attri-
gods of the Aegyptian Pantheon, were in reality ^'^*®®'
deified attributes indicative of the intellect, power,
goodness, might, and other qualities of the eternal
Being. The second class consisted of lower eman- 2nd ciass—
ations from the same source ; and the third were the nations.
representatives of inferior powers, of physical objects physSafob-
connected with the Creator, and of difierent abstract ^^'^''Ji'gas
ideas, whose relative rank depended on the near or etc.
distant connexion they were deemed to possess with
the Divine origin.^

1 ii. 145.

^ Greek writers have imagined that the snake curled into the form of
a circle, with its tail in its mouth, and other similar emblems, were used
by the Aegyptians to indicate the unutterable name of the eternal Ruler
of the universe. But these are merely symbols of his deified attributes,
if indeed the snake, in that form, can be admitted among the number ;
and neither the snake, the hawk, nor any other emblem, can be con-
sidered in any way connected with the unity of the Deity. Wilkinson,
vol. i.. Second Series.

^ Wilkinson, ibid.

444

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. v..

Identifica-
tion of the
eight pri-
mary gods
Avith Ae-
gyptian
deities.

The First Class comprised, as we have seen, the
eight original gods, and j)robably included four male
and four female deities ; for we generally find that
the Aegyptian gods were arranged in triads com-
prising a god, a goddess, and their son, the third
member of the triad not being of equal rank with
the two from whom it had proceeded.' The eight
original gods are identified by Sir J. Gardner Wil-
kinson with the following.

The four
great dei-
fied attri-
butes :

the Spirit;
the Intel-
lect;

the creatiye
power ;
and the
generative
principle.
Aegyptian
representa-
tion of
Kneph, the
divine Spi-
rit, and

Amun, the
divine In-
tellect.

oi' Zeus.

Male.
Kneph
Amun
Pthah or Hephaestus.
Khem or Pan.

Female.

Sate or Hera.
Maut or Leto.
Bubastis or Artemis.
Neith or Athene.-

The two first deities, Kneph and Amun, were both
alluded to by Herodotus under the name of Zeus.
Kneph was the Zeus of Aethioj^ia and the more
southern part of Upper Aegypt ; ^ Amun was the
Zeus of Thebes.* In Kneph we probably see the
idea of the "Spirit of God which moveth upon the
face of the waters ; " in Amun, the mind or in-
tellect of the Deity. When the Aegyptians began
thus to deify each attribute of the Eternal God,
they found it necessary to form two other divinities
as representations of different exhibitions of the
creative power. These were Pthah, the actual
framer of the universe, and Khem, the being who
promoted generation.

Kneph, "the Spirit," was represented by a man
with a ram's head, sometimes surmounted by an
asp, or a vase, the asp being the type of dominion,
and the vase the hieroglyphic which gave the initial
of his name. Amun, " the Intellect," was repre-
sented by a man with a head-dress, surmounted by
two long feathers. The colour of his body was a

^ It may also be remarked, that the female deity was not always the
consort of the male.

^ The Roman names of these deities, which are perhaps those by
which they are best remembered, are Jupiter, Vulcan, Pan, Juno,
Latona, Diana, and Minerva.

•' ii. 29.

■• ii. 42. In our accoimt of the Aegyptian worship of Zeus, we shall
have occasion to point out the diderence between the Kneph Zeus and
the Amun Zeus.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 445

deep blue, like the Indian Vishnoo, as if to indicate africa.
his peculiarly exalted and heavenly nature ; ^ but the _ ^"^^- ^-
name of Amun has been found beside ram-headed
figures, and indeed it is extremely difficult to pre-
serve an exact line of distinction between the dei-
ties.^ Under the name of Amun-re, he was
regarded as the intellectual sun, as Re was the phy-
sical orb ; and this union of Amun and Ee will
remind the reader of the Zeus Belus of the Baby-
lonians, as both Belus, or Baal, and Re signify the
sun.^ He was considered by Herodotus, and later
Greek writers, to be the same as Zeus, in conse-
quence of his having the title of King of the Gods/

From Herodotus we obtain the following in- J£^''^f botii
formation respecting Zeus, under which name he Knephand
has confounded Kneph, the ram-headed god of ihTzeZ\{

Herodotus.

•1 Comp. Wilkinson, Ancient Egy2itians, vol. i., Second Series, and
Kenrick, Ancient Egypt, vol. i.

2 It must be borne in mind that the Aegyptian religion does not ap-
pear to have been systematically conceived and projected, but to have
been fashioned into a whole by the agglutination of parts, each having
a separate origin. The worship of different gods was established in dif-
ferent nomes, (Herod, ii. 42,) and this division of worship goes as far
back as the origin of the monarchy (Manetho, Dyn. ii. 2). Such an
origin explains the intermixture and confusion of the characters and
functions of the Aegyptian gods ; and we find that each occasionally as-
sumes the attributes of the others, and renders it impossible to draw a
permanent line of demarcation between them. Gods of inferior rank
are also sometimes invested with the highest titles, and the Theban
would consider his Amun, the Memphian his Pthah, and the Saltan his
Neith, to be the chief object of worship, and the great head of the whole
religious system. For a further inquiry into the causes of the confusion
between the Aegyptian deities, see Kenrick, Ancient Egypt, chap. xxi.
sect. i.

3 See pp. 259, 260.

* A singular circumstance is mentioned by Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson,
in connexion with Amun, or Amun-re. In all sculptiu:es prior to about
the year 1420 e. c, the hieroglyphics, or phonetic name of this deit}^,
had been carefully substituted for others, the combinations of which
could never be discovered, having been most carefully erased, and the
name of Amun, or Amun-re, placed in their stead. So systematically
also has this substitution been made, that nothing short cf a general
order to that effect, sent to every part of Aegypt, and executed with the
most scrupulous care, can account for it.

Sir J. G. Wilkinson, in another part of his work, thinks it not un-
likely that the name of Khem, the generative principle, was the one for
which Amun-re was substituted, or else the name of the one great eter-
nal Deity, which, after the uninitiated had become acquainted with the
previously occult meaning of hieroglyphic writing, was deemed too
sacred to be exposed to the eyes of the profane.

446

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. V.

Zeiis espe-
cially W01--
shipped in
the nome of
Thebes.
No sheep
sacrificed.

Mythic
story of
Zeus and
Heracles.

Southern Aegypt and Aethiopia, wlio represents tlie
divine Spirit, with Amun, the blue-coloured god of
Thebes, who represents the divine Intellect. The
worship of Zeus, or Amnion, (Amun,) as he was
called by the Aegyptians, more especially belonged
to the nome of Thebes. The Thebans, and all those
who erected a temple to this deity, abstained from
sheep, and only sacrificed the goat.^ This pecu-
liarity arose from the following circumstance. He-
racles was very anxious to see Zeus, who, on his
part, was very unwilling that Heracles should see
him. Heracles however persisted, and at last Zeus
adopted this contrivance. He flayed a ram, cut
off the head and held it before him, and then,
clothing himself in the fleece, showed himself to
Heracles in that form.^ In consequence also of this
incident, the Aegyptians represented Zeus with the
head of a ram ; and on one day in the year, at the
festival of Zeus, the Thebans killed and flayed one
ram, and clothed the image of Zeus in the manner
described, and then brought near to it another
image of Heracles.^ When this was done, all who
were in the temple beat themselves in mourning for
the ram, and then buried it in the sacred vault.*

1 This fact is confirmed by the sculptures of Thebes, from which we
learn that sheep were neither sacrificed nor used for food. The large
flocks of sheep in the Thebaid were kept only for their wool. —
Wilkinson.

2 A scriptural fact is supposed to be disguised in this extraordinary
myth. Heracles wishing to see, i. e. to ofter sacrifice to, Zeus, is the
Aegyptian garbled account of Abraham, about to sacrifice his son.
Zeus, or Amun, does not wish to be seen, i. e. God does not wish to re-
ceive the sacrifice ; he causes a ram to be slain however, and with this
sacrificial intervention shows himself to Abraham. The patriarch's so-
journ in Aegypt, his intimate connexion with that country, and the high
antiquity of that connexion — these at once prove the source of the Aegyp-
tian tale, and account for its perversion. The "seeing" and " showing,"
in Herodotus involve devotional Hebraisms, that throw still stronger
light upon this source ; and the very Hebrew term, Amon, " faithful,"
closely connects this history with the title given to Abraham. Ency.
Met. Lit. of Ancient Greece.

^ We may conclude from this ceremony that Amun was not always
represented with the head of a ram ; but we need not remark further
upon the confusion between Kncph and Amun, which indeed is not sur-
prising when we consider how easy it is to confound their several attri-
butes— " Spirit" and " Intellect."

' ii. 42.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 447

Horned serpents were also sacred to this deity, which africa.
were not at all hurtful to men. They were small in

size, and had two horns growing on the top of their Homed
head. When any of them died they were buried in ^^^^f^
the sacred precinct.^ A splendid temple of Zeus J^f^P^^^'^"'^
was erected at Thebes, and there also was an oracle zeus.
where responses were delivered in the same manner
as at Dodona.^ Female attendants were employed Sacred

• n 1 11 TT 1 L 11 women.

m the service oi the temple, whom Herodotus calls
yvvaiKae Iprjiag, OY " sacrod womcn.'" A woman also
constantly resided in the temple, and, like the female
in the Babylonian temple, had no intercourse with
any mortal man.^

Pthah, the " creative power," whom the Greeks ^gpf^Pf^ta-
degraded into a mere artisan or physical agent, was tion of

^ ii. 74. Herodotus is wrong in supposing that the bite of the horned
snake, or vipera cerastes, is harmless, and it is fortunate for us that the
father of history did not prove hj experience its fatal effects. These
snakes are still to be found embalmed in the necropolis of Thebes.
Diodorus (i. 87) correctly places them among the poisonous reptiles.
Williinson.

2 ii. 57- Cf. also p. 89 and 442. The oracle of Dodona was given by
the wind rustling through the foliage of lofty oaks, (Horn. Od. xiv. 328,
xix. 297,) whence Aeschylus {Prom. 832) mentions the speaking oaks of
Dodona as great wonders. In order to render the sounds produced by
the winds more distinct, brazen vessels were suspended on the branches
of trees, which being moved by the wind came in contact with one an-
other, and thus sounded till they were stopped. (Suidas, s. v. AoSo'jvt) ;
Philostrat. Imaf/. ii.) According to other accounts, oracles were also
obtained through pigeons, which sitting upon oak-trees pronounced the
will of Zeus. (Dionys. Hal. i. 15.) The sounds were in early times in-
terpreted by men, but afterwards, when the worship of Dione became
connected with that of Zeus, by two or three old women, who were called
■TrsXsiaSef;, or jTsXaiai, because pigeons were said to have brought the com-
mand to found the oracle. Cf. Smith, Diet, of Ant., art. Oraculum.

^ ii. 54. Diodorus (i. 47) mentions the tombs of the TraWaiciSse, or
concubines of the Theban Zeus, but they are supposed to be the tombs
of the consorts of the kings. Twenty-four have been counted, and
twelve are known to have been the tombs of queens, but the sculptures
are much destroyed. The confusion between the TraWaiciSig and the
queens may be accounted for by a circumstance mentioned by Cham-
poUion, that they all bear the title of " Wife of Amun. " Lettres, p. 286.
Lepsius, Einleitung, p. 307. Quoted by Kenrick.

* i. 182. Strabo tells us that a noble and beautiful virgin was sacri-
ficed to the Theban Zeus, and that a class of harlots were dedicated to
his service, (xvii. p. 561.) Sir J. G. Wilkinson regards the story as
incredible, but similar revolting circumstances are to be found amongst
the Hindoos, who certainly are as pious and moral as the ancient
Aegyptians. Sir J. G. Wilkinson has already remarked upon the simi-
larity between the names of Amun-re and Zeus-Belus ; and Herodotus
has pointed out the peculiarity in their worship. Cf. also pp. 261, 445.

448

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. V.

Pthali, the

creatiTe

power.

Identified
with He-
phaestus,
and especi-
ally wor-
shipped at
Memphis.

Aegyptian
representa-
tion of
Khem, the
generative
principle.

generally represented as a mummy holding tlie em-
blems of life and the staff of pm^ity, and wearing a
close cap without any ornaments, or sometimes a
disk with the large ostrich feathers of Osiris. Sir
J. G. Wilkinson has also met with a representation
of Pthah drawing with a pen the figure of Harpo-
crates, the emblem of youth ; being probably an
allusion to the idea first formed in the mind of the
Creator of the being he was about to make. Pthah-
Socari-Osiris was the form of this deity, which was
worshipped at Memphis ; and numerous pigmy fi-
gures of him with disproportioned heads, phallic,
bow-legged, and with almost an Aethiopean physi-
ognomy, are to be found in the ruins of Memphis and
the vicinity, frequently with the scarabaeus, or
beetle,^ on the head, and sometimes holding the
crook and flagellum of Osiris. Sometimes also a
representation of Pthah appears with a hawk's head
both in temples and on sarcophagi.

Pthah may be identified with the Hephaestus of
Herodotus, and, according to our author, was espe-
cially worshipped at Memphis under the form of a
pigmy figure, which resembled the Phoenician
pataici, and excited the ridicule of Cambyses.^
Herodotus, however, gives us no information re-
specting the manner in which this deity was wor-
shipped, though he mentions his magnificent temple
at Memphis, which we have already described.^

Khem, the generative principle, is the ithyphallic
god, and is represented Avith a peculiar form, which
is a coarse indicative of creative power. His office,
however, was not confined to the procreation of
the human species, but extended also over the ve-
getable world ; hence the Greeks and Romans as-
signed to Priapus the office of presiding over their
gardens.

^ The scarabaeus was particularly sacred to Pthah, for, as there were
no females but only males of this species, it was considered to be a fitting
type of the creative power, self-acting and self-sufficient. Plutarch, de
Isid. s. 10. Quoted by Wilkinson.

2 iii. 37. ^ See p. 388.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 449

Kliem^ may be identified with the Pan of africa.
Herodotus, and was especially worshipped in the ^^-^^- ^-
Mendesian nome. Here he had a temple, and identified
indeed in the Aegyptian language he was called ^^iji Pan,
Mendes.^ He was considered by the Mendesians to ciaiiy wor-
be one of the eight original gods which existed prior Send^el''*
to the twelve.^ The Aegyptian painters and sculp-
tors represented him with the face and legs of a
goat, in the same way that the Greeks did ; not
however because they imagined that this was his
real form, for they considered him to be like the
other gods, but for a reason which Herodotus would
rather not mention. In consequence, all the Ae- no goats
gyptians who frequented his temple at Mendes, or ''''''' ^^ '
belonged to the Mendesian nome, would not sacrifice
the goat either male or female. Moreover, they paid
great reverence to all goats, more especially to
males, and particularly to one he-goat, on whose
death a public mom-ning was observed throughout
the nome. In the Aegyptian language both a goat
and Pan were called Mendes, and in the time of
Herodotus a prodigy occurred in this district which

came to the knowledge of all men ywaud rpayoe kixiaytro

ava^av^ov.

Some of the statements in the foregoing descrip- Herodotus's
tion of Herodotus have been questioned. It is evi- doubTed!''
dent from his ranking Pan amongst the eight prim-
ary deities, that he alludes to Khem, but neither
Khem nor any god in the Aegyptian Pantheon has
been found on the monuments with the head and
legs of a goat. The name of Mendes also seems
to belong rather to the god Mandoo, who is however
totally distinct from the god of generation. More-
over, the Coptic for "goat" is not Mendes, but
Baampe.^ Om^ author's accoimt of the honour paid

1 The Aegyptian Khem is identical with the Hebrew word Ham, and
in the hieroglyphic legends Aegypt was denominated Khemi, or the land
of Ham.

3 ii. 42. ^ ii. 145. * ii. 46.

' The Greek Pan was represented with attributes indicating a general
resemblance to Khem, (icarai^fpTjc i^a'^ (ywovmafyTiKog,) and hence the
confusion. Mr. Kenrick however has pointed out that the goat was
evidently consecrated to the god of Mendes, if not employed as its sym-

2 G

450

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. V.

Four prim-
ary Aegyp-
tiaii god-
desses.
Sate, or
Hera, not
mentioned.
Maut, or
Buto, iden-
tified with
Leto.

Her cele-
brated ora-
cle and tem-
ple.

to the i^oat in the Mendesian nome has therefore
been rejected by Sir J. Gr. Wilkinson ; but, notwith-
standing the horrible extent to which it was carried,
we see no reason to doubt the plain statement of
Herodotus, and we preserve it as a damning proof
of the impurity which ever attends idolatry, however
elevated and refined its symbols may appear in the
eyes of the initiated.'

Of the four great Aegyptian goddesses, Sate, or
Hera, was not known to Herodotus as an Aegyptian
deity. ^ Maut, or Mother or Nature, has been identi-
fied with Buto, and is represented with the pshent
on her head, and has such titles as Mistress of
Heaven, Regent of the World, etc. She has been iden-
tified with the Leto of Herodotus, though perhaps
there is scarcely sufficient evidence for it.^ Her
oracle was the most celebrated in Aegypt ; * it
warned Mycerinus of his approaching death, ^ and
promised the crown to Psammitichus." The temple
was situated in the large city of Buto near the
Sebennytic mouth of the Nile ; it was visited by
Herodotus, and has already been described.^ Our
author also saw the floating island of Chemmis
which did not float, and upon which had been
erected a temple of Apollo. '^ Here Leto received
Horus from Typhon, but this myth we shall have
occasion to explain when we treat of Osiris and Isis.

bol, since the type appears upon the coins of the nome in Greek and
Roman times.

' That there may have been an element of revealed religion and
pure worship in the mythology of the Aegyptians need not be denied,
and that element was doubtless reproduced in the Mosaic code of civil
and ceremonial law, which presents here and there some points of re-
semblance with that of Aegypt. But, when we contemplate the actual
state of the people from whom the divine lawgiver delivered the chosen
people of God, we feel the full force of those first commandments writ-
ten by the hand of Jehovah — " Thou shalt have no other gods before
me. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness
of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or
that is in the water under the earth : thou shalt not bow down thyself
to them, nor serve them." Comp. also Ex. xxii. 19.

2 ii. .50.

3 The name Bo{jtw, the Buto of the (Jreeks, is nearly allied to Maut or
Muth, M and B being interchangeable letters.

♦ ii. H3. 5 ii. 133. 6 ii. 1.52. 7 gee page 376.

" See page 377.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 451

At the festival of Leto at Buto sacrifices were offered, Africa.
but no other ceremonies appear to have been ob- ""^^- ^-
served.^

Pasht, or BuBASTis, is represented on the monu- Pasht, or
ments with the head of a lioness, or of a cat, and bears identmeci
a disc on her head from which rises the royal asp. ^^ ^"^t^"
In her hand she holds the usual sceptre of the Ae-
gyptian goddesses. Herodotus identifies Bubastis
with Artemis,^ and states that she was the daughter
of Dionysus (Osiris) and Isis, and the sister of Horus f
this would refer her to the later family of gods,
whilst it is evident that she was one of the eight
primary deities.* She had a magnificent temple
and oracle at Bubastis, w]iich we have already de-
scribed.^

The festival of Artemis, or Bubastis, was celebrated The festi-
in the city of Bubastis, which stood in the east of bLtis.
the Delta, on the eastern bank of the Pelusiac branch
of the Nile. It was the best and most rigidly ob-
served of all that were kept by the Aegyptians.^
The people were conveyed to Bubastis by water,
and numerous boats were crowded with persons of
both sexes. During the voyage some of the women
played upon the crotala,^ and some of the men upon
the flute, whilst all the rest sung and clapped their
hands. When they reached any town they brought
the boat close to the bank. Some of the women shameless
then continued to play the crotala ; others shouted the'wor-°
and reproached the women of the plaae ; whilst sWppers

1 ii. 63. 2 ii. 137.

3 ii. 156. Aeschylus was the only one of the earlier poets who was
acquainted with this tradition, and who therefore represented Artemis to
be daughter of Demeter the Aegyptian Isis.

* Wilkinson believes that the mistake of Herodotus arose from the
Greeks supposing that Artemis was the sister of Apollo, and then iden-
tifying Apollo both with the younger Horus, who was the son of Osiris
and Isis, and the elder Horus, also called Aroeris, who was brother of
Osiris. Bubastis also could have been the sister neither of the elder nor
of the younger Horas.

5 Seepage 371. ® ii. 59.

"^ The crotala were properly a sort of castanets, made of hollow wooden
shells, whilst the crembala were cymbals. In this present description
however Herodotus seems to mean cymbals, though he says crotala.
These cymbals were occasionally made like our clappers for frightening
birds. Wilkinson.

2 G 2

452

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. T.

(lin-ing the
pilgrimage.

Immense
consump-
tion of wiue.

Neith iden-
tified witli
Athene.

The festival
of burning
lamps at
Sals.

others danced or pulled up their clothes before them
in a scoffing manner. This conduct was repeated
at every town which they passed on the river. On
arriving at Bubastis they celebrated the festival by
the sacrifice of a great number of victims, and more
wine was consumed than during all the rest of the
year. The inhabitants of Bubastis told Herodotus
that not less than 700,000 men, women, and chil-
dren were present at this festival.'

The goddess Neith is represented on the Ae-
gyptian monuments as a female wearing a crown,
and holding in her hand either the hooked staff of
the gods, or the flower-headed sceptre of the god-
desses, and sometimes with the addition of a bow
and arrows. She may be identified with Athene,^
and was chiefly worshipped at Sais,^ where there
was her temple,* and also her oracle ; ^ and where
likewise a festival in her honour was celebrated.^
This goddess was to Sais what Amun, or Zeus, was
to Thebes, and all the Saltan kings were buried
within her sacred precinct.''

When the worshippers of Athene assembled at
Sais to sacrifice at her festival, they all on a par-
ticular night kindled a great number of lamps around
each of their houses. These lamps Avere small vases
filled with salt and oil, and the wicks floated upon

^ ii. 60. This number is beyond all probability, and calls to mind the
70,000 pilgrims which the Moslems say are annually present at Mecca,
the exact number being kept up by a complement of angels, who every
year supply any deficiency which may exist. The statement of He-
rodotus however is sufficient to show the immense popularity of the
festival. All comments upon the scenes that were openly enacted are
unnecessary. The inhabitants of that countiy " where morality was pro-
tected by severe laws, and who were unquestionably the most pious of
all the heathen nations of antiquity," — were evidently indulging in the
vilest excesses. (Comp. AVilkinson, Ancient Ef/yjdians, vol. ii. p. 204,
Second Series.) We may remark, that in Ashantee during the Yam
custom, and when the greater part of the population of the whole king-
dom is assembled at Coumassie, drunkenness is general, adultery is sanc-
tioned, and each sex abandons itself to its passions.

' The Greek name of Athena, or Thena, is supposed by some to have
been derived from the Aegyptian word Neith, or Neth, by an inversion
of the order of the letters — the Acgyptians writing from right to left, and
the Greeks from left to riglit. But this notion is doubtful. Cf. Kenrick,
vol. i. p. .389, note.

•• ii. 02. ' ii. IZrx ■' ii. «3. '' ii. .59. '' ii. 109.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 453

the surface, and continued alight throughout the africa-
night. This celebration was called the Festival of chap. v.
Burning Lamps, and was not confined to the city
of Sais ; for every Aegyptian throughout the coun-
try, though he might not be able to attend the sacri-
fice in person, was required to observe the lighting
of the lamps. Thus, not only Sais, but all Aegypt
was illuminated on the night of this festival. A
religious reason is given for this illumination.^

We now come to the second class of Aegyptian confusion
deities, which, Herodotus tells us, consisted of twelve Lt^nSd'^
ffods, of whom however he only names Heracles, twrd class

rni T • 1 1 • 1 -\ n • -I deities, and

ihe third class comprised an mdeiinite number, consequent
and included Osiris, or Dionysus, and Horus, or foi^anlLie-
Apollo ; and we might also presume, that Isis, the ^rbitrarV^'"^
wife of Osiris, and mother of Horus, belonged to the division.
same order. All these gods were originally kings
of Aegypt, and Horus was the last. Beside the
above, Herodotus mentions Helios, Hermes, Ares,
Perseus, Proteus, and Aphrodite, but without telling
us to which class they belonged, and without
enabling us to identify an}?- of them, excepting
Helios, with the representations that have been
found on the Aegyptian monuments. In addition
to these uncertainties, it is next to impossible to
select any twelve gods from the Aegyptian Pan-
theon, as being distinctly entitled to be ranked
above them of the tertiary order ; whilst the extra-
ordinary and universal honom^s paid to Osiris and
Isis, and the lofty character of the former deity,
would induce us to regard both of them as of equal

^ ii. 62. The festival of the Burning of the Lamps at Sais, wdll
naturally remind the reader of the Chinese Feast of Lanterns, which has
been kept in China from the remotest times ; and of the custom which
still prevails in Switzerland, Ireland, and other countries, of lighting fires
upon the summits of the hills, upon the fete of St. John. General illu-
minations, indeed, seem to have been resorted to in all times, on festivals,
or other occasions of national rejoicing. It is however evident that the
lamp was a very ancient emblem of Athene. One was kept burning
before the idol in the temple of Athene Polias, at Athens, and was said
to be replenished with oil and supplied with a new wick only once a
year, on a special day. (Strabo, ix. p. 240, and Pans. i. 26, 27.) In the
Odyssea (xix. 34) the goddess is represented holding a lamp to Telema-
chus and his father, while arming themselves.

454

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. V.

1. Miscella-
neous
divinities
mentioned
by Herod-
otus.

Helios, or
the Sun.

rank with the eight great primary gods, though not
inchided in the first class. ^ We therefore think it
advisable to separate this branch of our subject into
two arbitrary divisions. In the first, we will treat
of the miscellaneous divine beings mentioned by
Herodotus; Helios, Heracles, Hermes, Ares, Per-
seus, Proteus, and Aphrodite ; and develope our
author's statements at length, but explain them
as concisely as possible. In the second division, we
will endeavour to unfold the mysterious character of
the worship of Osiris, who, with his wife Isis, and
his son Horus, may be regarded as the great national
deities of Aegypt ; and in this description we shall
also include an account of the calf Apis, or Epaphus,
a supposed manifestation of divinity peculiarly con-
nected with the Osirian worship.^

According to the arrangement thus mapped out
we must describe, in the first place, the character
and worship of the seven miscellaneous divine beings
mentioned by our author, viz. Helios, Heracles,
Hermes, Ares, Perseus, Proteus, and Aphrodite.

Helios, or the Sun, was worshipped at Heliopolis,
where there was a yearly festival and sacrifices in
his honour." In the temple in that city, the Phoe-

^ Chevalier Bunsen has endeavoured to restore all the three orders of
Herodotus, and we append a list of the gods according to his arrange-
ment, but without including any of his observations, or altering our mode
of spelling the names. It will be seen that he includes Ra, or Helios,
in the first class, whilst Wilkinson places Ra in the second, because
Amun is called Amun Ra. For all other explanations however we
must refer the reader to Bunsen's work {Egypfs Place in Universal
History, vol. i.).

The eight gods of the first order were as follows: 1. Amun. 2.
Khem. 3. Maut. 4. Kneph. 5. Sate. 6. Pthah. 7. Neith. 8. Ra
(or Helios).

The twelve gods of the second order were as follows: L Chons (or
Heracles), the child of Amun. 2. Thoth (or Hermes), the child of
Kneph. 3. Atmu, the child of Pthah. 4. Pasht (or Bubastis), the
child of Pthah. The remaining eight were all the children of Helios,
viz. 5. Athor (or Aphrodite). 6. Mau. 7- Ma (trath). 8. Tefnu, the
honess-headed goddess. 9. Muntu. 10. Sevek (the crocodile-headed
god). 11. Seb (or Cronos). 12. Netpe (or Rhea).

The seven gods of the third order were as follows: I, Typhon. 2.
Osiris. 3. Isis. 4. Nephthys. 5. Horus the elder. 6. Horus the
younger, or Harpocrates. 7- Anubis.

- The veneration of animals will be noticed further on, (chap, vi.,)
under another heading altogether. ' ii. 59, 63.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 455

nix, every 500 years, deposited the body of its de- africa.
ceased parent/ f'"^p- v.

Helios was undoubtedly the same as the Aegyp- idei,tified
tian Re, or Ra, the physical sun, and his worship ^vith the
appears to have been universal tnrougnout Aegypt. ne, or Ra.
Ra, with the definite article Pi prefixed, is the same
as the Phrah, or Pharaoh of Scripture. He is usually
represented on the monuments as a man with a
hawk's head, surmounted by a globe or disc of the
sun, through which the asp issued. Sometimes he
is figured with the head of a man, and with the same
disc, and very rarely under the entire form of a
hawk, which is his emblem.^

Heracles is described by our author as one of iieracies
the twelve secondary gods,^ but it is difficult to kStied.
identify him with 'any of the representations on the
monuments.^ He was probably regarded as the
abstract idea of strength, or the power of nature.
There was an oracle of Heracles ^ in Aegypt, and His oiacie
Herodotus mentions a temple which was erected to ^'" tcmpie.
this deity, near the Canopic mouth of the Nile, and
which was a sure place of refuge for runaway slaves.''
His connexion with Amun has already been
pointed out.''

The Greeks told a silly story concerning Heracles, cieek story
which has been preserved by Herodotus, namely, attempt to
that when Heracles visited Aegypt, the Aegyptians to zSand
crowned him with a garland, and led him in a pro- i^^ siaymg

T ^ . ,. T . j-f L ^ the Avhole

cession m oraer to sacrifice him to Zeus, or Amun, crowd of
and that he remained quiet for some time ; but
when they had placed him upon the altar, and
commenced the preparatory ceremonies, he also
began to defend himself, and slew every one of them.
Our author however utterly denies the truth of this
story. Those who told it appeared to him to be Disbelieved
utterly ignorant of the character and customs of the ot^us, IkT-'

^ ii. 73. For a further account of the Phoenix see the next chapter.

2 See Wilkinson, Anc. Et/yptians, vol. ii., Second Series.

3 ii. 43, 145.

* Sir J. G. Wilkinson offers numerous conjectures, but is unable to
arrive at any satisfactory conclusion : Bunsen identifies Heracles with
Chons. « ii. 83. « ii. 113. '' See page 446.

worship-
pers.

456 AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA. Aegyptians. "The people," be says, "are forbid-

CHAP. T. ^Qji iq sacrifice even animals, excepting swine, and

cause the pnro oxcn, and male calves, and geese ; bow is it

Aegyptians lil^ely, tlicn, that tbey sbould sacrifice men?^ More-

Avouldnot «/ '. -^_ , "^ , 1 ji

offer human ovcr, smce Heracies was only one, and, as they con-
anTnera- fess. Si morc man, how is it possible that be sbould
cies, the g|r^^ many thousands ? ^ In thus speakins; however

hero, coukl ^ J •i-ii r i i

not single- may i meet with nidum'ence irom ffods and

lianded i -^ ?? s

have slain llOroeS."

Herme^'^^' Heemes is merely named by Herodotus as having

perhaps a a tcmplo at Bubastis, which was connected with the

forme'd^god. tomplo of Artomis by a grove of trees.* He was

probably one of the mummy-formed gods of Aegypt,

whom Herodotus identified with Hermes, from the

peculiarity of its shape, which most likely resembled

the Hermae figures on the public roads of Hellas.

Suhse- At a later period Hermes was identified with Aegyp-

kuTntiffed tian Thoth, the god of letters. In the Aegyptian

with Thoth. monuments Thoth is generally represented with the

head of the ibis, and holds a tablet and reed pen in

1 Sir J. G. Wilkinson fully coincides with Herodotus's disbelief in
human sacrifices amongst the Aegyptians, which would be contrary to the
usages of so highly civilized a people, and of which no traces can be
found on the monuments. But human sacrifices were exceedingly com-
mon in the ancient world, even amongst civilized nations like the Phoe-
nicians and Carthaginians, and were not quite unknown to the Greeks
themselves ; and surely the Mexicans were a highly civilized people, and
yet we know that their teocallis were profusely stained with the blood of
human victims. We may also mention the Ashantees, who will sacrifice
their fellow-creatures by hundreds, and yet punish the killing of a vulture,
a hyaena, or any sacred animal with death. With respect to Aegypt,
Manetho expressly infonns us, (Plut. Is. et Osir.,) that men called Typho-
nian (i. e. of a red colour) were burnt alive and their ashes scattered to
the winds ; and Diodorus tells us (i. 88) that these Typhonian men were
sacrificed by the ancient kings at the tomb of Osiris. Plutarch also tells
us, on the authority of Castor, that the seal, which was placed by a priest
on every animal found to be fit for sacrifice, (Herod, ii. 38,) bore the figure
of a man kneeling, with his hands bound behind him, and a sword
pointed at his tln-oat; and this figuratively symbolic group has been
found by Wilkinson himself more than once in the hieroglyphics of
sculptures relating to the sacrifice of victims.

^ This slaughtering of the Aegyptians by Heracles is supposed to be
a disguised version of Samson's exploit at Ramath Lchi (Judg. xv. 17) ;
and the taking of Heracles to the altar to be sacrificed, and his putting
forth his strength, and slaying every one when they began the solemn-
ities, shows that the slaughter of the Philistines was mixed up with
Samson's pulling down the temple of Dagon at Gaza (Judg. xvi. 30).
Cf. Pococke, Lit. of Ancient (ircece.

■' ii. 4.5. ' ii. 138.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 457

his hand. The cynocephalus, or ape, was also, as africa.
well as the ibis, an emblem of this deity. ^J^^^- ^'•

Aees, another god, was, according to Herodotus, ^^.^
worshipped at Papremis ; ^ but it is as difficult to ^'^ i^'.''^™
identify him with any of the figures on the Aegyp- oitheevii''
tian monuments as it is to discover Heracles. He p"""p^^-
seems best to answer to an armed male figure, named
Ranpo ; ^ but as the hippopotamus was sacred in
Papremis, and was an emblem of Typhon, it is pro-
bable that the Ares of Herodotus may have been a
form of the evil principle.^ An oracle of Ares is Hisoracie.
mentioned by our author,^ and was most likely at
Papremis.

At the festival of Ares at Papremis, the sacrifices Festival at

1 • 1 j1 • j.1 Papremis.

and ceremonies were much the same as m other
places ; but when the sun went down the following
performance took place. The statue of the god was
to be moved from one temple to another. Accord-
ingly it was placed in a small wooden shrine, gilded
all over, and laid upon a four-wheeled car. A body
of priests made certain gestures round the statue,
whilst others in greater numbers, and armed with
wooden clubs, took up a position in the vestibule of
the temple, to which the statue was to be conveyed.
A crowd of votaries, amounting to more than a Mock-fight
thousand men, and each armed with similar clubs, pvielte and^
also presented themselves opposite the vestibule, notaries.
The priests, who were standing round the statue, then
prepared to draw forward the car, but the armed
priests in the vestibule refused to give it admittance.
The crowd of votaries then advanced to the assist-
ance of their god. An obstinate combat ensued,
the votaries endeavouring to gain admittance for
the car, and each party attacking the other with
their clubs. Herodotus conjectures that many heads
must have been broken, and many must have died
of their wounds, notwithstanding the assertions of
the Aegyptians to the contrary.^ The inhabitants Popular le-
. of Papremis declared that they instituted this festi- fount for its

origin.
1 ii. 63. - Wilkinson, plate 69, 70.

5 Prichard, Analysis, quoted by Kenrick. * ii. 83. ^ ii. 63.

4:58 AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA, val from the following circumstance. They said
CHAP. V. that the mother of Ares dwelt in the temple, and
that Ares, on his return from foreign parts, where he
had been educated, desired to see his mother, but
that her attendants, not having seen him before,
refused to suffer him to pass them, and repelled him
from the entrance. Upon this Ares collected a band
of men together from another city, and attacked the
servants, and thus obtained admittance.^
Perseus and Peeseus and Peoteus are both mentioned by
Proteus. Herodotus as having been honoured by the Aegyp-
tians ; and here there is some difficulty in recon-
ciling his narrative with an assertion which he
makes in another place, that the Aegyptians paid
Temple of no rcHgious honours to heroes.^ A temple of Per-
chemmis.* scus, tlio son of Dauac, was standing in the Theban
city of Chemmis, which must not be confused with
the city of the same name, situated in the Delta.^
The Chemmitae declared that Perseus frequently
appeared to them on earth, and often showed him-
self in the temple ; and they also stated that his
His enor- saudal, wliich was two cubits long, was sometimes
dS!"^^^^ found,* and that after such an occurrence the whole
nation of Aegypt was gladdened by a general pros-
Gymnastic perity. Accordingly, the Chemmitae celebrated

ffames cele- , • • ^ n Tt ^

bratedat gymnastic games, m honour oi Perseus, and gave
S Tonour'^ cattle, cloaks, and skins, as prizes of the several con-
tests ; and were thus the only Aegyptian people
His legend- who followed any of the Greek usages. Herodotus
• according ito hiniself askcd them the cause of this peculiarity,
upon which they told him that Perseus derived his
origin from their city, through his ancestors, Danaus
and Lynceus, who were both natives of Chemmis,
and had sailed from thence to Greece ; and they
added that when Perseus came to Aegypt to bring
away the Gorgon's head from Libya, he visited

' li. 64. ~ ii. .50. ^ ^ee page 377.

* Wilkinson Iclls us that the dervishes of a college at Cairo show an
enormous shoe, which they say belonged to their founder {Mod. JE(jy2>-
tians, vol. i.). It has heen suggested that the story may be an old
Coptic superstition Mahometanized. Herodotus himself saw in Scythia
the footprint of Heracles, two cubits long (iv. 82).

the Chem-
niitans.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 459

Chemmis, and acknowledged all his kindred, and africa.
accordingly the gymnastic games were instituted in ^»^^- ^'-
his honour.' Of Proteus, the king of Aegypt who Temenus at
was reigning when Paris carried off Helen from ^^^^^-p^^^'
Menelaus, Herodotus merely says, that at Memphis prote,^?
there was an enclosure sacred to him, which was
very beautiful and richly adorned.^

Aphrodite, according to Herodotus, had a temple Aj^Jj^S^
in Atarbechis, or the city of Athor, which was situ- withAthor.
ated in an island of the Delta, named Prosopitis.^
She may be identifxcd with Athor, from whom in-
deed the Aphrodite of the Greeks was evidently
traced. Athor is frequently represented on the mo- Represent-
numents in the form of a cow, but generally as a cow-fhoms
female with a head-dress surmounted with the ears ^o'^.f^^ed by
and lonff horns of a cow, and a solar disc ; and it Herodotus

' . •tjI 1 with Isis.

has been remarked that, settmg aside the cow's ears,
there is more beauty in the face of Athor than in
any other of the Aegyptian divinities. When He-
rodotus tells us that the image of Isis is made in the
form of a woman with the horns of a cow,'' he is
perhaps confounding her with Athor. Indeed there
was a strong analogy between these two divinities ;
each goddess is frequently represented with the
attributes of the other ; whilst the name Athor sig-
nifies the habitation of Horus,^ who was the son of
Isis. The annual ceremony in memorial of the ^^°ll\^^^
daughter of Mycerinus, was probably connected probably '
with the worship of this goddess and with that of ^°i^h hef
Osiris. Herodotus informs us that Mycerinus, wish- ^^ ?j:^^ip ^"'^

, ,•' '' , with that of

mg to bury his daughter m a costly manner, de- osiris.
posited her body in the wooden image of a cow,
which was overlaid with gold. This cow was not
buried in the earth, but preserved down to the time
of Herodotus ; and the historian saw it himself in a
richly ornamented chamber of the royal palace of

1 ii. 91. - ii. 112. See also page 435,

3 ii. 41. * Ibid.

^ The hieroglyphic name of Athor, Thy-hor, Tei-hor, or Eit-hor, con-
sists of a hawk (the emblem of Horus) within a square enclosm-e, liter-
ally signifying " the house of Horus." See Wilkinson, Anc. Egyptians,
vol. iv.

460

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. T.

Annual
festival
connected
with it.

The Fo-
reign

Aphrodite,
or Helen
the
stranger.

Hera, Hes-
tia, and
Themis also
to be iden-
tified with
Aegyptian
deities,
though not
known as
such to
Herodotus.

Sais. All kinds of aromatics were burnt near it
during the day, and every night a lamp was kejDt
by it constantly lighted.^ The cow was covered
witli a purj^le cloth, excepting the head and neck,
which were laid over with a thick coating of gold,
and a golden disc of the sun was placed between the
horns. It was not standing up, but kneeling, and in
size was equal to a large cow. Every year it was
taken out of the chamber at the time when the
Aegyptians beat themselves, and mourn for that god
(Osiris) whom Herodotus will not name ; and on
this occasion the heifer was exposed to the light in
obedience to a dying request which the daughter of
Mycerinus made to her father, that he would per-
mit her to see the sun once a year.^

A temple of the Foeeign Apheodite was erected
in the enclosure of Proteus at Memphis, and, accord-
ing to the conjecture of Herodotus, in honour of
Helen ; for our author had heard that Helen lived
with Proteus, and knew of no other temple of Aphro-
dite under that peculiar name.^

In concluding our description of the miscellane-
ous Aegyptian divinities mentioned by Herodotus,
we must notice one of his observations. He says
that the names of all the gods of Greece originally
came from Aegypt, excepting Poseidon and the
Dioscuri, and Hera, Hestia, Themis, the Graces,
and the Nereids.* Now we are not to infer from
this statement that these deities themselves were
unknown to the Aegyptians, for there is direct evi-
dence that three of them, Hera, Hestia, and The-
mis, held a distinguished position in the Aegyptian
Pantheon. Hera was called Sate, Hestia was named
Anouke, and Themis was doubtless derived from
the Aegyj^tian Thmei, the goddess of truth and
justice, from whom were borrowed her attributes
and name. Indeed it is difficult to understand that
the Greeks were strangers even to the name of

ii. 130.

ii. 132. See also p. 413.
' ii. 50.

•' ii. 112.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 461

Themis, which was so closely allied to the Thmei africa.
ofAegypt.^ ^HAP^

We have now to treat of the most important branch 2. osiris,
of the whole mythological system, namely, the wor- JJ^'^^^
ship of Osiris. This deity usually forms a triad Apis.
with his wife Isis and son Horus ; and is also sup-
posed to have been occasionally represented on earth
by the calf Apis. The Aegyptian conceptions con-
cerning; him were of a deeply mysterious nature. Duaiistic
They may be separated into two divisions, m ac- os

Jsiris as

cordance with his duaiistic character. First, those Ji',^.j^t"§^
which relate to his ancient manifestation upon earth g^^jjj.^^^"^
in the form of a mortal king of Aegypt. Secondly, Had?s°
those which are connected with his divine nature,
especially as Judge of the dead and Ruler of Hades.
We shall see that these characters will harmonize
thoroughly together, and that Osiris the earthly
king and Osiris the divine judge are one and the
sanie person ; but still it is necessary, for the proper
comprehension of his nature, to keep the mythical
history of his adventures on earth perfectly distinct
from the conceptions which belong to his character
as a divine being.

Herodotus' s account of Osiris is full of hesitation Herodotus's

-, ,-, r 1 ' 1 ' 1 hesitation

and reserve, the consequence ol his having been and reserve
initiated into at least the lower order of the Osirian J^ oS!"^
mysteries. It is difficult however to say whether
the solemnity of his initiatory oaths, or the fear of
personally offending the deities, had the greatest
effect in preventing his communicating his know-
ledge to a heedless and irreverent generation ; nor
can we even ascertain from the character of his
silence the precise nature of the secrets with which
he frequently acknowledges himself to have been
familiar. It is evident that lie was strongly affected
by the mutilations which Osiris underwent at the
conclusion of his earthly career, but he makes no
attempt to separate his human from his divine cha-
racter. It is therefore difficult to decide upon a

1 Wilkinson, Ancient Efiyptians, vol. i., Second Series.

462

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. V.

General
division of
the subject.

Mythic his-
tory of the
earthly ad-
ventures of
Osiris.

Rhea de-
livered of
five children
on the five
intercalary
days ob-
tained by
Hermes,
yiz.

plan which shall preserve the individuality and in-
dependence of the narrative of Herodotus, and yet
at the same time illustrate and explain its several
parts, and fill up those gaps which the piety of our
historian constrained him to leave unsupplied. If
we "followed the natural division of the subject ac-
cording- to the two-fold nature of Osiris, our course
would be easy, but would be contrary to the spirit
of our author's relation. We are therefore reduced
to the necessity of preserving Herodotus's account
intact amidst the necessary mass of explanatory and
illustrative matter. The whole may be divided into
four parts. First, we shall give the mythic history
of the earthly adventures of Osiris ; secondly, the
rationalistic explanation of the myth, according to
Plutarch ; thirdly, a digest of Herodotus's informa-
tion upon the subject ; and foiu^thly, a general view
of the character and attributes of Osiris and his
family.

According to the foregoing plan, we shall first
gather from Plutarch ^ the whole history of the
mortal life and adventures of Osiris.

Phea, the Aegyptian Netpe, having indulged in a
secret intercourse with Cronos, was discovered by the
Sun, who thereupon laid a curse upon her that she
should not be delivered in any month or year.
Hermes however was also a lover of Rhea, and in
recompence for the favours which he had received
from her, he played at dice with the Moon, and won
from the latter the seventieth part of each of her
months. These seventieth (or rather seventy-second ^)
parts she joined together, and thus made five new

' Plutarch's learned treatise, De Iside et Osiride, was addressed to
Clea, the chief of the female ministers of the Dionysiac orgies at Delphi.
Clea had been initiated bj' he* father and mother into the mysteries of
Osiris, but Plutarch wished to communicate to her more lofty and philoso-
phical views of the Aegyptian theology than those taught by the Isiac
priests, who in his time appear to have been merely a set of ignorant
and selfish impostors. His views we shall have occasion to notice
further on ; at present we have only to present the reader with the
bare myths.

^ Seventy here stands, as elsewhere, a round number instead of the
precise one, for seventy-two ; five being the seventy-second part of 3G0.
Kenrich.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. . 463

days, wliich were added to the 360 days of which africa.
the year formerly consisted. On each of these five ^hap. v.
days Rhea bore a child. On the first day was born osiiis, and
Osiris, who had been begotten by the Sun,| and upon HorS'be-
whose birth a voice was heard to exclaim, " The so^^^^\
Lord of all the earth is born." On the second day,
Aroeris, who had also been begotten by the Sun,
and who was called Apollo by some of the Greeks,
but by others, the elder Horus. On the third day,
Typhon, who had been begotten by Cronos, and Typ^^jjn, by
who was not born in the usual course, but forced
his way through a wound in Rhea's side. On the
fourth day, Isis, who had been begotten by Hermes. ^'^^_^J^^
On the fifth day, Nephthys,^ who, like Typhon, had Ncphthys,
been begotten by Cronos. Typhon married his ^^ypC^"'*
sister Nephthys. Osiris and Isis were united even !j^'™^

I'i'i 111 iijiA Nephthys.

before then^ bu^th, and had a son who by the Ae- oshis niar-
gyptians was called Aroeris, or the Elder Horus, but begeShT^
by the Greeks the Younger Horus. _ IiTrS^'"

Osiris, having become king of Aegypt, instructed osiris king
his subjects in the arts of civilization, teaching them ?,istmcT'
agriculture, enacting laws, and establishing the ^Ja mln-*''
worship of the gods. Subsequently he travelled kindgener-
over the rest of the world for the same purpose, and arts'of civii-
conquered the world, not by the force of arms, but by '^''*'''°-
the mildness of persuasion, and especially by the
charms of music and poetry; hence the Greeks
identified him mth Dionysus. During his absence
Isis administered the regency so wisely that Typhon
was unable to excite a revolution ; but after his re-
turn Typhon conspired against him, with seventy- J^p^^^^J-
two other 2:»ersons, and a queen of Aethiopia, named principle,
Aso. Having secretly obtained the measure of agamsthim,
Osiris' s body, Typhon caused a beautiful chest ^'l^°^^\
splendidly adorned to be made exactly the same chest, and
size. This chest he brought into the banqueting- the Nile." °
room, and promised, as if in jest, to give it to any one
of the guests whose body might happen to fit it.

1 Sir J. G.Wilkinson has pointed out, that, according to the hiero-
glyphics, Cronos, or the Aegyptian Seb, was the father of Osiris.

'2 Nephthys was by some called Telente and Aphrodite, and by others
Nike.

464 AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA. The whole company tried it one after the other

CHAP. Y. without success. At last Osiris laid himself down in

it, upon which Typlion and his fellow-cons^Dirators

immediately nailed on and soldered the lid, and set

the case afloat on the Nile. The chest was carried

to sea through the Tanaitic mouth, which henceforth

was held in the utmost abhorrence by the Ae-

gyptians. These things happened in the 17th day

of the month Athryr, when the sun was in Scorpio,

and in the 28th year of the reign, or, as some said,

of the age of Osiris.

isis hears of The Pans and Satyrs who lived about Chemmis

InddiT-'*^'' were the first who made known the news, and thus

Anubis the Originated the name of Panics. Isis, directly the

son of dsi- report reached her, cut off one of her locks of hair

sLter^Nepii- ^^^1 put on mouming. She was also informed that

thys. i-^gj, sister Nephthys, having fallen in love with Osiris,

had personated herself (Isis), and so far deceived

Osiris as to bear him a son, but that, dreading the

anger of her own husband Typhon, she had exposed

the child as soon as it was born. Isis, after some

difficulty, found the boy and bred him up, and he

was afterwards called Anubis.

Obtains the Meantime the chest had floated to the Phoenician

chest, which ^[^y q£ Byi3los, and havine^ been cast ashore had

had been y •'ii ^ r^ rr\ 'iTi ji

stranded at lodged on the branches oi a I amarisK bush ; the

Typhon busli had growu into a large tree and enclosed it

iv rccovers' wlthiu its trunk ; and the tree itself had been cut

it, and tears dowu by tlio king of tlio couutry, and the part

to fourtLn containing the chest had been used as a pillar to

scatterr"^ support tlio roof of the palace. Isis, divinely con-

jem about cluctcd, wcut to Byblos, obtaiucd possession of the

^^^^ ' pillar, and returned to Aegypt with the chest, which

she opened and carried to Buto, where her son

Horus was being brought up. Here she deposited

the body in secrecy, but Typhon found it one night

whilst he was hunting by moonlight, and tearing it

into fourteen pieces disposed of them in different

parts of the country.

Isis in a Isis uow again set out in search of her husband's

Jynis'rr body, using a boat made of the papyrus rush, for the

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 465

purpose of traversing the marshes. Wherever she africa.
found one of the scattered pieces, there she buried ^"^^•^-
it, and this accounts for the many different sepul- gams aii the
chres of Osiris shown in Aegypt. At length she Pj^-ngone,
recovered all the different members excepting one, andconse- '
which had been devoured by the fishes, Lepidotus piTaikis as a
and Phragrus. To make amends for this loss Isis Z^lS!^ °^
consecrated the phallus, and instituted a solemn
festival to its memory.

Osiris returned from Hades and assisted Horus osiris re-
against Typhon. A battle ensued, in which Typhon HadLf and
was taken prisoner, but Isis, into whose hands he thffind
was committed, instead of putting him to death, set oveithiw
him at liberty. Horus was so enraged at this ° ^^' °'^'
circumstance that he tore off the royal diadem from
his mother's head, but Hermes supplied its place by
a helmet shaped like the head of a cow. Two other
battles took place before Typhon was finally subdued.
It was also related that Isis had intercourse with
Osiris after his death, and had given birth to Har-
pocrates, who consequently came into the world
before his time, and with a weakness in his lower
limbs.

Such is the myth preserved by Plutarch, and of Traces in ^
which the substance was apparently well known to a reference
Herodotus. It represents the Osirian circle as be- ^^^^t™"^"-
longing to those five intercalary days which, at a
comparatively modern date, were added to the 360
days of the ancient calendar. It therefore confirms
the statement of Herodotus that Osiris and Isis
belonged to the third class deities ; as we may take
it for granted that the previous gods belonged to the
ancient calendar of 360 days, every day being, ac-
cording to our author, assigned to some particular
divinity.^ Other traces of a connexion with as-

1 ii. 82. The addition of the five days to the Aegj^ptian calendar un-
doubtedly took place at a very remote period. According to Syncellus,
(Chron. p. 123,) it was- made by one of the Shepherd-kings named
Asseth. Lepsius however asserts that he has found traces of them in a
grotto of the 12th dynasty, or piior to the invasion of the Shepherds.
It however by no means follows, as a historical fact, that the Osirian
worship did not exist prior to the addition of the five intercalary days ;
whilst the mythic history of the adventures of Osiris upon earth certainly

2 H

466

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. V.

Physical
interpret-
ation of the
myth as
given by
Plutarch.

tronomy are also to be found in the legend. The 72
conspii^ators correspond to the 72nd part of the year
which Hermes won fi^om the Moon, and which con-
sisted of the 'five intercalary days. The 28 years
of the life or reign of Osiris may refer to the number
of days in a lunar month. The season of the year in
which the dismemberment of Osiris took place, was
the sun's entrance into the Scorpion, being the time
when, after light and darkness have been equally
balanced at the equinox, darkness begins to pre-
ponderate through the gloomy months of winter.
The order in which the events are recorded, also
favours the supposition that they relate to the
disappearance of the sun from the northern hemi-
sphere. The disappearance of Osiris in the chest took
place in autumn ; the voyage of Isis to discover his
remains was performed in the month of December ;
the search for them in Aegypt occurred about the
middle of winter ; and in the end of February, Osiris
entering into the moon fertilized the world. ^

A physical interpretation of the myth is given by
Plutarch. Osiris is the inundation of the Nile. Isis
is that portion of the land of Aegypt which is irri-
gated by its overflow. Horus, their offspring, is
the vapour which rises from the conjunction of the
two. Buto, or Leto, is the marshy part of the Delta,
where the vapour is nourished. Nephthys is the
edge of the desert, which is occasionally overflowed
during the very high inundations. Anubis, the
illegitimate son of Osiris by Nephthys, is the pro-
duction of that barren edge of the desert which
had been fertilized by the extraordinary overflow.
Typhon is the sea which swallows up the waters of
the Nile. The conspirators are the drought over-
coming the moisture from which the increase of the
Nile proceeds. The chest refers to the banks of the
Nile, within which the river retires after its in-
undation. The Tanaitic mouth refers to the low

belongs to a very much later date, for no representation of it is to be
found on the older monuments of Aegyj)t.
' Prichard's x\naly.sis, quoted Ijy Kenrick.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 467

and barren lands in the neighbourhood, which being Africa.
annually overflowed without producing any benefit cj^ap. v.
to the country, were held in great abhorrence by the
Aegyptians. The 28 years of the life of Osiris are
the 28 cubits to which the Nile rises at Elephantine,
being its greatest height. The 17th day of the
month Athyr is the period when the river retires
within its banks. The Queen of Aethiopia is the
south wind, which blowing from that country pre-
vents the Etesian, or annual north winds, from
carrying the clouds towards it, and thus keeps away
those showers of rain which cause the inundation of
the Nile. The different members of the body of
Osiris are the main channels and canals by which
the inundation passed into the interior of the country,
where each was said to have been subsequently
buried. The unrecovered member is the general
power of the Nile which still continued in the stream
itself. The victory of Horus refers to the power
possessed by the clouds of causing the successive
inundations of the Nile. Harpocrates, whom Isis
brought forth about the winter solstice, refers to
those weak shootings of the corn which are pro-
duced after the subsiding of the overflow.^

We now turn to Herodotus's account of Osiris, Herociotus's
Isis, and Horus. Of their history he says as little oTirrs^isis,
as possible, though he is repeatedly obliged to refer o^'sfrif or'^'
to their adventures. Osiris and Isis he describes as Dionysus
the two great national deities of Aegypt, and the bemeter,
only ones who were worshipped in the same manner tionl7der
by all the people.^ Osiris was identified with Dio- t'^^ °f ,
nysus ; ^ Isis with Demeter.* The image of Isis was isis lepre-
in the form of a woman, having the horns of a cow, lofand

per-

^ Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, vol. i., Second Series, to which volume
the reader is referred for fuller information upon the subject. Further
explanations of the Osirian myth will be found in Plutarch's Treatise of
Isis and Osiris.

2 ii. 42.

^ ii. 144. The conquests of Dionysus in India probably led the
Greeks to consider him to be the same as Osiris ; and Dionysus also,
under the name of Zagreus, was said to have been torn in pieces by the
Titans.

* ii. 59, ISfi.

2 H 2

468

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. T.

haps regard-
ed as the
moon.
Horus the
son, and
Bubastisthe
daughter, of
Osiris and
Isis conceal-
ed by Leto
in the float-
ing island of
Chemmis
from Ty-
phon.

Osiris, his
tombatSais.
Annual re-
presenta-
tion of his
allegorical
adventures
on the cir-
cular lake.

Isis, the
greatest
Aegyptian
goddess.
Represent-
ed like the
Greek lo.
Her temple
and festival
at Busiris.

and thus resembled the Greek images of lo/ and
appears to have been regarded as the moon.^

Osiris and Isis were the parents of two children ;
namely, the younger Horus, who was identified by
the Greeks with Apollo ; and Bubastis, or Pasht, who
was identified with Artemis.^ When Typhon was
searching everyv^diere for Horus, the goddess Isis
confided both Horus and his sister Bubastis to the
care of Leto, who henceforth became their nurse
and preserver. Leto is said to have concealed them
in that island, called Chemmis, which was situated
in the broad and deep lake near her own sacred
precinct in the city of Buto, and which in the time
of Herodotus was called the floating island.^

The tomb of Osiris was in the temple of Athene
at Sais, behind the chapel of the goddess. Herodo-
tus considered it would be impious to divulge his
name, but there can be no doubt that Osiris is
meant. Near it was a lake ornamented with a stone
margin, and resembling in size and shape the circu-
lar lake at Delos.^ At night time, on this lake, was
performed a representation of the allegorical adven-
tures of the same person, (Osiris,) which the Aegyp-
tians called mysteries ; and as this took place at
night, it was probably celebrated on the same occa-
sion as the Festival of Burning Lamps. ^ Herodotus
was accurately acquainted with the particulars of
these mysterious adventures, but considers himself
obliged to preserve a discreet silence.^

Isis was considered by the Aegyptians to be the
greatest of all the goddesses.^ And she was repre-
sented in the form of a woman, with the horns of a
cow, in the same way that the Greeks represented
lo.^ Her largest temple was erected in the city of
Busiris, in the centre of the Delta, and here was

' ii. 41. - ii. 47. ^ Comp. page 4.50.

^ ii. l.ofi. ■' ii. 170. « Comp. 452.

■^ ii. 171. Traces of this lake are still existing, as well as of the tem-
ple and of the tombs of the Saitic kings. Wilkinson, Modern Egypt and
'I'Jiehes, vol, i.

« ii. .59.

^ ii. 41. For the connexion between Isis and Athor, see page 4.59.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 469

celebrated her festival, which was more magnificently Africa.
observed than that of any other deity.' Bullocks ^"^^- ^-
were sacrificed to her in the same way that sacri- Bullocks sa-
fices were made to the other deities.^ After how- ^'eJ|'',^'inst
ever the bullocks were flayed and the prayers off'ered, the'Yotaiies
the sacrificers took out all the intestines, and left the selves, and
vitals together with the fat in the carcase ; they qI^^^J ^°''
next cut off the legs and the extremity of the hip,
and also the shoulders and neck ; and then, last of
all, they filled the body with fine bread, honey,
raisins, figs, frankincense, myrrh, and other per-
fiimes, and burnt it, pouring over it a great quan-
tity of oil. These sacrifices were performed after a
fast, and whilst the offerings were being burnt, all
'the worshippers, to the number of many myriads,
beat themselves ; but Herodotus considered that it
would be impious for him to divulge for whom it
was that they thus acted : ^ there can however be no
doubt but that it was for Osiris. The Carian set-
tlers in Aegypt also cut their foreheads with knives,
and thus showed themselves to be foreigners.* When
the sacrifice and beating were all over, a banquet
was spread of the remains of the victims.^ Cows Cows sacred
and female calves were not sacrificed, as they were
sacred to Isis, and more reverenced by the Aegyp-
tians than any other cattle.^

Osii'is and Isis were said by the Aeffvptians to ?^i"^ ^'^^

J o^ X Isis consi-

hold the chief sway in the infernal regions. The deredbythe
Aegyptians also were the first who maintained that to^fe the'^^
the soul of man was immortal, and that when the i^^^ics^^im^

1 ii. 59. 2 See page 471. ^ ii. 61.

* Ibid. This self-wounding was undoubtedly a foreign custom, and pro-
bably of Phoenician origin. The worshippers of Baal are described as act-
ing in a similar manner when opposed to Elijah — " And they cried aloud,
and cut themselves after their manner with knives and lancets, till the
blood gushed out upon them." (I Kings xviii. 1^8.) Similar practices
were however probably observed by the Aegyptians, for we find Moses
directly forbidding them — " Ye shall not cut youi'selves, nor make any
baldness between your eyes for the dead." (Deut. xiv. 1.) Mr. Bowditch
tells us that those persons in Ashantee, who pretend to sudden in-
spiration, or that the fetish has come upon them, lacerate themselves
dreadfully by rolhng over the sharp points of rocks, beating themselves,
and tearing their flesh with their own hands, so as to present the most
shocking spectacle.

5 ii. 40. « ii. 41.

470 AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA, body perished it entered into some animal ; and

CHAP. V. tliat thus it continued to exist until it had passed

~ ■„ through the different kinds of creatures on the earth,

mortality oi.O i-i • r i • i • '

the soul pro- m the sca, and m the an-, aiter which it again as-
FCdogma^ sumed a human form, and thus completed a revolu-
sychoSs""^' ■tion, which occupied three thousand years. ^
Cycle of A specimen of the Aegyptian ideas connected with

iiiustSn the infernal regions is to be found in the following
gyptfaif^' strange story told by our author. Rhampsinitus,
Measof gno of the ancient kings at Memphis, descended
the sto'ry alive into Hades, and there played at dice with Isis,
siLSu^.°^^" and sometimes won, and at other times lost. ^¥lien
he returned to the surface of the earth, he brought
with him a napkin of gold which had been presented
to him by the goddess. Since then the Aegyptians,
in memory of the extraordinary descent, had cele-
brated a festival, which was still held in the time of
Herodotus. On a certain day the priests, having
woven a cloak, placed it upon one of their number,
and bound his eyes with a scarf, and then conducted
him to the road leading to the temple of Isis, where
they left him. According to the JDopular belief, two
wolves subsequently led the priest with his eyes
bandaged to the temple of Isis, which was situated
twenty stadia from the city, and afterwards the same
wolves led him back to the spot from whence he had
started.^
Worship of The worship of Osiris and of Isis was not only
?sis" ntvCT- universal throughout Aegypt, but also characterized
Its' ecuii ^y some remarkable peculiarities. Swine in general
arities. wcrc considcrod by the Aegyptians to be so impure,
though con- that if a man in passing a pig only touched it with
imTre ani- ^^^ garments, he was obliged to plunge into the Nile
mai, sacri- to purify liimsolf ; whilst swineherds, although na-
fufi moon '^ tive Acgyptiaus, were not allowed to enter any of
d°S the temples, nor would a man give his daughter in
marriage to a swineherd, nor yet take a wife from
that degraded caste. Swine however were sacri-
ficed both to Isis and Osiris, but though Herodotus
was acquainted with the Aegyptian tradition, which
1 ii. 123. 2 ii 122.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. . 471

accounted for this incongruity, yet he considered it africa.
most becoming in him not to mention it. The sa- ^^^^'^- ^•
orifices to the moon, or Isis, and to Dionysus, or Itthe^ffeT"
Osiris, were performed at the same fall moon. In tivaiof isis
the former festival the sacrificer slew the victim, and spleen, 'and
then put together the tip of the tail with the sj)leen pi^las*^^
and the caul, and covered them with the fat which ^he "est'"*
was found about the belly of the animal, and con- eaten.
sumed them with fire. The rest of the flesh was
eaten by the Aegyptians during the full moon in
which the sacrifices were offered, but on no other
day would they even taste it. The poorer classes of Pigsof bak-
people, who were unable to offer swine, were accus- okredV
tomed to shape pigs out of dough and bake them, t^epoor.
and offer them in sacrifice.^ In the worship of Dio- Atthefes-
nysus, or Osiris, every one slew a pig before his door Slapfg^^'"
on the eve of the festival, and then restored it to the ^^^^"^ ^l

' 6VGry door,

swineherd from whom he had bought it, and who there- and Diony-
upon carried it away. The remainder of the festival, cdebmted.
with the exception of that which regarded the pigs,
was celebrated by the Aegyptians in much the same
manner as the Dionysiac festival was kept by the
Hellenes. Instead of phalli however the Aegyp-
tians had invented certain images, about a cubit in
height, which were moved by strings, and of which
the alloLoq was almost as large as the rest of the body.
These images were carried about the villages by the
women, who sang the praises of Dionysus, whilst a
pipe led the way. Why the alloioQ was so large and
moved no other part of the body, was accounted for
by a sacred story. ^ The name and sacrifices of
Dionysus, together ^vith the procession of the phallus,
were introduced by Melampus into Greece with
only a few trifling alterations.^

Apis, in whom Osiris was supposed occasionally Heiodotus's
to manifest himself, is described by our author at Ap°J;''^*°^
greater length and with less reserve. Apis, or Epaphus,

, 1 ii. 47.

2 ii. 48. Wilkinson thinks that Herodotus, in his description of the
Priapeian Osiris, had the deity Khem or Pan in his eye.
3ii. 49.

472 AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA, as he was called by the Greeks, was according to
CHAP. T. liini a young bull, whose mother could have no other
Be-otten on offsi^ruig. The Acgyptians said that he was begot-
a cSw by a ten by a flash of lightning which descended from
lightning, heaven. He was known by certain marks : his hair
his'bk'Jk^ was black, but on his forehead was a square spot of
hair, white ^l^itc, on his back the figure of an eagle, on his
mark on his tonguc a bectlo, and in his tail the hairs were double.^
eaSe^'on'his Ho Only appeared at distant intervals, but when
^nMs^^^*^'' the manifestation took place, public rejoicings were
tongue, and celebrated throughout Aegypt, and all the people
in his teir^ put on their best attire, and kept festive holiday.
.j^iSngs'ou It was these festivities which excited the anger of
his appear- Cambyscs, for Apis appeared just at the failure of
the Persian expeditions against Aethiopia and Am-
sacrDegious mon. Cambyscs demanded the cause of the ill-
cambysel timed rcjoicings ; but on hearing the sacred legend
from the magistrates of Memphis, he said they were
liars, and put them to death.^ He next summoned
the priests, and ordered them to bring Apis before
him,^ but then, like one bereft of his senses, he drew
his dagger and stabbed the animal in the thigh, and
scoffed at the flesh and blood deity of the Aegyp-
tians. He then issued orders for the priests to be
scourged, and for all the Aegyptians found feasting
to be executed. Apis subsequently died, and was
buried by the priests without the knowledge of
Cambyses, who, according to the Aegyptians, went
mad in consequence of his sacrilegious atrocity.* A
coiirt for court for Apis was built by Psammitichus at Mem-
^t'^Me^mphis phis, opposito the southern portico of the temple of
tichuT"'"''' Hephaestus ; and here Apis was fed whenever he
appeared. The court was surrounded by a colon-
nade which was supported, not by pillars, but by
statues twelve cubits high.^
Further It is imposiblc to ascertain whether Herodotus is

Apis from correct in his description of the peculiar marks of
S'and Dio- Apis ] f^om bronzcs however that have been dis-
doms. covered in Aegypt, we learn tliat the figure of a vul-
ture on his back, and not the eagle, was one of his

' iii. 28. - iii. 27. •■ iii. 28. * iii. 29, 30. ' ii. 153.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 473

characteristics, and was no doubt supplied by the africa.
priests themselves. He was kept at Memphis, and chap. t.
at that city was most particularly worshipped.
Attached to the court built by Psammitichus, were
probably the two stables or thalami mentioned
by Pliny ; ^ and Strabo says that the mother of
Apis was kept in the vestibule leading to the court,
and that here Apis himself was sometimes intro-
duced in order to be shown to strangers.^ When
Apis died his obsequies were celebrated with the
utmost magnificence, and sometimes almost occasion-
ed the ruin of his keeper. After the funeral was
over, the priests sought out for another calf marked
with the sacred symbols. As soon as he was found
they led him to the city of the Nile, and kept him
there forty days. During this period none but
women were permitted to see him, and they placed
themselves full in his view, and immodestly exposed
themselves.^ At its completion he was placed in a
boat with a golden cabin, and transported in state
to Memphis, and conducted to his sacred enclosure
by the temple of Hephaestus.*

We must now turn to the Aegyptian monuments, Aegyptian
to see what further light can be thrown upon the of'osnis?'^^
history and character of Osiris. The Greeks iden-
tified him with Dionysus, from his conquests and
adventures upon earth ; and also with Pluto, from
his office as Paler of Hades, or Amenti. Upon the Reprcsent-
Aegyptian monuments he is prominently brought monuments
forward in the latter character, namely, as a Judge ''^^ "^^'^s^ °^

^ Pliny, viii. 46. ^ Strabo, xvii. p. 555.

3 Some modern writers reject all statements which cast a slur on the
humanity, the morality, or the decency of the Aegyptian people, on the
ground that they cannot be reconciled with the mildness, the morals,
and the pvuity which are presumed to have been the leading character-
istics of the nation. Such arguments are however insufficient to con-
trovert the plain and unanimous evidence of the ancient writers. A
pantheistic idolatry like that of the Aegyptians always leads some men
to indulge their natural tastes for cruelty and impurity, and such vices
are contagious in the highest degree. It is a rejection of facts for the
sake of theories, to argue otherwise, and we might as well say that a man
endowed with common sense cannot do any wrong, because he must
know how very wrong it would be for him to do it.
* Diod. i. 84.

474

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. V.

the Dead,
and Ruler
of Anienti,
or Hades.

Actions of
deceased
persons re-
corded bj"
Thoth, and
weighed by
Auubis in
the scales of
Truth.

If found
Avanting,
the soul is
sent back to
earth in the
form of an
animal : if
justified by
its works,
the soul is
introduced

of the Dead, and Euler over that kingdom where the
souls of good men are received into eternal felicity.^
He is represented as seated on liis throne in the
centre of the divine abode, accompanied by Isis and
Neplithys, and with the four genii of Amenti (the
Acgyptian Hades) standing on a lotus near him.
In this position he receives the account of the ac-
tions of the deceased which have been recorded by
Thoth, or Hermes. Anubis, his son by Nephthys,
weighs the actions of the deceased in the scales of
Truth, the feather or figure of Tlimei, the goddess of
Truth, being jolaced in one scale, and the virtuous
deeds of the judged in the other. A Cynocephalus,
the emblem of Thoth, sits on the upper part of the
balance ; and Cerberus, the guardian of the palace
of Osiris, is likewise present. Sometimes also Har-
pocrates, the symbol of resuscitation and anewbii'th,
is seated on a crook ; thus expressing the idea that
nothing created is ever annihilated, and that to cease
to be is only to assume another form, dissolution
being merely the passage to reproduction.

If the actions of the deceased when weighed are
"found wanting," he is condemned to return to
earth under the form of some animal ; if, on
the contrary, he is justified by his works, he is
introduced by Horus into the presence of Osiris, and
henceforth called by his name. Thus the souls of
men were considered to be emanations of the Deity:

^ No representation of the mythic adventures of Osiris upon earth is
to be found on the older monuments of Aegypt, but at Philae some curi-
ous sculptures illustrative of this history are to be seen, in a building
which belongs to the latest age of the Ptolemies and the commence-
ment of the Roman dominion. Philae was one of the places where
Osiris was supposed to have been buried, and where he was particularly
worshipped ; and the sculptures are presei'ved on the wa,lls of an interior
secret chamber, which lies nearly over the western adytum of the temple.
The death and removal of Osiris from this world are there described.
The number of 2S lotus plants points out the period of years he was
fhought to have lived on earth; and his passage from this life to a
future state is indicated by the usual attendance of the deities and genii
who presided over the funeral rites of ordinary mortals. He is then
represented with the feathered cap, which he wore in his capacity of
Judge of Amenti ; and Ibis attribute shows the iinal oflice which he held
after his resurrection, and contiiuied to exercise towards the dead at their
last ordeal in a future state. Cf. Wilkinson, Ancient Er/yptians, vol. i..
Second Scries.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 475

those of the good returned after death unto God africa.
who gave them ; those of the wicked were doomed chap. v.
to pass through the bodies of different animals, bTno^!^
until a purification, corresponding to their degree of into the pre-
impiety, had fitted them to return to that parent oshis.
spirit from which they originally emanated.^ Osiris P*j",Y°^'^
was thus in reality that attribute of the Deity which the" divine
signifies the divine goodness ; and in his most soo"^^"^^^^-"
mysterious and sacred office as an avatar, or mani-
festation of the Divinity on earth, he was superior
to any even of the eight great gods. The manner Manner of
of his manifestation was always a profound secret, festatlon'
revealed only to some of those who were initiated 1^p°'! '^'^^'^}^

11-1 1 n • T • !-> • involved in

nito the higher order of mysteries. It is sufficient mystery.
to say that he was not regarded as a human being,
who after death was translated into the order of
demigods ; for we learn both from Plutarch ^ and
from Herodotus,^ that no Aegyptian deity was sup-
posed to have lived on earth, and to have been
deified after death, and that, in fact, n6 heroes were
ever worshipped. Osiris was the '^' manifester of
good," or " opener of truth," and was said to be
''full of goodness and truth." He appeared on
earth to benefit the human race ; and after he had
performed his mission, and fallen a sacrifice to
Typhon, the evil principle, whom he subsequently
overthrew, he rose again to a new life, and became
the Judge of the Dead and Ruler of Hades. Thus,
after the dead had passed their final ordeal, and been
freed fi-om their bodies, passions, and all other
impediments ; and when they had been absolved
from all the sins they had committed, and impuri-
ties they had contracted during their probation
upon earth ; they obtained, in the name of Osiris
which they then took, the blessings of a new and
spiritual life, in which they enjoyed eternal feli-

This existence of Osiris upon earth, or manifest- fSEmt

^ Wilkinson, Ancient JEr/yptians, vol. i., Second Series.
- Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride, s. 22, 23. ^ ii. 50.

* Plutarch, passim. Cf. also Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, vols. i.
and ii.. Second Series ; and Kenrick, Ancient Egypt, vol. i.

476

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA.

CHAP. V.

cal charac-
ter of the
theory.

Symbolical
figure of
Osiris.

Isis vari-
ously reprc-
sonted on
the monu-
ments,
and often
confounded
^s4th Athor,

ation of the Divine goodness, was undoubtedly a
speculative theory; and we may regard it as an
allegory presenting many points of resemblance to
the avatars of the Indian Vishnoo. We may even
go farther, and be inclined to think that the Aegyp-
tian hierarchy, having heard of the primeval pro-
mises made by Jehovah of the coming of a real
Saviour to redeem mankind and bruise the ser-
pent's head, had anticipated that glorious advent,
and not only recorded it as though it had already
haj^pened, but had introduced that mystery into
their religious system. Such a ray of that Divine
light, which was in after-times to be a light to the
Gentiles, and a glory to Israel, may indeed have
served to brighten the purer worship of the early
Aegyptian religion. But the glory became dim ;
the germ of truth was lost amid lying and absurd
fables ; and nothing remained but a mythic avatar,
and the revolting ceremonies of the hateful and
corrupting phallephoria.

Osiris is frequently found on the monuments as
Plutarch describes him, namely, of a black colour.
More frequently however he is painted green. As
Judge of Amenti, or Hades, he is represented in the
form of a mummied figure, holding in his crossed
hands the crook and flagellum. His garments are
pure white. On his head he wears the cap of Upper
Aegypt decked with ostrich feathers. Sometimes a
spotted skin is suspended near him, an emblem
which is supposed to connect him with the Greek
Dionysus. Occasionally also he appears with his
head, and even his face, covered with the four-barred
symbol, which in hieroglyphics signifies " stability,"
and may also refer to the intellect of the Deity. He
was the first member of the triad composed of
Osiris, Isis, and Horus.

Isis, the wife and sister of Osiris, the daughter of
Cronos, and the mother of Horus, was identified by
Herodotus botli witli Dcmctcr and the Moon ; she was
also thought to answer to Persephone because she pre-
sided with Osiris in the region of Hades, or Amenti.

AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 477

From the various combinations into which she enter- africa.

CHAP. V.

ed she bore numerous characters, and has been con-
founded with many different deities. Her general and other
form was that of a female with a throne upon her head, deities.
particularly when she was represented as the presid-
ing goddess of Amenti. In olden times however
she was sometimes figured with a cow's head, as
well as with a head-dress and globe surmounted
by the horns of Athor, the Aegyptian Aphrodite, and
in that case she assumed the attributes of that god-
dess. Sometimes, in addition to the globe and liorns,
the flowers of water plants were rising from her
head, particularly when she was represented as the
mother of the infant Horus, and the second naember
of the triad composed of Osiris, and herself, and son.
Occasionally she was represented with the head of
a cat, or with the attributes of Bubastis. Fre-
quently she wears a cap representing the sacred
vulture ; the small head of the bird projects from
her forehead, its body covers her head, and its
wings extend down the sides of her face as far as
her shoulder. Her title of "royal wife and sister"
was derived from her marriage with her brother
Osiris ; and from this mythic event is said to have
originated that peculiar custom which prevailed in
Aegypt from the time of the Pharaohs to that of the
Ptolemies, of permitting brothers and sisters to
unite in matrimonial alliance.

Apis, the sacred bull of Memphis, was, according Aegyptian
to Plutarch, a fair and beautifal image of the soul Apis."
of Osiris. The Aegyptians regarded him as the
living representative of this deity. They consulted
him as a divine oracle, and drew good or bad omens
from the manner in which he received his food, or
from the stable which he might happen to enter.
Children were suj)posed to receive from him the
gift of prophecy, and crocodiles refused to attack
mankind during the seven days' festival which cele-
brated his birth.'

1 Plutarch, de Is. et Os. Cf. also Wilkinson, Anc. Egyjitians, vol. i.,
Second Series.

CHAP. \.

Couchision.

478 AEGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY.

AFRICA. Here then we conclude our attempt to develope
and illustrate the mythology of the Aegyptians as
understood by Herodotus. We shall now proceed
to enter upon our author's account of the peculiar
manners, customs, and civilization of the people ;
to which branch of our subject, as our matter has
already far exceeded our intended limits, we are
compelled to devote a separate chapter.

CHAPTER VI.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

Exclusiveness of the Aegyptians prior to the Persian conquest. — Their AFRICA,
manners and customs, ancient and peculiar. — Aegyptian castes. — Two ch\p. vi.

castes omitted by Diodorus. — Seven castes in India, according to Megas-

thenes. — The seven Aegyptian castes, according to Herodotus. — I. The
Priests, or piromis. — Colleges at Memphis, Thebes, Heliopolis, and
Sais. — Estates for their maintenance. — Daily allowance of beef, geese,
and wine. — Fish and beans denied. — Shaved their bodies every third
day. — Wore garments of linen, and shoes of byblus. — Washed four times
in 24 hours. — II. The Soldiers, a military race divided into the Hermo-
tybies, and Calasires. — Chiefly quartered in Lower Aegypt. — Not allowed
to trade. — Each man in possession of twelve acres of land. — Royal body-
guard composed of 2000 men, changed annually. — Daily rations of 5 lbs.
of bread, 2 lbs, of beef, and a quart of wine. — Garrisons on the frontiers.
— Five inferior castes, including the masses, very imperfectly distin-
guished by ancient writers. — Every man obliged to show once a year
that he lived by honest means. — III. The Herdsmen probably included
husbandmen, nomades,and the marsh-men of the Delta. — IV. The Swine-
herds, a Pariah caste. — V. The Traders probably included several
subdivisions which were all hereditary. — VI. The Interpreters, first
originated in the reign of Psammitichus. — VII. The Steersmen, or
navigators of the Nile. — Great extent of the river navigation. — Physical
characteristics of the Aegyptians. — Described by Herodotus as being
swarthy, and curly-headed. — Represented in the paintings as being of a
red brown colour. — Probably brown like the modern Copts. — Different
complexions of the people. — Hair of the mummies either crisp or flow-
ing.— Average height. — Fulness of the lips, and elongation of the eye.
— Intermediate between the Syro- Arabian and the Aethiopian type. —
Good health of the Aegyptian people. — Thickness of their skulls. — ■
Population of Aegypt. — Manners and customs of the Aegyptians. —
Singularly contrary to those of other nations. — Herodotus's memoranda
of the several contrasts. — Markets attended by the women. — The woof
pushed downwards in weaving. — Burdens carried on men's heads and
women's shoulders. — Meals taken outside the house. — No priestesses. —
Daughters, and not sons, obliged to support their parents. — Priests shave
their heads. — Laity leave their hair to grow whilst mourning for near
relations. — Live with animals. — Make their bread of spelt.^ — Knead
with their feet. — Circumcision practised. — Rings and sail sheets fastened
outside their boats. — Writing and ciphering from left to right. — Dress
of the Aegyptians, a linen tunic and white woollen mantle. — Equip-
ment of the marines in the navy of Xerxes. — Social customs. — Married
only one wife. — Mode of salutation. — Reverence for the aged. — -Especial
cleanUness.^ — Scoured brazen cups, and wore clean linen. — Circumcision.
— Regarded the Greeks as impure. — Food of the Aegyptians. — Beef. — •

480

MANNEES OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA.

CHAP. TI.

Geese. — All fish and birds not accounted sacred. — Bread made of spelt,
and called zea. — Wine from the grape probably imported from Greece.
— Phoenician palm wine, and wine made from barley. — Radishes, onions,
and garlic. — INIarsh-men of the Delta lived on the lotus, the stalk of the
byblus, and dried fish. — Extracted an oil fi'om the sillicyprion, called
Kiki. — Strange custom of carrying round the image of a corpse at drink-
ing parties. — Extraordinary preservation of a very ancient dirge called
Maneros, which resembled the Greek Linus. — Question as to wdiether
it may not have originated in the death of the fii'st-born at the exode of
the Israelites. — Aegyptian manner of mourning for the dead. — Embalm-
ing, a regular profession in Aegypt. — Models kept by the embalmers of
the three diff'erent modes. — Description of the most expensive style. —
Middle way of embalming. — Cheapest method. — Recovered bodies of
persons killed by crocodiles, or drowned in the Nile, regarded as sacred,
and embalmed in the best manner at the public expense. — Art of medi-
cine subdivided into numerous branches. — Purging generally practised.
— Science of geometry originated in the yearly re-measuring of the land
after the inundations. — Character of the Aegyptian writing. — Two kinds
of letters noticed by Herodotus, the sacred or hieratic, and the common
or demotic. — General sketch of the three modes of Aegyptian writing. —
I. The Hieroglyphic, including pictures representing objects, pictui'es
representing ideas, and pictures representing sounds. — H. The Hieratic,
or sacred writing, a species of short-hand hieroglyphics. — III. The En-
chorial, or common writing. — Aegyptian mode of building the merchant
barge, called a baris. — Hull formed of short planks, joined together like
bricks. — Generally towed up stream. — Down stream were tugged by a
hurdle at the prow, and steadied by a stone at the stern. — Feticism of
the Aegyptians. — Animals did not abound in Aegypt, but all considered
sacred, whether wild or domesticated.^ — Curators appointed over each
species. — Maintained by the vows of parents. — The murder of an animal,
if wilful, punished by death, if accidental, by a fine, but the murderer of
the Ibis, or hawk, always executed. — Cats sacred to Bubastis, or Pasht.
— Number diminished by the males killing the kittens, and the cats
rushing into fires. — Embalmed and buried at Bubastis. — Dogs. —
Ichneumons. — Field Mice. — Hawks. — Bears. — The bird Ibis. — Two
species, the black and the white Ibis. — Bulls sacred to Apis. — Cows
sacred to Isis. — Burial of kine. — No cattle killed by the Aegyptians.- —
Established mode of sacrifice. — Crocodiles, Herodotus's description of
their nature and habits. — Singular affection for the trochilus. — Worship-
ped in the neighbourhood of Thebes, and Lake Moeris. — Killed and
eaten at Elephantine. — Caught by means of a hook baited with a chine
of pork. • — Hippopotamus. — Otter. — Lepidotus. — Eel. — Fox-goose. —
Phoenix, its picture as seen by Herodotus. — Story told of it by the Heli-
opolitans. — Horned serpents. — Fish, strange account of their genera-
tion.—Musquitoes infecting the marshes.

Exclusive- The Acf^yptians prior to the reign of Psammiti-

Ac^/ptians clius, B. c. 680, presGiited the same attitude towards

PCTsian^^'' the Greeks,' as the Chinese have presented towards

conquest. Europcan strangers ; and even down to the reign of

Amasis, b. c. 570, the city of Naucratis was hke the

port of Canton, the only mart in Aegypt where

Greek merchants were permitted to trade. Amasis

ii. l.')L

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 481

however encouraged the Greeks to settle in his africa.
dominions/ and after the Persian conquest, b. c. 530, ^hap. vi.
the country was thrown equally open to the enter-
prising trader or philosophic traveller, and Herodo-
tus was enabled to traverse the entire extent of
Aegypt from the mouths of the Delta to the cata-
racts of Syene.

The people, thus exposed to the inquiring gaze of Their man-
our author, attracted his attention to an extraordi- customs
nary degree. Their climate, their river, and their pgc^^n^/'^*^
manners and customs were all strange and peculiar.^
They considered themselves to be the most ancient
people in the world next to the Phrygians,^ and they
had retained their ancient usages and acquired no
new ones,* either from the Greeks or from any other
nation/ Before however we treat of these particu-
lars, it may be advisable to notice the division of
the people into castes, their physical characteristics,
and the probable amount of population in ancient
times.

The Aegyptians, according to Herodotus, were Aegyptian
divided into seven classes, or castes, namely, 1. the
Priests, 2. the Soldiers, 3. the Herdsmen, 4. the
Swineherds, 5. the Tradesmen, 6. the Interpreters,
and, 7. the Steersmen, or Navigators.'' Diodorus, Two castes
after the Priests and Soldiers, only names the Hus- iHodOTus7
bandmen, the Shepherds, and the Artificers, and
omits the Interpreters and Steersmen altogether.^
We shall have occasion to compare his account with
that of Herodotus further on. Megasthenes, in re- Seven castes
ference to India, tells us that the whole population according to
there was divided into seven castes, viz. the Philo- Megasthe-

sophers, who sacrificed and prepared the feasts of
the dead ; the Farmers ; the Shepherds and Hunters ;
the Artisans, Innholders, and bodily Labourers of
all kinds ; the Military ; the Inspectors ; and the
Counsellors and Assessors of the king.^ In the pre-
sent day there are four Indian castes, viz. the Brah-

1 ii. 178, 179. 2 ii, 35. 3 jj. 2. See also p. 236.

* ii. 79. Mi. 91. « ii. 164. ^ Diod. i. 74.

® Megasthenes in Strabo, lib, xv.

2 I

nes.

482

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA.

CHAP. VI.

The seven

Aegyptian

castes.

I. The

Priests,

called

Piromis.

Colleges at
Memphis,
Thebes, _
Heliopolis,
and Sais.

Estates for
their main-
tenance.

mins, tlie Cshatriyas, the Vaisyas, and the Sudras.
The first is taken from the mouth, the organ of the
intellectual part, and comprises priests and philoso-
phers ; the second is taken from the arms, or de-
fending part, and comprises magistrates and soldiers ;
the third is taken from the thigh, or supporting part,
and comprises farmers and merchants ; and the
fourth is taken from the feet, or labouring part, and
comprises artisans, labourers, and common people.
We shall now notice each of the Aegyptian castes in
the order laid down by Herodotus.

I. The Peiests were undoubtedly the principal
caste. The first step taken by the patriarch Joseph
after his elevation, was to connect himself with the
priest caste by marrying the daughter of the high
priest of On, or Heliopolis.^ The priests bore the
Aegyptian -title of Piromis, which, according to
Herodotus's translation, signified " a noble and good
man," but most likely referred not to their moral cha-
racter, but to the nobleness of their descent f and we
find that during the seven years' famine in the time
of Joseph, they were the only class who were not
driven by necessity to part with their estates.^

The principal colleges of the priests were of course
connected with the temples of the great cities.
Herodotus mentions those of Pthah at Memphis, of
Amun at Thebes, of Pa, or Phrah, at Heliopolis,
and of Neith at Sais. Many priests were employed
for the service of each deity, of whom one was ap-
pointed to be chief or high priest, and the sacerdotal
office of the father was inherited by his son.'^ Ex-
tensive estates were attached to every temple, and
therefore belonged to each college of priests in

1 Gen. xli. 4.'). Poti-pherah, the name of the high priest, is evidently
compounded of Re, or Ra, which, with the Coptic article prefixed, be-
comes Phreh, or Phrah, the Sun, or' Helios. See p. 45.5. Poti-pherah
was piiest of the Sun.

2 ii. 14.3. In the Coptic the word Piromi merely signifies " the man ;"
Pi being the definite article, and romi signifying "man." Either there-
fore Flerodotus did not understand the language, or, in the old Aegyp-
tian language, the word " man " had become a title of honour. Cf.
Jablonsky, Proleq. § 18.

» Gen. xlvii. '22. " ^ ii. 37.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 483

common, and Herodotus expressly alludes to the Africa.
steward or bursar of the college of priests at Sais/ ^hap. yi.
who had been appointed to manage the reyenues,
and likewise belonged to the priest caste. Out of
this common fund the necessaries of life were sup-
plied to the priests and their families belonging to
each temple, so that none were obliged to expend
any portion of their private property.^ A large paiiy ai-

•^ K , f -, n 1 ^ 11 J ^ lowances of

quantity of beet and geese was cooked every day, beef, geese,
and allowed to each of them, together with a cer- ^""^ ^'^^■
tain measure of wine made of grapes ; but they were
never permitted to eat fish,^ and they considered ^f^^^'^^
beans to be so very impure that they abhorred the denied.
very sight of those vegetables/ They shaved the ^^'^^^^^^^^j^g
whole of their bodies every third day, to prevent eyery thud
any lice or other impurity being found upon them, ^'^'^•
when enffaffed in the service of the gods/ They woregar-

oto o jji ments of

wore garments made oi linen only, and not tiie imen, and
woollen mantle worn by the other classes; their ^ybius.
shoes were made of the papyrus, or byblus plant.
They washed themselves twice every day and twice washed

J . . PI ; fo^ii' times

every night, and, in a word, perlormed a great intwenty-

S jC • fi four hovirs.

number oi ceremonies.

II. The Soldiers were a military race, like the |^jj^JJ'^\g^
Rajpoots of Hindustan, and certainly, as well as the a military'
priest caste, were one of the most distinguished races ecUiitoThe
of the nation. They were divided into the Hermo- JJesTn?"
tybies and the Calasires.^ The Hermotybies when theCaia-

•' "^ sires.

^ ii. 28. ^ ii. 37. Compare Heeren's Egyptians, chap. ii.

^ Fish were considered to be neither a dainty nor a necessary kind of
food, and their species were especially abhorred, from their having de-
voured that part of the body of Osiris which Isis was unable to discover.

* Those who had been initiated in the Greek mysteries were also for-
bidden to taste beans, because Demeter considered them to be impure,
at the same time that she blessed mankind with all other kinds of seed
for his use. Cf. Baehr.

* The lice of modern Aegj^pt are not always to be avoided, even by the
most scrupulous cleanliness, yet a person who changes his linen after two
or three days' wear is very seldom annoyed by them, as they are generally
found in the linen, and do not attach themselves to the skin. Lane's
Modern Egyptians, vol. i.

s ii. 57- We learn from Mr. Bowditch that the priests in Ashantee are
also hereditary ; and they are exempted from all taxes, regularly sup-
plied with meat and wine, consulted by the king before he undertakes a
war, and shave their heads carefully and frequently.

7 ii. 164.

2 I 2

484 MANNEES OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA, most numerous were 160,000 men; and the Cala-
cHAP.Ti. gires were 250,000 men. Both these possessed cer-
chieiij ^^ii^ nomes, or districts, which are named by Hero-
quaitered dotus,^ from which it is evident that nearly the
Aegypt. whole of the Aegyptian forces were concentrated in
Lower Aegjrpt. The Hermotybies possessed four
nomes and a half within, the Delta, and the Cala-
sires eleven nomes; whilst they each had only a
single nome in all Middle and Upper Aegypt,
Not allowed namely, Chemmis and Thebes.^ No one who be-
to tra e. longed to the warrior caste was permitted to carry
on any trade, but all were obliged to devote them-
selves wholly to the art of war, and this destination
Each man descondod from father to son.^ Their pay consisted
of^weive""^ of tlio produco of their estates, for, like the priests,
acres of they woro all landed proprietors, and each man pos-
sessed twelve aruras, or acres, of land, free from all
Royal body- tribute.* One thousand Hermotybies and one thou-
poSi of "^" sand Calasires served as the king's body-guard, but
chang^d'^n- ^cro chaugcd annually, and no man was appointed
nuaiiy. twicc. Evory one of these household troops re-
tio^ns'^ofsibs. ceived daily, during his year of service, five minas
m^S'eef, weight of baked bread, two minas of beef, and four
and a quart arvstors of wino/ in addition to the income which he

Ox Avinc -1 •

Garrisons dcrivcd ffom liis ostato.^ Military depots were also
tSi?^ ^™'^" formed on the frontiers, and garrisons were stationed

^ The nomes belonging to the Hermotybies were Busiris, Sais, Chem-
mis, Papremis, the island of Prosopitis, and the half of Natho. Those
belonging to the Calasires were Thebes, Bubastis, Aphthis, Tanis, Men-
des, Sebennys, Athribis, Pharbaethis, Thmuis, Onuphis, Anysis, and
Mycephoris, which last was situated in an island opposite the city of
Bubastis. ii. 165, 166.

^ ii. 165, 166. The constant fear of invasion from Asia may have led '
to this settlement of the military forces in the Delta. It must have ex-
isted from the earliest times, for the rapidity with which Pharaoh assem-
bled his army for the pursuit of the fugitive Israelites, evinces clearly
enough that the warrior caste of that epoch must have been quartered in
the same districts in which Herodotus places them.

3 Ibid.

"^ These estates and those of the priests were, according to Diodorus,
farmed out to husbandmen at easy rents ; but we need not suppose that
no soldier was allowed to cultivate his estate, though we know that
handicraft trades were forbidden and considered debasing.

•'' In English measures about 5 lbs. of bread, 2 lbs. of beef, and a quart
of wine.

« ii. 168.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 485

at Elephantine against the Aethiopians, at the Pelu- Africa.
sian Daphnae against the Arabians and Syrians, chap. vi.
and at Marea against the Libyans. The neglect to
relieve these distant establishments led to the mi-
gration of 240,000 of their number to Aethiopia.^

The five remaining castes, namely, the herdsmen, Five infe-
the swineherds, the traders, the interpreters, and inciudSg '
the steersmen might be almost regarded as one class, ^^^ "^^^*^\!.
for they were all excluded from the possession of fectiycUstin-
land, the privileges of the priestly and military fncLnt ^
castes, and from every department of political life. "*^^^'^^®-
They formed, in fact, the great working class, and Every man
Herodotus tells us that Amasis established a law, shol^^cea
which compelled every man on pain of death to ^Yel*'' to-
present himself once a year before the governor of nest means.
his nome, and declare by what means he maintained
himself.^ Our author's enumeration of the castes
however does not agree with that of Diodorus, nor
is it probable that any ancient writer has enumer-
ated all the subdivisions into which the populace, or
masses, may have been separated. No particular
order either can be observed in the arrangement of
Herodotus, though we have thought it advisable to
take it as our basis, and add to it such explanatory
information as we can gather from other portions of
his history.

III. The Herdsmen are scarcely noticed by He- m. The
rodotus. They seem to have been divided into ^obaWyiif,
those who inhabited fixed abodes, and those who ^Smen'''
were nomades. The former are apparently described nomades,'
as tlwse who inhabited that part of Aegypt which marshmen
was sown with corn, and who cultivated the memory oft^^e Delta.
of past events more than any other men, and were
the best informed people with whom he ever came
into communication.^ The nomades, who roamed
through the plains which bordered on the desert,
are barely named.* The tribes who inhabited the
marshy plains of the Delta may also have belonged
to the same class, ^ but we shall have occasion to

^ ii. 30. See chap, on Aethiopia. ^ j\ 177,

^ ii. 77. * ii. 128. » ^ 92.

486

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA.

CHAP. VI,

IV. The

Swine-
herds, a
Pariah
caste.

V. The
Traders,
probably in-
cluded seve-
ral subdivi-
sions, which
were aU
hereditary.

VI. The In-
terpret-
ers, first
originated
in the reign
of Psammi-
tichus.

VII. The
Steers-

notice their mode of life wlien we describe the man-
ners of the Aegyptians generally.

IV. The Swineherds were the Pariah caste of
Aeg}qDt. Swine were as great an abomination to
the Aegyptians as they were to the Jews. The
swineherds, though native Aegyptians, were forbid-
den to enter any of the temples. No one would
take a wife from amongst them, or give a daughter
in marriage to a swineherd.^ On the vigil of a cer-
tain festival however a pig was offered up by every
household to Osiris ; ^ and after the annual inunda-
tion of the Nile, the Aegyptians were accustomed
to drive herds of swine over their fields to tread the
corn into the earth ; ^ the race of swineherds were
therefore indispensable to the Aegyptians.

V. The Traders seem to have comprised handi-
craftsmen, artists, chapmen, and merchants.* They
are barely mentioned by Herodotus. According to
Diodorus, each trade was hereditary,^ and conse-
quently the trade caste contained a great number
of subdivisions, as is the case in India. The
Aegyptian documents, which have been discovered
in Upper Aegypt and explained by Boeckh, seem
to confirm this opinion, as the guild, or company of
cmTiers, has been found therein."

VI. The caste of Interpreters is the only one of
whose origin we have an accurate historical ac-
count. Psammitichus, having gained his throne by
the assistance of Ionian and Carian mercenaries,
wished to open a communication between Aegypt
and Greece. Accordingly, he placed a number of
Aegyptian children under the care of the foreign
settlers, to be instructed in the Greek language, and
thus founded the caste ; for the posterity of these
children were henceforth regarded as a separate
class, and called interpreters.^

VII. The Steersmen, or Navigators,^ were the se-

1 ii. 47. ^ ii. 48. See also page 471. ^ ii. 14.

■* Cf. ii. 141. ^ Diod. 1. 74. "^ Heeren's Egyptians, chap. ii.

7 ii. 1.54.

** The steersman, or pilot, was \\\q. most important personage on board,
and generally the captain. Hence the caste were called steersmen.

MANNEES O'F THE AEGYPTIANS.* 487

venth and last caste according to Herodotus, though africa.
it by no means follows that they were the lowest, nor chap. vi.
indeed does our author seem to preserve any particu- ^^^^, ^^,
lar order in his enumeration of the five last castes, navigators
These navigators are not to be regarded as seamen, °
but as navigators of the Nile ; for prior to the time
of Psammitichus there was scarcely if any sea navi-
gation, and the fleet of Sesostris ^ cannot be taken
into consideration when the question relates to an
ancient and lasting division of the people. The Great ex-
river navigation however was most extensive.^ At river navi-
the feast of Pasht, or Artemis, several hundred thou- s^^^°'''
sand people were conveyed in barges to the city of
Bubastis ; ^ and when Amasis wished to remove the
monolith of Neith from Elephantine to Sais, two
thousand of these navigators were employed in the
transport, which, Herodotus informs us, occupied
three years, though a common passage was generally
performed in twenty days.^ Moreover, during the
inundation the only communication was by water. ^

Having thus finished our account of the castes, we Physical
turn to the physical characteristics of the Aegyp- LrcToAhe
tians. They are described by our author as being ^SS^'
swarthy and curly-headed, at least so we may trans- ^y Herodo-

late the words, fxeXayxpoig KOL ovXorpixee.^ Tllis is all the swarthy and

information Herodotus affords us. In the paintings ^^^"^y-^^'^'^-
on the walls of sepulchres, and on the exterior cases ^^P^"^!^^^^*-
of mummies, the men are represented of a red-brown paintings as
complexion, and the women of a green-yellow. reTwvn
These colours however must have been conventional, ^°^°^^'-
for no such difference between the complexion of the
sexes exists in any other nation. The real colour of Probably
the people was probably the same as that of the thrmodem
modern Copts, namely, brown with a tinge of red, ^°p^*'
dark enough to be called black by a Greek, but
separated by a long gradation from the deep black
of the negro. A difference of colour however un- Different
doubtedly existed amongst the Aegyptians them- 10^^ the
selves. In an old Aegyptian document on papyrus, ^^^p^*^-

1 ii. 102. ■' ii. 96. ^ jj, gg. i ii. 175. 5 ^i 97.

" ii. 104.

488 'MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA, explained by Boeckh, the seller is called of a darkish

CHAP. Ti. brown colour, and the buyer is stated to be honey-

coloured, or yellowish. Heeren also thinks he can

trace two distinct stocks : one a fairer class, to which

the higher castes of priests and warriors belonged ;

Hair of the tho otlicr darker and more Aethiopic. The hair of

mummies , i • • ■ • • i , •

either crisp tlio mummies IS sometimes crisp, and sometimes
AveraS^" flowing. The figure is generally slight, and the
height! average stature about five feet and a half. A fulness
the lips and of tlio lips, wliicli may be remarked in the heads of
of^threy^. Ranieses the Grreat, the young Memnon, and some
others in the British Museum, is the only approach to
the negro physiognomy ; the elongation of the eye is
intemiedi- Said to bc a Nubian peculiarity. In short, we may
the s^yro-'^'^ regard the Aegyptians as having been intermediate
anSSAe- hetwcon the Syro-Arabian and the Aethiopian type,
thiopian but approximating more to the Asiatic than to the
*yp^- African.^

Good health The Aogyptiaus, according to Herodotus, were,

gyptian uoxt to tho Libyaus, the healthiest people in the

thfckne'^s^ world, cliicfly, as he thinks, because they were not

of tjl^ir liable to those changes in the seasons during which

men are most subject to disease.^ The skulls of the

Aegyptians he describes as being so exceedingly

hard that a heavy stone would scarcely firacture

them, a circumstance which our author attributes to

their being in the practice of shaving their heads

ffom infancy ; at least, so he was told, and so he

readily believed, and he also considered that the

reason why fewer bald men were to be found in

Aegypt than in any other country, might be traced

^ Pettigi'ew, on Mummies ; Heeren's Egyptians, chap. ii. ; Kenrick,
Ancient I^f/i/pt, vol. i., etc.

2 ii. 77 . The climate of Aegypt, says Mr. Lane, is remarkably salubrious
during the greatci- part of the year. The exhalations from the soil after
the period of inundation render the latter part of the autumn less healthy
than the summer and winter ; and cause ophthalmia and dysentery, and
some other diseases, to be more prevalent then than at any other seasons ;
and during a period of somewhat more or less than fifty days, (called
cl-khamaseen,) commencing in April, and lasting throughout May, hot
southerly winds occasionally prevail for about three days together.
When the plague visits Aegypt, it is generally in the spring; and this
disease is most severe in the period of the khamasecn. Modern
EfjyplianK.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 489

to the same custom/ We shall presently perceive africa.
that our author attributes much of the good health chap. vr.
enjoyed by the Aegyptians, especially those en- '

gaged in agriculture, to their practice of purging
themselves every month for three successive days.^

Concerning the population of Aegypt, Herodotus Population
tells us that in the time of Amasis there were 20,000 ° ^^^^ '
towns, ^ a statement which is startling from the
magnitude of the numbers. Diodorus tells us, that
under the Pharaohs there were 18,000 towns, all of
which were registered in the sacred records; but
that in the time of the Ptolemies only 3000 remained.
He adds that, according to an ancient census, the
population once amounted to seven millions, but that
under the Ptolemies it was only three millions.* It
is impossible to know how many trifling hamlets or
small military stations were dignified by the name
of towns, but the statement of Diodorus, that the
population of Aegypt anciently amounted to seven
millions, is, perhaps, as near an approximation to the
truth as can be attained.

We now turn to the manners and customs of the Manners
Aegyptians. Herodotus was so struck by the con- toms'^ofthe
trariety between their usages and those of othei: ^n^/uiSy^*
nations, that, as a sort of introduction to his general contrary to

. '-' those of

account, he prefixes a list of the contrasts between other na-
the Aegyptians and the Greeks, which we accord- *'°'^^'
ingly present to the reader at length.

The women of Aegypt, unlike those of other Markets
countries, attend the markets and other places of the^womeZ
traffic themselves, whilst the men stop at home and
work at the loom. In weaving, the Aegyptians The-w^of
throw the woof downwards, whilst other nations downwards
throw it upwards. The men carry burdens on their Buwienr^'
heads, but the women on their shoulders.^ They carried on

■,,. -, • 1 1 • 1 t> 1 men s heads

take theu" meals outside their houses, but for the andwo-
other deeds of nature they seclude themselves in Shoulders.
their dwellings,^ alleging that whatever is indecent, Meais taken

1 iii. 12. ^ 2 ii 77. ^ 3 ii. 177. 4 DiocLi.SI. ^

® Ovp'iovai, ai fxhv yvvalKeg opdat, ol Sk dvdpeg Karrjfitvoi. ii. 35.
^ Probably the ancient Aegyptians, like the modern inhabitants of

490

MANNEES OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA.

CHAP. VI.

outside the
house.
No priest-
esses.

Daughters,
and not
sons, oblig-
ed to sup-
port their
parents.
Priests
shave their
heads.
Laity leave
their hair to
grow whilst
mouruing
near rela-
tions.
Live with
animals.

Make their
bread of
spelt.

Knead with
their feet.
Circumci-
sion prac-
tised.

Rings and
sail sheets
fastened
inside
their boats.
Writing
and cipher-
ing from
left to risht.

Dress of the

Acfryptians,
a linen
tunic, and

tliougli necessary, ought to be done in private, but
that whatever is decent should be done in public.
No women are allowed to serve the office of priestess
to any male or female deity ; ^ but men are employ-
ed for both offices. Sons are not compelled to sup-
port their parents unless they choose ; but daughters
are obliged whether they choose or not.^ Priests in
other countries wear long hair ; but those of Aegypt
shave their heads. People in other countries shave
their heads upon the death of their nearest relations ;
but the Aegyptians suffer their hair to grow both on
their heads and faces, though at other times they
are accustomed to shave. Other people live apart
from animals ; but the Aegyptians live with them.
Other people feed on wheat and barley; but the
Aegyptians considered it a very great disgrace to
make food of either kind of grain, and make bread
of spelt, which they call zea. The Aegyptians
knead the dough with their feet, but mix clay
and take up dung with their hands. Other people
reject circumcision, but the Aegyptians practise it.
Every Aegyptian man wears two garments, but the
women only one. Other men fasten the rings and
sheets of their sails outside the boat, but the Ae-
gyptians fastened theirs inside. The Greeks in
writing and ciphering move the hand from right to
left, but the Aegyptians move theirs from left to
right, and in doing so, say that they are acting cor-
rectly, and the Greeks otherwise.^

Such are the disjointed memoranda which our
author apparently jotted down during his journeys in
Aegypt. We now proceed to enter upon his more
detailed description of this extraordinary people.

The dress of the Aegyptians consisted of a linen
tunic called a calasiris, which was fringed round
the legs.'^ Over this calasiris they wore a white

Cairo and other towns, took their meals in the front of their shops, ex-
posed to the view of any one who passed.

' It seems however certain that women sometimes held inferior offices
in the AeLfyiitian temples. Cf. Herod, ii. 54.

Mi. 35!''' Mi. 36.

1 A fringe was left to the linen, and formed a border to the timic.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 491

woollen mantle, but never carried their woollen Africa.
clothes into the temples, nor were buried in them, ^"^p- ^^-
for that would have been accounted profane. In ^^jte wooi-
this particular they agreed with the worshippers of ^^^ i^^antie.
Orpheus and Dionysus, who were Aegyptians and
Pythagoreans; for it was regarded as a profane
thing to bury any one in woollen garments who had
been initiated into those mysteries, and a religious
reason was given for the prohibition.^ The Aegyp- ^i^^^p"'^^*
tians who served in the navy of Xerxes wore quilted marines in
helmets,^ and carried hollow shields with large rims, ferxel^°^
boarding pikes, and large hatchets ; the greater num-
ber also wore breastplates, and carried large swords.^

Of the marriages of the Aegyptians we only learn s^odai cus-
that they did not practise polygamy, but that each Married
man had only one wife, like the Greeks.* In their ^ll,"''^
salutations they resembled no Grreek nation, for in- Mode of
stead of addressing one another in the streets, they ^^ ^ ^ '°"'
made obeisance by suffering their hands to fall down
as far as their knees. In their reverence for the ^^IheT^ld
aged however they resembled the Lacedaemonians.
In the streets when the young men met their elders
they turned aside to allow them to pass ; and in
the assemblies they rose from their seats on the
approach of their seniors.^ All impurities were ^^^1^°^^!^^^^
carefully avoided. They all drank from cups of scoured
brass, which were fresh scoured every day ; '^ their ancTdean'^'
linen garments were constantly fresh washed ; and ^i'^^^'^-
it was for the sake of cleanliness that they practised circum-

ft/ X ClSlOll*

circumcision, thinking it better to be clean than
handsome.^ The mere brushing of a hog against

This statement of Herodotus, like most others, is confirmed by the
monuments. i ii. 81.

^ Helmets were rarely of metal, but were generally thick, and well
padded, and were thus an excellent protection without inconveniencing
the wearer by their weight in that hot climate. Helmets of brass how-
ever are mentioned by Herodotus (ii. 151) as being worn by the twelve
kings. 3 iii_ 89. * ii. 92.

^ ii. 80. " Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honour the
face of the old man." Levit. xix. 32.

^ Other drinking vessels were however used besides those of brass.
Joseph had a cup of silver (Gen. xliv. 2, 5). Perhaps, as Sir J. G.
Wilkinson remarks, Herodotus did not obtain admittance to the higher
classes of Aegyptian society. '^ ii. 37.

492

MANNEES OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA.

CHAP. yi.

Regarded
the Greeks
as impure.

Food of the
Aegyptians.
Beef.
Geese.

All fish and
birds not ac-
counted sa-
cred.

Bread made
of spelt, and
called zea.

Wine from
the grape,
probably-
imported
from
Greece.
Phoenician
palm wine,
and wine
made from
barley.

tlieir garments they considered to be an impurity,
whicli could only be removed by plunging into the
river. ^ No Aegyptian, man or woman, would kiss a
Greek, nor use the knife, spit, or caldron of a Greek ;
neither would they taste of the flesh of a pure ox,
that had been slaughtered or divided by a Greek
knife. This repugnance seems to have arisen from
tlieir reverence for cows, and for cattle generally.^

Of the food of the Aegyptians, we have seen that
the flesh of oxen and geese was eaten by the priests,
and was probably much esteemed by all classes.^
From the meat of most other animals they probably
abstained, from religious motives. Fish and birds,
excepting such as were accounted sacred, were also
eaten, either roasted or boiled, though the priests
entirely abstained from fish of every kind. Some
birds, such as quails, ducks, and those that were
smaller, were salted and then eaten raw ; some fish
also were dried in the sun and then eaten raw, others
were salted in brine.^ Swine they would never eat,
excepting at one particular festival.^ Wheat and
barley were not used for food, but their bread was
made from spelt, which some called zea.'' Beans were
not cultivated,^ and vines did not grow in Aegypt.*
Wine made fr-om the grape was however drank by
the priests, and was probably imported fr-om Hellas ; ^
the large quantity of wine drank at the festival of
Bubastis,^" was probably the Phoenician ]3alm wine,
which was brought in earthen jars twice every year,"
and much esteemed.'^ Home-made wine was pro-
duced from barley. ^'^ Radishes, onions, and garlic

* ii. 77.
» ii. 37.

ii. 47.
" ii. 60.

1 ii. 47. 2 ii. 41. 3 ii. 37.

« ii. .36. ' ii. 37. ' ii. 77.

" ii. 112. 12 iii_ 20.

'^ ii. 77. The Aegyptians frequently drank wine to excess ; both
Mycerinus and Amasis were very partial to it. Some very laughable
scenes are depicted on the frescoes and sculptures, and have been copied
by Wilkinson {Ancient Erji/ptianii, vol. i.). Gentlemen are carried home
by their servants, whilst even the ladies are represented in such a de-
plorable state, that it is evident the painters have sacrificed their gal-
lantry to their love of caricature. Some ladies call the servants to sup-
port them as they sit; others with difficulty prevent themselves from
falling on those behind them ; faded flowers in their hands are strikingly
illnstnifivc of their own sensations; and a reluctant servant, who takes a

MANNEES OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 493

formed an important part of the food of the lower africa,
orders.^ chap. vi.

The Aegyptians who lived in the marshes of the
Delta, observed the same customs as the other oiSons,^and
Aegyptians, but they also obtained food from the f^alShmen
lotus and byblus in the following manner. When of the Delta
the inundation of the Nile was at its height, and lotus, the
the plains were like a sea, great numbers of a spe- byMusf Sa
cies of lily sprung up in the water. This lily re- dried fish.
sembled a poppy, and the Aegyptians called it the
lotus. The Aegyptian marshmen, above mentioned,
gathered this lotus and dried it in the sun, and then
pounded the middle, or pith, and made bread of it
and baked it. The root also of the lotus was fit for
food, and was tolerably sweet ; it was round and
about the size of an apple. Other lilies, like roses,
likewise grew in the river. Their fruit was con-
tained in a separate pod, which sprung up from the
root in a form very much like a wasp's nest.^ The
kernels in the pod were the same size as olive stones,
and were eaten both fresh and dried. ^ The byblus
[from which pap5ri'us was made] was an annual
plant, and the marshmen obtained food from it in
the following manner. They first pulled it up, and
then cut off the top part, which they employed for
various purposes; but the lower part, which was
about a cubit long, they both sold and ate. The
most delicate manner of dressing the byblus was to
stew it in a hot pan. Some of the marshmen lived

basin to one fair reveller, arrives rather too late. Eowlandson himself
could not have depicted the scene more broadly.

The Aegyptian beer, or barley wine, was declared by Diodorus to be
capital, (i. 34,) and it was doubtless far better than the Greek ale, which
was held in contempt. (Cf. Aesch. Supp. v. 960.) Aristotle, as quoted
in Athenaeus, {Detp, i. 25,) describes those who got drunk with wine as
lying on their faces, and those who got drunk with beer as lying on
their backs.

1 ii. 125.

2 i. e. the combs have holes for the honey, as these lotuses have for
the seeds, or kernels.

3 Herodotus here distinguishes two kinds of lotus, and there is no
doubt of their identity. The one first mentioned is the Nymphea Lotus ;
the other, "like roses," is the Nymphea Nelumbo of Linnaeus, or Ne-
lumbium Speciosum. They cannot be more accurately, or clearly, de-
scribed than they have been by Herodotus.

494

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA.

CHAP. VI.

Extracted
au oil from
the sillicy-
prion, called
kiki.

Strange
custom of
carrying
round the
image of a
corpse at
drinking
parties.

Extraordin-
ary preserv-
ation of a
Tery an-
cient dirge,
called Man-
eros, which
resembled
the Greek
Linus.

entirely on fish, wliicli tliey caught and gutted, and
then dried them in the sun, and used them for food.^
They also extracted an oil, which they called kiki,
from the fruit of the sillicyprion. This plant, which
grew spontaneously in Greece upon the banks of
lakes and rivers, was cultivated in Aegypt, and
bore abundance of fruit. When the marshmen had
gathered it they obtained the oil in various ways.
Some bruised the fruit, and thus pressed the oil out.
Others boiled and stewed it, and then collected the
liquid which flowed from it, and which, being oil, of
course swam on the top. This fat was as suitable
for lamps as the olive oil, only it emitted an offen-
sive smell. ^

At convivial, banquets among the wealthier classes
the Aegyptians observed a most strange and solemn
custom. After supper a man carried round a coffin,
containing an image about one or two cubits in
length, carved in wood, and made to resemble a
dead body as much as possible in colour and work-
manship. Showing this to each of the company, the
bearer cried, ^' Look upon this, and then drink and
enjov yourself; for when dead you will be like unto
this.'''

One of the most extraordinary relics of antiquity
preserved by the Aegyptians was one peculiar song,
which, in their language, was called Maneros, but
which exactly resembled the song sung by the Greeks
under the name of Linus. The same strain was also
sung in Phoenicia, Cyprus, and elsewhere, but bore
a different name in each nation. Of all the wonders
in Aegypt, it was especially wonderful to Herodotus
whence the Aegyptians obtained this song, for they
appeared to have sung it from time immemorial.
They said that Maneros was the only son of the
first king of Aegypt, and that happening to die at

^ ii. 92.

2 ii. 94. The morlcrn Aegyptian women use the castor oil, here de-
scribed, as a cosmetic, and anoint their hair and skins with it in such
quantities as to render their proximity intolerably olFensive. See Romer,
Pi/f/nmni/p, to the Tetnples of Egypt, etc.

3' ii. 78.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 495

an early age, he was honoured by the Aegyptians in africa.
this mourning dirge, which was the first and only chap. vi.
song they ever had.^

A mythic origin has generally been imputed to this f^^^^^^
song. It is supposed that, when Herodotus says the theritmay
eldest son of the first king of Aegypt, he alludes not orighTaTed
to the sonof Menes, but to Horus, the son of Osiris, j,^ JJ^'^^^^t.^
Its extreme antiquity, and the extraordinary manner bom at the

1 . , ., \ • 11 j_i :• ±' exode of the

m which it was retained by the entire nation, Israelites.
would lead us to refer it back to a more certain his-
torical event than a mere myth, of which even the
ground- work is doubtful. We remember, with re-
verential fear, the tenth last plague of Aegypt,
and its awful fulfilment ; when on one dark mid-
night, a thousand years before Herodotus was born,
'' the Lord smote all the firstborn in the land of
Aegypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh that sat on
his throne, unto the firstborn of the captive that
was in the dungeon."^ The mental anguish of
that dark night, " when there was a great cry in
Aegypt, and not a house where there was not one
dead," ' may well have been transmitted to pos-
terity, in that mysterious dirge which made such a
powerful impression upon Herodotus ; for it was a
grief, like that of Psammenitus, too deep for tears,*
and too universal to be forgotten, as long as Aegypt
was a nation.

The Aegyptian manner of mourning for the dead Aegyptian
and burying their remains was as follows. When a mourning
man of any consideration died in a family, all the dead.^*^
females of that family besmeared their heads and
faces with mud, girded up their clothes, and exposed
their breasts ; and then, leaving the body in the
house, they wandered about the city, beating them-
selves, and accompanied by all their relations.^ The

1 ii. 79. 2 Exod. xii. 29. ^ ^xod. xii. 30. * iii. 14.

5 On the death of a Djaaly chief at Shendy, in Lower Nubia, Burck-
hardt saw the female relations of the deceased walking through all the
principal streets, uttering the most lamentable howhngs. Their bodies
were half naked, and the little clothing they had on was in rags ; while
the head, face, and breasts being almost entirely covered with ashes, they
had altogether a most ghastly appearance. {Travels in Nubia.) It may

496 MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA, men also girded up their clothes, and beat them-
CHAP. VI. selves in the same fashion. After this was done,
' the body was carried away to be embalmed;^ but

women of consideration or of beauty were not de-
livered to the embalmers until three or four days
after death. ^ On no account was a body bui'nt or
given to wild beasts.^
Embalm- Embalming was a regular profession in Aegypt,
laf'profe-^" and competent persons were appointed to it. Ac-
sionin cordingly, when the dead body was brought to the
Models kept embalmors, the latter showed the bearers wooden
blime^rsTf modcls of corpscs, painted so as exactly to resemble
the three ^j^g tlirco scvcral modcs of embalming.* First, they

diflerent iir»i • it

modes. showed the model oi the most expensive mode, the
name of which Herodotus did not think it right to
mention in his description. Secondly, they showed
an inferior and less expensive method. Lastly, they
showed that which was the cheapest.^ Wlien the
embalmers had learnt how the body was to be pre-
pared, and the relations had agreed upon the price,
the latter departed, and the former, remaining in
their workshops, immediately commenced their la-
bours.*'
Description The most cxpensivo manner of embalming was
expensi^r Carried out as follows. The embalmers first drew
^^^^' out the brains through the nostrils, partly with an
iron hook, and partly by an infusion of drugs. ^
They next made an incision in the side with a

also be remarked, that in Ashantee all the females of the family daub
their faces and breasts with the red earth of which they build their
houses, and parade the town, lamenting and beating themselves ; and
they wear mean clothes, take no nourishment but palm wine, and sleep
in the public streets, until the corpse is buried.

1 ii. 85. - ii. 89. ^ iii. 16.

* It is evident, from the mummies which have been found, that seve-
ral gi-adations existed in the three modes of embalming, of which a full
account is given in Mr. Pettigi-ew's work on the History of the Egyptian
mummies.

5 Diodorus (i. 91) tells us that the first method cost a talent of silver
(about £250) ; the second, 22 minas (£80) ; and that the third was ex-
tremely cheap.

c ii. 86.

'' This extraction of the brain by the nostrils is proved by the appear-
ance of the mummies foiuid in the tombs, and some of the crooked in-
struments supposed to have'lx'cn used for this purpose have been found
at Thebes. They are all made of bronze. Wilkinson.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 497

sharp Aethiopian stone and took out all the bowels ; ^ Africa.
and having cleansed the abdomen and rinsed it with ^"^^- '^^•
palm wine, they sprinkled it with pounded per-
fumes. ^ The belly was then filled with pure myrrh
pounded, cassia, and other perfumes, excepting"
frankincense, and afterwards sewn up again ; and
the whole was steeped in natrum for seventy days,
which was the longest period allowed by law for
this process.^ The corpse was then washed, and
the whole of it was wrapped in bandages of linen
cloth smeared with gum, which the Aegyptians
used for common purposes instead of glue. Last
of all the relations fetched away the body and
enclosed it in a wooden case, which was made to
resemble a man ; and having fastened it up, they
placed it in a sepulchral chamber, and set it up-
right against the wall.*

^ First of all, says Diodorus, (i. 91,) a scribe marks upon the left side
of the body, the extent of the incision to be made, and then the dissecter
(paraschistes) cuts away as much of the flesh as is permitted by law,
with an Aethiopian stone, and immediately runs away, whilst those pre-
sent pursue him with stones and execrations, as if to cast upon him all
the odium of this necessary act.

Sharp flints with a cutting edge have been found in the Aegyptian
tombs, and the wife of Moses used a sharp stone in circumdising her
son. Ex. iv. 25.

2 Herodotus does not inform us of the disposition of the intestines.
Porphyry and Plutarch both tell us that they were thrown into the
Nile, but the positive evidence of the tombs proves this assertion to be
an idle story. We learn fi-om Wilkinson that they were cleansed and em-
balmed, and placed in four vases, and afterwards placed in the tomb
with the coffin, and were supposed to belong to the four genii of Amenti,
whose heads and names they bore. Each contained a separate portion,
which was appropriated to its particular deity. The vase, with a cover
representing the human head of Amset, held the stomach and large in-
testines ; that with the cynocephalus head of Hapi, contained the small
intestines; in that belonging to the jackal-headed Smautf were the
lungs and the heart ; and in the vase of the hawk-headed Kebhnsnof
were the gall-bladder and liver. In other cases the intestines, after
being cleaned and embalmed, were returned into the body by the aper-
ture in the side ; and either the images of the four genii, made of wax,
were put in with them as the guardians of the portions particularly sub-
ject to their influence, or else a plate of lead, or other material, bearing-
upon it a representation of these four figm-es. Over the incision the
mysterious eye of Osiris was invariably placed.

^ " And Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his
father : and the physicians embalmed Israel. And forty days were ful-
filled for him ; for so are fulfilled the days of those which are embalmed :
and the Egyptians mourned for him threescore and ten days." Gen. 1. 2, 3.

* ii. 86. This appears only to have been done in exceptional cases where
the family had no familv vault, or hvpogaeum. and had to erect a build-

2'k

498

jvianners of the aegyptians.

AFRICA.

CHAP. YI.

Middle way
of embalm-

Cheapest
method.

E,ecoTei'ed
hodies of
persons kill-
ed by cro-
codiles, or
drowned ia
the Ts'ile,
regarded as
sacred, and
embalmed
in the best
manner at
the public
expense.

Art of me-
dicine sub-
divided into
numerous
branches.

The middle way of embalming, wliicli was adopt-
ed by those who wished to avoid the greater ex-
pense of the previous method, was performed in the
folloAving manner. The embalmers first charged
their syringes with oil extracted from cedar, and
injected it in at the rectum, tlms filling the abdo-
men of the corpse without making any incision, or
taking out the bowels. They next took measures
for preventing the injection fi'om escaping, and
steeped the body in natrum for the prescribed num-
ber of days. On the last day the injection was
suffered to escape, and the oil of cedar brought
away the intestines and vitals in a state of dissolu-
tion ; and meantime, the natrum had dissolved the
flesh, and nothing remained of the body but the
skin and the bones. The corpse was then returned
to the relations without any further operation.^

The third method of embalming was only used
among the poorer sort of people. It consisted in tho-
roughly rinsing the abdomen with syrmaea, and then
steeping the body in natrum for the ]3rescribed seventy
days, after which it was given up to the relations.^

All persons, whether Aegyptians or strangers,
that were seized by crocodiles, or drowned in the
Nile, were embalmed and adorned in the best
manner, and bm^ed in the sacred vaults ; and the
inhabitants of that city to which the body was
carried were compelled by law to pay all the ex-
penses. No person however, not even the relations
or friends of the deceased, were permitted to touch
the body, excepting only the priests of the Nile,
who buried it with their own hands as something
more than human. ^

The art of medicine was divided into several
branches, each physician only applying himself to
one disease. All places throughout Aegypt abound-
ed in these medical practitioners ; "* some were for

ing for the reception of the dead. Mummies are always found in the
hypogaoa in a horizontal position, unless they have been disturbed.

1 ii. 88. 2 Ibid. 3 ii, 90.

■* " O virgin, daugliter of Egypt, in vain shalt thou use medicines, for
thou shalt not be cured." Jcr. xlvi. 11.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 499

the eyes only, others for the head, others for the Africa.
teeth, others for the parts about the belly, and chap, yi.
others for internal disorders.^ A plan of medical
treatment is described by Herodotus as being prac-
tised by the Aegyptian husbandmen. They purged '^^^f^'^s
themselves every month for three successive days, practised.
seeking to preserve their health by means of emetics
and clysters, for they believed that all the diseases
to v^hicli men were subject arose from their diet.^

The study of 2:eometrY for the purposes of land- science of

' • I 1 • f'j_i 1 geometry

measurmg origmated m consequence oi tne annual originated
changes in the face of the country, which were iyre'^Ia-''
effected by the inundation. The priests of Memphis ™™|°^
told Herodotus that Sesostris divided the country after the in-
amongst all the Aegyptians, giving an equal square ^^"i^^'"'^^-
allotment to each, and exacting a fixed yearly tax
from each allotment. If however the annual inun-
dation of the Nile carried away a portion of any
allotment, the owner was required to inform the
king in person of what had taken place ; whereupon
commissioners were sent to inspect the land and as-
certain how much the allotment had been diminish-
ed, and to reduce the yearly tax to a proportionate
amount. Hence, as it appeared to Herodotus, land-
measuring originated and passed over into Grreece.^

In writing, Herodotus tells us that the Aegyp- ^^^^^^^^
tians wrote from right to left, and had two kinds of gyptian
letters, viz. the sacred, or hieratic, and the demotic. Two kmds
or common."* It is evident from this mention of of ip^ers

. . -, , . , . f 1 1 • noticed by

v^ritmg that our author is not speaking oi the hiero- Herodotus,
glyphics, but of the hieratic and enchorial letters. A or lieratTci
brief sketch of the three different modes of Aegyp- common or
tian writing, viz. the hieroglyphic, the hieratic, and demotic.
the enchorial, will enable the reader to understand sketch of
the state of the question. SodS'of

I. The HiEEOGLPYHic, or Monumental Writing, ^^g£'''''
originated in the natural desire to paint such ob- i. xh^iiic-
jects as were capable of being represented. The including''
next step was the transition from real represent- pictures rc-

' ii. 84. Accoucheurs were women, (Ex. i. 15,) as they are at present.
2 ii. 77. ^ ii. 109. * ii. 36.

2 K 2

500 MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA, ations to symbolical, emblematical, or allegorical

CHAP. Ti. signs, representing ideas by physical objects. The

presenting l^st step was tlio adoption of phonetic characters to

objects, pic- represent sounds by pictures of visible objects. We

tares repre- -i. i • -F r> t • i i- • i-

senting tlius have thrco kinds oi hieroglyphics, viz. objects
iict^res'^re- represented by pictures, which depicted them ; ideas
sounds*^"^ represented by pictures, which were symbolical of
them; and sounds represented by pictures, which
may be regarded as phonetic characters. If the
Aegyptians had thus invented a separate sign for
every word, their whole language might have been
wiitten in the same manner as the Chinese. This
however was not the case ; the hieroglyphics were
insufficient, and necessity obliged the people to in-
vent other signs. The words were divided, and
decomposed, and hieroglyphics were devised for the
separate parts of a word. When, for example, they
wanted to write the word Ramesses, there existed a
word ^'E-a," and this they expressed by its hiero-
glyphic character, which formed the first syllable,
just as is done in China. But it might happen that
there was no such word as " messes." In this case
they took the hieroglyphic of a word beginning with
*' m," and added it to '' Ra." In like manner they
then added the hieroglyphic beginning with '' e,"
and so on.^ A circle, or ellipse, was then drawn round

' If, according to this system of phonetic hieroglyphics, we wished to
unite the name of Adam, we should seek for a word beginning with " a,"
in order to put its hierogl}^hic first, and in the same manner should pro-
ceed with the following letters. But as there were many hieroglyphics
— on the whole about 900 — there might be twenty, thirty, or even more
hieroglyphics for words beginning with " a," any one of which might be
used to express that letter. Thus the Aegyptians had twenty or thirty
alphabets from whence letters might be chosen at pleasure. The next
step in advance, namely, the selection and adoption of a single alphabet,
was made by the Phoenicians. In their system of writing, which was
followed by the Samaritans and Hebrews, there was only one sign for
eveiy letter. Hence both the Phoenician and the Hebrew contain
much that is hieroglyphic. It is well known that the names of the
letters have a distinct meaning, for example, Beth signifies "a house;"
Gimel, " a camel," etc. Thus, while the Aegyptians might select any
letter beginning with "b" to represent the letter "b," the Phoenicians
only used Beth, the hieroglyphic of a house, 3. See Nicbuhr, Lectures
on Anc. Ilmt. vol. i. Foi- tl)e hicroglyphical characters of the Hebrew
alphabet, see an interesting volume by Dr. Lamb, Ilebreio Characters
derived from Ilterof/hjphics.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 501

the whole to indicate that each of the hieroglyphics Africa.
enclosed in it must be referred only to its sound, or ^"^p- ^i-
to the initials of the words which they indicated.
This method was probably first applied to proper
names, but gradually the Aegyptians learned to
unite everything, even ordinary words, and this
method was developed more and more.

II. The Hieratic, or sacerdotal linear writing, n. The
was a kind of short-hand way of writing the hiero- sacred^''' °^
glyphics, and included in some cases arbitrary charac- gpede^of
ters in the place of pictures. It appears to have fhoit-hand
been restricted to the transcription of texts relating phics.

to sacred or scientific matters, and to a few, but
always religious, inscriptions.

III. The Enchorial, or demotic, or epistolary iii. The
writing, was a system quite distinct from the hiero- or'^common
glyphic and hieratic, and chiefly included simple ^^"t^^s-
characters borrowed from the hieratic writing, to the
exclusion of almost all pictured signs. ^

The merchant-ships of the Aegyptians were made Aegyptian
of timber cut from the acacia tree, which in shape building
very much resembled the Cyrenaean lotus, and chaJtbaige,
exuded a srum. Stakes of about two cubits leng-th i^'^^^'^ ^

y , . . p ^ o bayis.

were cut from this acacia, [and apparently set up
near to each other, thus tracing out the sides of
the intended barge.] Round these stakes were then huu form-
carried stout and long strings of acacia plank, [one pianks
course above the other,] which joined the stakes ^g^etiSuke
together. When the sides were thus completed, ^"''^^•
cross beams were laid on the top [along the
entire length of the vessel, and the result was a
rude flat-bottomed lighter lying bottom upwards.]
Ribs were not used.^ The seams were caulked in-
side with byblus. One rudder only was employed

^ See ChampoUion, Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des Anciens
JSgyptiens, quoted by Heeren.

2 The Aegyptian river craft here described were flat-bottomed, with
vertical sides, whilst ordinary ships consisted of covered ribs set in a
keel. In navigating the Nile no inconvenience would arise from the
want of a keel ; and whilst no convexity of the sides would be required
to resist a sea, a larger freight could be carried than in an ordinary
vessel of the same draught. Cf. Blakesley, note on ii. 96.

502 MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA, and tliat was driven througli the keel. The mast
cHAP.Ti. -^vas made of the acacia tree, and the sails of byblus.
Geucraiiy Tlicso vosscls could not Sail up tlio stroam unless a
tovred up fail' wind prevailed, but were towed from the shore.
Down ' Down the stream they were carried in the following
tS^ by a manner. A hm^dle was made of tamarisk and
?h/^row wattled with a band of reeds ; a stone of about two
andsteadied talcnts Weight was also taken and a hole bored
stone^atThe tlirough its Centre. The hurdle was fastened to a
stern. cablo and lowered from the prow of the vessel to be
carried along by the stream. The stone was fasten-
ed to another cable and lowered from the stern. By
these means the hurdle, being borne along by the
stream, moved quickly and drew along the ship.
On the other hand, the stone, having sunk to the
bottom, was dragged along at the stern and ke23t the
ship in its com'se. This vessel was called a baris,
and the Aegyptians had a great number of them,
some of them carrying many thousand talents
weight.^ Herodotus also remarks that the Aegyp-
tians fastened the rings and sheets of their sails
inside the vessel, and not outside like other nations.^
Feticism of We now tum to the animal worship, or Feticism,
tianf ^^^ of the ancient Aegyptians, but shall not trouble the
Animals reader with any introductory remarks. Aegypt,
abound in according to Herodotus, did not abound in wild
were ?ii "^^ animals, although her territory bordered on the
saCTed^"^^*^ wild boast region of Libya ; but the domestic ani-
whether mals worc vory numerous,^ and all, whether wild or
domesti- domesticated, were regarded by the Aegjrptians as
cated. sacred. The reasons for this general consecration
are not mentioned by our author, because in so doing
he would have to descend to religious matters, which
Curatorsap- j^c avoids relating as much as he can. Curators,
each specks'! cousistiug of botli men and women, attended upon
the animals and fed each species separately ; * and
this office was hereditary. Money for the necessary

1 ii. 96. ^ ii. 36. ^ jj. 66.

* In Ashantcc, the people are divided into the Buflalo, the Bush Cat,
the ]Jog, the Parrot, the Panther, and other famihes, each family being
forbidden to eat of the animal whose name they bear.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 503

expenses was derived from vows, which were thus africa.
kept by the inhabitants of the cities. Having made ^^^^^ ^^•
a vow to the god to whom some animal was sacred, Maintained
they shaved either the whole, the half, or the third by the vows
part of the heads of their children, and weighed the ^'"^"^ ^'
hair ; and then gave a corresponding weight of
silver to the curator of the animals for whom they
had vowed. Any person wilfully killing one of the The murder
animals was put to death ; and if an animal was mai, if wii-
killed by accident, the person who caused it was e?b/deathj
obliofed to pay such a fine as the priest chose to if accident-

1 A 1 1 1 -n 1 '1 ' al, by a fine;

impose. Any one however who killed an ibis, or a but the
hawk, whether Avilfully or accidentally, was obliged theMsror
to suffer the fatal penalty.^ ^'^^^^'' ^^-

i- J -r>T«T ways exe-

Cats were sacred to Pasht, or Bubastis, who was cuted.
called Artemis by Herodotus, and is often rej)resent- to^Bubastis,
ed on the monuments of Aegypt with a cat's head. °^" ^^^^^^'
Our author says that they would have been much
more numerous, were it not for the two following ac-
cidents. First, when the female cats littered they no Number di-
longer sought the company of the males. Accord- twiaies ^
ingly the latter would secretly carry off the young StteM^nd
and kill, but not eat them : and the females, beina: *e cats
very fond of their kittens, soon desired to have a rushing in-
fresh litter. Secondly, when a conflagration took *° ^^'^^'
place, the cats, carried away by a supernatural
impulse, would endeavour to rush into the fire.
Meantime all the Aeg3rptians stood round at a dis-
tance and neglected to put out the flames, in order
to save the cats, and whenever one was lost the
crowd set up great lamentations.^ If a cat died in

1 We may infer from this passage that the curators belonged to the
sacerdotal order.

- ii. 65. This exti-aordinary veneration for animals was thoroughly root-
ed in the minds of the nation. Diodorus tells us that when Ptolemy was
still unacknowledged by the Romans as king of Aegypt, and when all
the Aegyptians were doing their utmost to propitiate the ItaUans, and to
avoid all disputes which might lead to war, a Roman chanced to kill a
cat, upon which a crowd immediately collected round his residence, and
neither the magistrates whom the king despatched to appease their rage,
nor the general terror of the Roman name, could save the offender from
popular vengeance. Diod. i. 83,

3 In the present day the race of Aegyptian cats is by no means di-
minished, and the inhabitants of Caho are frequently obliged to profit

504 MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA, a house all the family shaved off their eyebrows/

CHAP, yi. The corpses of these animals were carried to certain

Embalmed sacrcd lioiises and embalmed, and were then buried

arBubaitfs ^^ Bubastis,^ in which city the great festival of Pasht,

or Artemis, was celebrated.^
Dogs. Dogs were almost as much honoured as cats,

which is very remarkable, as they are regarded as
unclean by the modern Orientals, and the name of
the dog is a term of great reproach among the Ma-
hometans.^ Herodotus tells us that if a dog died
the family shaved all their bodies, including their
heads. ^ These animals were buried in sacred places
ichneu- withiu their own city.^ Ichneumons were buried in
Fidd-micc. tlio samo manner as the dogs.^ Field-mice and

by the privilege of sending their surplus cat population to the house of
the cadi, where a fund is charitably provided for then- maintenance.
Baskets of cats are thus frequently emptied in the cadi's coml-yard
without much regard to the feelings of the neighbours. Every after-
noon a person brings a certain quantity of meat cut into small pieces,
which he throws into the middle of the yard ; and a prodigious number
of cats may be seen at that hour descending from the walls on all sides
to partake of the expected repast. The weak and newly arrived fare
but badly, the whole being speedily carried off by the veterans, and the
more pugnacious of the party — the old stagers excelling in rapidity of
swallowing, and the fighting cats in appropriating; and thus the others
only obtain a small portion while the claws and teeth of their stronger
competitors are occupied. Williinson.

1 ii. m. 2 ii. 67.

3 ii. 60. Several cat mummies may be seen in the British Museum.

* A dog was a great term of reproach among the Jews. 2 Sam. xvi.
9 ; 2 Kings viii. 13, etc.

5 ii. 66.

^ The fidelity and utility of the dog was, no doubt, the original cause
of its being regarded as sacred. The Greek and Roman writers sup-
posed that the dog was the emblem of Anubis, and accordingly the
Roman sculptors represented Anubis with a dog's head. This however
is a mistake. It was the jackal, and not the dog, which was the em-
blem of Anubis ; and no Aegyptian representation occurs of Anubis with
the head of a dog. WUhinson.

'' The ichneumon is 2 feet 7 inches in length from the end of his tail
to the tip of his nose, the tail being 1 foot 4 inches long. It is covered
with long bristly hair. Sir J. G. Wilkinson tells us that it is easily
tamed, and is sometimes kept by the modern Aegyptians to protect their
houses from rats, but from its great fondness for eggs and poultry, fre-
quently does more harm than good. According to Aelian (x. 47) it was
particularly worshipped at Heracleopolis, where the crocodile was held
in aljhorrence. Diodorus tells us (i. 87) that the ichneumon rolls him-
self in the mud, and then observing the crocodile sleeping upon the
bank of the river witli his mouth wide ojjen, suddenly whips down
through his throat into his very bowels, and presently gnaws his way
through his belly, and so escapes himself with the death of his enemy.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 505

Hawks were carried to the city of Buto/ where Africa.
sacrifices were performed in honour of Leto.^ Beaes,^ ^^^^- ^^^
which were few in number, and Wolves,* which were ^~^s.
not much larger than foxes, were buried wherever Bears.
they were found to be lying. ^

The bird called the Ibis was sacred to Thoth, or The bird
Hermes, and is thus described by Herodotus. He Two spe-
tells us that there were two species of it. The black ^i!^^]^*^^^
species, which fought with the winged serpents of the white.
Arabia,*^ was a deep black all over ; it had the legs
of a crane, its beak was much curved, and it was
about the size of the crex. The other, or white
species, which was the best known to man, and re-
sembled the black species as far as regarded its legs
and bill, but had white plumage excepting on the
head, the throat, the tips of the wings, and the ex-

In another place (i. 35) he tells us that the ichneumon breaks all the
eggs of the crocodile wherever he can find them, not for the sake of food,
but from a benevolent motive towards mankind. This story probably
arose from the fact that the ichneumon preferred a fi-eshly laid egg, and
left it without attempting to eat when he found that it contained the
hard and scaly substance of a full-formed crocodile.

1 ii. 67.

2 ii. 63. The shrew-mouse was sacred to Horus. The story ran in
later times that Leto, when nursing Horus, changed herself into a shrew-
mouse in order to escape Typhon by burrowing in the earth. (Antoninus
Liberahs, Fab. 28.) Plutarch (Symp. iv. Quaest. 5) says that the ani-
mal was supposed to be blind, and was therefore looked upon as a
proper emblem of primeval darkness. The hawk was considered to be
sacred to Ra, or the sun, but Herodotus says it was buried at Buto,
which seems to be an error.

^ The species of bear here intimated by Herodotus was doubtless the
Syrian Bear (Usus Syriacus). " Prosper Alpinus," says Cuvier, " attri-
butes bears to Aegypt, but describes them as the size of sheep, and of a
white colomV (i. e. the Syi-ian Bear). This species is mentioned in Scrip-
ture. A bear was slain by David, (I Sam. xvii. 34,) and two she-bears
punished the children who mocked Ehsha (2 Kings ii. 24). We append
a fuU description extracted from Jardine's Naturalist Library, vol. i.
" The animal is of a fulvous white, with large ears, a mane of stiff erect
hair on the shoulders : the rest of the body covered with a woolly fur,
above which is a longer soft coat of hair. Tail six inches long : claws
small : stature rather high : in bulk, about equal to the common brown
bear: feeds on flesh, but more usually on vegetables."

* The wolves here mentioned have been supposed to be jackals, but
we must agree with Larcher, that the historian of Halicarnassus, an
Asiatic by birth, must have known the jackal, which was common to
all Asia Minor, as well as the wolf; and if he knew them both, it was
impossible for liim to have mistaken a jackal for a wolf.

5 ii. 67.

" ii. 74. Cuvier actually found the skin and. scales of a snake partly
digested in the intestines of a mummied ibis.

506 MANNEES OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA, tremity of the tail, wliicli were all of a deep black.
CHAP. VI. Xlie head and entire neck were bare of feathers.^

This bird was buried at Hermeopolis.^

BuUs sacred BuLLS werc considcrcd by the Aegyptians to be

to Apis. sacred to Epaphus, or Apis, but were first proved in

the following manner. A priest was appointed to

examine the animal both when it was standing up,

and when it was lying down. If he found a single

black hair upon it he declared it to be unclean. He

drew out the tongue to see if it was pm'e as to the

prescribed marks, and he also looked at the hairs of

its tail, to be quite sure that they grew naturally.

If the beast was found to be pure, he rolled a piece

of byblus round the horns, and fixing some sealing

earth on it he stamped it with his own signet, and

it was then led away. Any one who sacrificed a

bull that was unmarked was punished with death. ^

Cows sacred Cows wcro sacrccl to Isis, and were never sacri-

^ ^^'^' ficed ; and they were held in higher reverence, by

all the Aegyptians, than any other cattle.^
Euriai of The burial of kine was conducted in the following
^^®' manner. The females were thrown into the Nile.

The males, on the other hand, were severally in-
terred in the suburbs, with one horn, or with both,
appearing above the surface of the ground, to mark

^ ii. 76. The first-mentioned species of black ibis may be referred to
the glossy ibis (ibis falcinellus) of natm-alists. The white ibis was
incon-ectly supposed by Bilon to be the stork, and by Pocock to be a
species of crane ; De Maillet even conjectured, that under the name of
ibis were generically comprised all those birds which are instrumental
in removing the noxious reptiles that swarm in the inundated lands.
Perrault then introduced the erroneous notion that the sacred ibis was
a species of Tantalus, and was followed by Brisson, BufTon, Linnaeus,
and Latham. Bruce was the first to doubt this determination, and to
point out the identity between the figures represented on the ancient
monuments, the mummies preserved in the Aegyptian tombs, and a
living bird common on the banks of the Nile, and known to the Arabs
by the name of Abou-hannes. After the return of the French expedi-
tion, the question was definitely settled, and by a careful anatomical
comparison of the ancient mummies with recent specimens then brought
from Aegypt by Geofi'ray St. Hilaire and Savigny, Cuvier was enabled to
identify Brucc's assertion, and thus to restore to science a bird which,
after having been worshipped Ijy a nation for centuries, had fallen into
oblivion, and was wholly unknown to modern naturalists. Cuvier deno-
minates it iljjs religiosa, and living specimens of it have been lately ex-
hibited in Regent's Park Zoological Gardens, imder the name of Geronti-
cus Aethiopicus. - ii. 67- ^ ii. 38. * ii. 4L

' MANNEKS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 507

the spot of burial. After the body had putrified, Africa.
and at an appointed time, a raft came to each city ^^^^'- ^^-
from the city of Atarbechis, which contained a tem-
ple of Athor, or Aphrodite, and was situated in the
island of Prosopitis, in the Delta. In this raft all
the bones of oxen were carried away, and buried in
one place. ^

No cattle were killed by the Aegyptians, but all ^^^^^f^
that died were carried away, and buried in the same the Aegyp-

,1 9 tians.

way as the oxen.-^

The established mode of sacrificing the animal Established
was as follows. The victim was led properly mark- ™crifice.
ed to the sacrificial altar, and a fire was kindled.
Wine was then poured upon the altar, near the ani-
mal, the god was invoked, and the bull then killed.
The head was next cut off, and the body flayed.
Many imprecations were then pronounced upon the
head, and if a market was near, and Greek mer-
chants dwelt in the neighbourhood, the head was
usually sold ; otherwise, it was thrown into the river
Nile, and the following imprecations were pro-
nounced upon it — " May all the evil that is about to
happen, either to the sacrificers or the country of
Aegypt, be averted, and fall upon this head." These
customs, as far as regards the heads of the victims, or
the libations of wine which were poured upon the
altar, were observed alike by all the Aegyptians in all
their sacrifices, and accordingly no Aegyptian would
eat of the head of any animal. The disembowelling
and burning of the victims were however effected in
different ways at different sacrifices. In sacrificing
to that goddess who was considered the greatest of
all, and in whose honour the most magnificent festival
was celebrated, the following practice was observed.
When the bullocks were flayed, prayers were first
offered. All the intestines were then drawn out, and
the vitals were left in the carcase, together with the
fat. The legs and the extremity of the hip ivere

1 ii. 42.

- Ibid. The statements of our author are apparently incorrect, for
bull and cow mummies are frequently met with at Thebes, and other
parts of Aegypt.

508 MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA, next cut off, together with the shoulders and neck.
CHAP. \i. Last of all, the body was filled with fine bread, honey,
raisins, figs, frankincense, myrrh, and other perfumes,
and over it was poured a great quantity of oil, after
which it was burned. The Aegyptians fasted before
they sacrificed, and whilst the sacred things were
being burnt they all beat themselves, and when they
had finished they spread a banquet of what remained
of the victims.^
Crocodiles. Ceocodiles wcro Called " champsae " ^ by the
i?ercripUon^ Acgyptiaus, but '' crocodiles " by the lonians, who
of their considcred that they resembled a species of lizard
hlull called by that name, which was to be found in the
hedges of Ionia. ^ The following was the nature of
this animal. During the four coldest months it tasted
no food whatever. It was amphibious, though it
had four feet. It spent most of the day on the
bank, but the whole night in the river, for the
water at that time was warmer than the air or dew.
It laid its eggs on the land, and there hatched them,
and of all living things known to our author, this
grew from the least beginning to the largest size ;
for its eggs were but little larger than those of a
goose, and the little crocodile which emerged was at
first in proportion to the size of the shell ; but when
it arrived at maturity it reached a length of seven-
teen cubits or more. It had the eyes of a pig, large
teeth, and projecting tusks, all in proportion to the
size of its body. It was the only animal that had
no tongue ; and as it did not move the lower jaw,
it was also the only animal that brought down its
upper jaw to the lower one.* Its claws were strong,
and its skin was covered with scales, which on the

1 ii. 40.

2 In hieroglyphics it is " hamso," in Coptic, " amsah."

3 ii. 69.

■* The fleshy fat tongue of the crocodile is attached very nearly up to
the eyes, and hence the ancients supposed that he had none. The lower
jaw is prolonged backwards beyond the skull, and the gape is propor-
tionably enlarged. Hence, when the animal raises its head, and throws
it a httie backward, on opening the mouth by the depression of the lower
jaw, it has the appearance of moving its upper jaw, whence the error of
the ancients in that respect.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 509

back could not be broken. In the water it was africa.
blind, but on land it was very quick-sighted. All chap. vi.
beasts and birds avoided it excepting the trochilus, ~~'~ '
and with this bird he was at peace, because he re- affection
ceived the following benefit from it. When the cro- chiiS! *''°'
codile was on land it opened its jaws, and usually
towards the west ; upon this the trochilus would
boldly enter its mouth and pick out and swallow the
bdellae which it found there. ^

Crocodiles were only considered to be sacred by worshipped
some of the Aegyptians ; by others they were treated neighbour-
as enemies. Thus the Aegyptians in the neighbour- xSef and
hood of Thebes and Lake Moeris in Middle Aegypt J'^'J^
considered them to be very sacred. Each one
trained up a crocodile until it was quite tame, and
put ear-rings of gold and crystal into its ears, and
bracelets on its four paws.^ These crocodiles were
fed with sacred and particular food, and were treated
as well as possible whilst alive, and when dead were
embalmed and buried in the sacred vaults, especially

^ ii. 68. Baehr wishes to call the bdellae " gnats " instead of " leeches,"
because the latter are not to be found in the Nile. A species of leech
however is to be found in this river, " having eight eyes, and being with-
out teeth :" it is described by Savigny, under the name of iBdella Ni-
lotica.

The trochilus is probably the small running bird, called Siksak by the
Arabs, though this name is also applied to the spur-winged and crested
plovers. This siksak is often to be seen on the same bank as the cro-
codile, and as it loudly chirps on the approach of man, may be said to
warn the crocodile of any approaching danger. Mr. J. A. St. John
(Isis, mi Egyptian Pilgrimage) says, that he seldom, if ever, saw a croco-
dile without a siksak standing close beside him on the sand, evidently
vdthin his reach, but without his exhibiting the slightest desire to molest
or injure it. Humboldt too {Vieios of Nature) says, that on the Amazon
and Orinoco, " the crocodiles lie so motionless that I have often seen fla-
mingoes resting on their heads, while the other parts of the body were
covered like the trunk of a tree with aquatic birds." The attention of the
siksak to the crocodile is also corroborated by an amusing story told by
Mr. Curzon, in his Monasteries of the Levant. Mr. Broderip {Notes of a
Naturalist) tells us that the natives of Dongola calls this bird by a name
which signifies " cousin, or niece of the crocodile." In Barrow's Cochin
China, it is stated that the story of the trochilus entering the crocodile's
mouth with impunity is firmly believed in Java.

" The puny bird that dares with teasing hum
Within the crocodile's stretched jaws to come."

Moore's Lalla Hookh.

2 M. Geoff". St. Hilaire found the anterior part of the covering of the ear
on a mummy crocodile pierced, as though for the purpose of putting a
pendant in it.

510

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA.

., i\V. TI.

Killed aud
eaten at
Eleplian-
tine.

Caught by
means of a
hook baited
with a chine
of pork.

Hippopota-
mus.

Otters.

Lepidotus.

Eel.

Fox-Roose.

in tliose of tlic Labyrinth.^ On the other hand, the
Aegyptians who dwelt about the city of Elephantine,
on the southern frontier of Upper Aegypt, would eat
the crocodile without hesitation, having no religious
reverence for it whatever.^ The modes of taking the
animal were many and various, but Herodotus only
describes that one which seems to him to be worthy
of narration. The fisherman baited the hook with
the chine of a pig, and let it down into the river,
and meantime he held a young live pig on the river
bank and beat it. The crocodile hearing the noise,
would soon proceed towards it, and meeting with
the chine woukl swallow it. The men on the bank
would now begin to draw the animal on shore, and
as soon as possible plastered its eyes with mud, for
until they had done that it would give them a great
deal of trouble, but afterwards could be managed
very easily.^

The Hippopotamus was only regarded as sacred
in the nome of Papremis, in Lower Aegypt, and was
not reverenced by the other Aegyptians. Papremis,
it will be remembered, was the seat of the worship
of AreSj or Typhon.'^ It was a cloven-footed qua-
druped, having the hoofs of an ox, a snub nose, a
mane, tail, and even neigh similar to that of a horse,
and projecting tusks. It was as large as a very
large ox, and its hide was so thick that, after it was
dried, spear handles were made of it.^ Otters
also were to be found in the Nile, and were esteemed
sacred." Amongst the fish the Lepidotus^ and the
Eel were considered to be sacred to the Nile.
Amongst birds the Fox-goose^ was also sacred.^

ii. 59, 63. See also p. 376.

ii. 69.

ii. 70.

' ii. 148.

5 ii. 72.

" The otter is unknown in Aegypt, but Wilkinson says that modern
ti'avellers have mistaken the ichneumon, when in the water, for it, and he
thinks that Herodotus may either have fallen into a similar error, or else
have mistaken the monitor-lizard of the Nile for the otter.

'' The lepidotus was probably the Aegyptian barbel, a species which
closely resembles our own.

* The fox-goose was a species nearly allied to our shieldrakc, which
breeds in buiTows in the sand: from which circumstance, or its ex-
treme wariness, it received the name of fox-goose. It is of frequent
occiinx-nce on Aegyptian sculptures.

'■> ii. 72.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 511

The Phoenix was another sacred bird, which africa.
Herodotus had never seen excepting in a picture. It chap. ti.
seldom appeared in Aegypt, and, according to the ^^^~
inhabitants of Heliopolis, it only came on the death its picture
of its sire, once in five hundred years. If it was Herodotus.
like the picture which Herodotus saw, its plumage
was partly the colour of gold, and partly red, and
in outline and size it bore a strong resemblance to
an eagle. The Heliopolitans told the following stmytoid
story connected with its appearance, which did not HeUopoS^
appear credible to Herodotus. They said that the ^^'^^•
phoenix, when its father died, shaped an egg of
myrrh as large as it could carry; and when it
had satisfied itself that it really could carry it, it
hollowed out the egg, and put its parent inside and
closed up the hole. The weight was thus the same
as before, and accordingly it carried the whole tt.- the
temple of the sun and there buried it.^

^ ii. 73. The earliest mention of this fabulous bird occurs in Hesiod
{Fragm. 163, ed. Goettl). We are there gravely told that the crow lives
ten times as long as a man ; the stag four times as long as the crow ; the
raven three times as long as the stag ; and the phoenix nine times as long
as the raven.

It is asserted by Porphyry (ap. Euseh. Prcep. Ev. x. 3) that Hero-
dotus's account of the mode of capturing the crocodile, as well as his
description of the hippopotamus, phoenix, etc., are taken with very little
variation from the Periegesis of Hecataeus. At the same time, He-
rodotus makes no reference to the writings of his predecessor, but indeed,
by stating that he had only seen the phoenix in a picture, leads us to
infer that he had actually beheld a Living crocodile and a living hippo-
potamus. Mr. Blakesley, from this circumstance, and from the evident
mistakes in Herodotus's description of the two latter animals, and also
from some circumstances which we shall notice in our preface, is inclined
to consider our author as a mere logographer, not differing from his con-
temporaries or predecessors in critical sagacity, diligent investigation, or
historical fidelity.

We need not disbelieve the statement of Porphyry on one hand, nor
doubt the personal veracity and honesty of Herodotus on the other ; in
short, we need not accept Mr. Blakesley's theory at all. Herodotus does
say that the crocodile has tusks, when it has none, and that the hippopo- .
tamus is cloven-footed, when, in fact, its foot is divided into toes like that
of the elephant ; but surely he may have seen both animals at a dis-
tance, and found that they bore a general resemblance to the descrip-
tions of Hecataeus, and therefore adopted the latter without hesitation,
and without considering it necessary to verify the minuter details by
either approaching the jaws of a crocodile or examining the foot of the
hippopotamus. As to the picture of the phcEuix, that might have been
seen by every traveller from Hecataeus down to Sir J. G. Wilkinson,
without any one seeking to alter the description of his predecessor.

512

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS.

AFRICA.

CHAP. VI.

Horned
Serpents.
Fish,

strange ac-
count of
their gener-
ation.

Musquitoes
infesting the
marshes.

Horned serpents were to be found in the neigh-
bourhood of Thebes,^ and like the winged serpents,
have abeady been described.^

Fish that were gregarioiis were seldom found in
the Nile or its branches, but were bred in the lakes.
When the time for engendering commenced, they
swam out to sea in shoals. The males led the way,
scattering the sperm ; the females followed and
swallowed it, and were thus impregnated. When
the fish found themselves fairly in the sea they
swam back again to their accustomed haunts. This
time the females led the way, scattering the spawn ;
and the males followed and devoured it, in the same
way that the females had previously swallowed the
sperm. It was from the spawn that escaped that
those fish were engendered which reached the years
of maturity. Those fish which were caught on
their passage out were found to be bruised on the
left side of the head ; those which were caught on
their passage in were found to be bruised on the
right side. This was occasioned by their being
afraid of losing their way, and therefore hugging
the shore on their passage out, and keeping close
to the same shore on their return. When the in-
undation of the Nile commenced, the basins in the
land, and the marshes near the river, began to
be filled by the water oozing through fi^om the
Nile. Wlien the water had filled the hollow parts
and marshes, it was found to be fall of little fishes.
This phenomenon is thus accounted for by He-
rodotus. He supposed that, when the Nile retreated
after the previous year's inundation, the fishes' eggs
were left in the marshes, whilst the fish themselves
went away with tlic last of the waters ; when how-
ever the time of inundation again came round, fishes
were immediately produced from the eggs previously
deposited.^

Musquitoes infested the marshes of the Delta in
great numbers, but the marshmen protected them-
selves from the attacks of these insects by the follow-

ibid. See also page 447-

- See page 317.

ii. 93.

MANNERS OF THE AEGYPTIANS. 513

ing contrivances. Those who inhabited the upper africa.
j)arts of the marshes slept in towers, which were of chap. vi.
great service, as the winds prevented the mnsquitoes
from flying to any height. Those however who
lived round the marshes protected themselves with
nets. Every man had a net, which he used during
the day for taking fish, but at night he threw it all
over his bed and slept under it ; and the musquitoes
never attempted to eat their way through the net,
though they could bite through clothes or linen. ^

We thus complete our author's account of Aegypt
and the Aegyptians. We have followed him through
the entire extent of the country, from the coast of
the Delta to the island of Elephantine. The far off
and mysterious regions on the south and west now
require our survey, and to this we shall devote our
two next chapters, which will complete the Geogra-
phy of Herodotus.

1 ii. 95.

2 L

CHAPTER VII.

AETHIOPIA.

AFRICA. Nile boat of Herodotus stopped at Elephantine. — Further information
CHAP VII collected from hearsay. — General view of the courses of the rivers. — The
' White Nile from the south-west, and the Blue Nile from the south-east,

unite at Khartoum, and subsequently receive the waters of the Tacazze,
from whence the single Nile proceeds alone to Syene. — Lower Nubia,
between Aegypt and the junction of the Nile with the Tacazze. — Upper
Nubia — including Shendy, Halfay, and Sennaar — the triangular tract
formed by the Nile and the Tacazze. — Abyssinia, or Habesch, the base
of the triangle. — Surrounding country. — Arabian chain on the east,
Abyssinian mountains on the south, and desert of Sahara, including
Kordofan and Darfoui-, on the west. — Herodotus's description of the
course of the Nile southwards to Elephantine. — Difficult navigation up
the first cataract. — Vast lake. — Forty days' journey along the banks. —
Twelve days' voyage further to Meroe. — Country of the Automoli. — Ma-
crobians on the South Sea, — Upper course of the Nile supposed to be
fi-om west to east, like the Ister. — River flowing in that direction dis-
covered by the Nasamones. — Comparison of Herodotus's account with
modern geogi'aphy. — Difficulty in identifying Tachompso and the lake.
— City and kingdom of Meroe within the triangle of Shendy, formed by
the Tacazze and Blue Nile. — Automoli within the triangle of Sennaar,
formed by the White and Blue Niles. — Macrobians. — River seen by the
Nasamones, either that of Bornou or the Niger. — Aethiopia of Herodo-
tus, its wide signification. — His description of the land and people. —
Arab races in Aethiopia. — Three Aethiopian nations mentioned by He-
rodotus.— I. Aethiopians above Aegypt. — Worship of Dionysus, and
sacred city of Nysa. — Nomades. — Ichthyophagi. — Troglodytae. — Con-
quests of Cambyses. — Costume and equipment of the Aethiopians in the
army of Xerxes. — City of Meroe: worship of Zeus and Dionysus. — II.
The Automoli, distant a four months' journey from Elephantine, and
two months' from Meroe. — Consisted of 240,000 deserters from the
Aegyptian wamor caste. — Question as to whether settled on the White
or the Blue Nile. — Blue Nile, the true Nile of the ancients. — III. Ma-
crobian Aethiopians, the tallest and handsomest of mankind. — Ichthy-
ophagi envoys sent by Cambyses. — Reply of the king. — His remarks
upon the (hfferent presents sent by Cambyses. — Longevity of the Macro-
bians.— Fountain of exquisite water, like oil. — Prison fetters of gold. —
Sepulchres of crj'^stal. — Table of the sun. — Macrobians identified by
Heeren with the Galla and Somauli tribes, but by Cooley with the
Automoli. — Proofs in favour of the latter theory. — Table of the sun, an
old Aegyptian festival. — Resemblance between the modern inhabitants
of Sennaar and the ancient Acgyptians.

AETHIOPIA. 515

The Nile boat of Herodotus proceeded no farther africa.
south than the island of Elephantine, a little beyond chap. vn.
the city of Syene. Here the series of rocky rapids, ^iie boat of
known by the name of the First Cataract, checked Herodotus

n. 1 '' 1 • 1 • J T stopped at

his further progress up the ancient stream ; and either Eiephan-
his finances would not enable him to pay the Reis
to conduct his vessel up the rapids, or else circum-
stances of a private nature required his speedy re-
turn to Thebes, or Memphis. But the information Further in-
collected by our inquiring traveller gave wings to coikcted^
his mental vision, and enabled him to tell to his own ^^°^ ^®^^'
generation and to future ages of the island of Meroe,
and the fabled regions of hoary Aethiopia. The
sources of the Nile however baffled all his research,
and he could obtain no knowledge of those myste-
rious springs, either satisfactory to himself, or ap-
proximating to geographical truth. But modern
travellers have at distant intervals penetrated far
into the south. The sources of the Blue Nile were
reached by Bruce ; the antiquities of Nubia as far as
the second cataract have been illustrated by Gau ;
and the Aegyptian expeditions into Sennaar, and
the travels of Burckhardt, Calliaud, Hoskins, Linant,
Werne, and numerous other enterprising and ar-
dent discoverers, have enabled the modern geogra-
pher to assign a local habitation and a name to the
nations indicated by the great father of history.^

^ Notwithstanding the hosts of travellers whom the Oriental Company's
steamers carry to Alexandria, the countries of Nubia and Sennaar are
still but half explored. Enterprising gentlemen from the universities of
England and America are frequently dissatisfied with merely seeing the
streets of Cairo, and smoking wonderful pipes at the base of the great
pyramid. A boat is resolutely taken, laden with pocket classics and
other necessaries, and bound for the sources of the White Nile. The
temples of Thebes are explored, and at Syene the activity and muscle
which had been often displayed on the Isis, or the Cam, are exerted in
assisting a crowd of swarthy savages in conducting the vessel up the
first cataract. But from this point the voyage becomes tedious. The
musquitoes feed upon the person, whilst the flies swarm about the pro-
visions. The Liddell and Scott is probably in the stomach of a crocodile,
for it was dropped overboard the very night after visiting Esneh, and
seeing Ghawazees, and what not. Henceforth the classics cease to be
a solace. The second cataract at Wadi Haifa is found to be clearly im-
passable ; and the weary howadjis, having caught a faint glimpse of a
purple cloud in the transparent horizon, which is at once pronounced to

2 L 2

516

AETHIOPIA.

AFRICA.

CHAP. VII.

General
view of the
courses of
the rivers.
The White
Nile from
the south-
■\vest, and
the Blue
Nile from
the south-
east, unite
at Khar-
toum, and
subsequent-
ly receive
the waters
of the Ta-
cazze, from
whence the
single Nile
proceeds ,
alone to
Syene.

Lower
Nubia,
between
Aegypt and
the junc-
tion of the
Nile with
the Ta-
cazze.

A distinct ma^^ of these regions can be presented
to the reader, marking out the courses of the rivers.
The Nile is formed by two distinct streams, which
unite at Khartoum into a single river at about 15|-
deg. north latitude. These two streams are the
celebrated Wliite and Blue Niles; that from the
south-west is called the Bahr el Abiad, or the White
Nile ; that from the south-east is called the Bahr el
Azrek, or the Blue Nile. The springs of the White
Nile may be placed by conjecture near the equa-
torial line ; whilst those of the Blue Nile are at the
10 deg. north latitude. Some distance to the north
of the Blue Nile, a great river, the Tacazze, or At-
bara, runs from the south-east in the same direction,
and nearly parallel with it, and at length falls into
the united stream about two degrees northward of
the junction at Khartoum. Beyond this second
junction the Nile flows in a single stream, without
receiving the waters of a single tributary. It first
proceeds northward for about two degrees above the
mouth of the Tacazze, and then taking a curve, it
returns to the south for a similar distance, and
then sweeps round another curve before finally
proceeding in a tolerably direct course towards
Syene. The country between Syene and the
junction of the Nile with the Tacazze may be
called Lower Nubia ; the large triangle, formed by
the Tacazze and the Nile, may be called Upper
Nubia, and includes the three states of Shendy,
Halfay, and Sennaar ; whilst towards the south the
elevated plateaus at the base of the triangle are com-
prised in the territory of Abyssinia.

Lower Nubia is situated almost entirely in the
basin of the Nile ; thougli it may be said to include
the stony and sandy desert of Nubia, which is inter-
spersed with a few small fertile spot^, or oases, and
extend eastward to the Arabian mountains and the
Red Sea. Ilocks and mountains are the

great

be the mountains of Dongola, at last are carried back by the stream to
the realms of civilization.

AETHIOPIA. 517

characteristics of Lower Nubia, and press so closely Africa.
Tipon the river that they would leave but little chap.vh.
ground for cultivation were they not interrupted by
lateral plains, whose productiveness however is
diminished by the continual encroachments of the
desert. Uppee Nubia, including Shendy, Halfay, Upper
and Sennaar, is the triangular tract lying between eluding "^'
the White and Blue Niles and the Tacazze ; and |S/,'and
here the land spreads out into immense fertile plains, ^^"^^^'^^'^7^
and is much more elevated than that of Lower lar tract"
Nubia, being situated on the lowest of the three the^NUeand
great divisions of plateaus on which, according to theXacazze.
Ritter, this part of Africa gradually rises towards
the west. Abyssinia, the Habesch of the Arabs, Abyssinia

_. -,- r-ii'i* 1 1 ••n or Habesch,

lies at the base oi this triangle, and principally con- the base of
sists of a series of still loftier plateaus, intersected t^^t'^^^'^sie.
and separated by mountain ridges ; it thus includes
the two other divisions of Ritter's classification,
and the sources of the Tacazze and the Blue Nile.

The surrounding country must now be briefly Sun-ound-
sketched. The great Arabian chain, which, under AraWan '^"
the name of Gebel Mokattam, runs along the eastern ea^t" Aby^^
edere of the Aesryptian Nile valley, proceeds under a '^'^i^^\ .

o_ OJ r 111 1 r 1 mountains

variety of names southwards along the shore of the en the
Red Sea, until it connects itself with the Abyssinian cTesertoTsa-
highlands ; and the latter in their turn may be con- ^ludhi'
nected with the Grebel el Kumri, or Mountains of the Kordofan
Moon, which are said to include the sources of the four, on^the
White Nile, and to traverse the entire continent from ^^^^*-
east to west. Westward of the Nile is the great
desert of Sahara, including however, near the banks
of the White Nile, the large oases of Kordofan and
Darfour.

We now proceed to develope our author's know- Herodotus's

11 £« ^1 • r>i ^ • j_i r <icscnption

ledge of these regions. (Joncerning the course of ofthecourse
the Nile beyond Elephantine, the southern boundary southward's
of Aegypt, he obtained the following information "^J^/'^^^"'^"
from hearsay. In ascending the stream of the river, Difficult na-
the country was found to ascend likewise, and there- thoVi°st ca-
fore it was necessary to attach a rope to both sides *^''^^'"
of the boat, as you would to an ox in a plough, and

518 AETHIOPIA.

AFRICA, thus to drag it along. If the rope happened to
CHAP. vii. break, the boat was carried back by the violence of
the current. This difficult navigation lasted for
Four days' twolvc schocui, or four days' passage, [about eighty
thelfkud of Enghsh miles,] and during the distance, the course
Tachompso. Qf i\^q '^He was as winding as that of the river
Maeander. Next to this was a level plain, where the
Nile flowed round an island named Tachompso.
The Aethiopians inhabited all the country from
Elephantine to the island ; and they also held one
half of the island itself, but the other half was occu-
vast lake, pied by the Aegyptians. Close to the island was a
vast lake, on the shores of which dwelt Aethiopian
nomades. Crossing this lake you fell again into the
Forty days' strcam of tlic Nile which runs through it. Then
i°iongThe disembarking you had to perform a journey of forty
banks. days on the banks of the river ; for in this part of
the Nile sharp rocks rose above the water, and
many sunken rocks were also met with, through
Twelve whicli it was impossible to navigate a boat. Having
agrfaXer passod tlirougli this country, you might again em-
to Meroe. bark in another boat, and after a twelve days' voy-
age you would arrive at the extensive city of Meroe.
By sailing beyond this city, for about the same time
as had been employed in crossing from Elephantine,
Country of you mis^lit rcacli the country of the Automoli.' The

th.e Auto- •'.'.. •^

moii. Macrobians nihabited that part of the Libyan con-

Macrobians .|-i^Qj-^^ which lay upon the South Sea.^ Four months
South Sea. ^ygrc spcnt upou tlic voyago and land journey from
^^pper ^^^^ Elephantine to the country of the Automoli. Be-
Niiesup- yond this point Herodotus seems to consider the
fromAvestto rivcr Nilc as flowing from west to east ; he acknow-
iSer^''^''^^'' ledges that no one could speak with certainty, be-
cause the land is uninhabitable from the excessive
heat;^ but he inclines to this theory, because he
would place the sources of the Nile at a point cor-
responding witli that of the Ister, and because, as he
thought, the two rivers discharged themselves into
the sea at the same meridian, and therefore most pro-
bably rescniljlod each otlier throughout the whole of

' ii. 29. 2 iii. 17- ^ ii. 31.

AETHIOPIA. 519

their course.^ Moreover, one fact came to his know- africa.
ledge, which seemed to confirm this view. An ex- chap, yh.
ploring party of Nasamones, from the Syrtis, pene- River fiow-
trated Central Libya towards the west, and there ^'Irection''*
fonnd a great river, running from west to east, and discoYereci
containing crocodiles.^ sJmones.^

In comparing this description of Herodotus with comparison
modern geography, we see that the voyager had tus'sac°-'°"
first to contend with the first cataract. Here the moderlgS)-
Nile no longer calmly rolls its broad flood of waters giaphy.
through flat monotonous banks, but, taking a bend,
it runs rapidly through a narrow and rocky channel,
studded with little isles of red granite and black
basalt ; and the cataract is in fact nothing more than
a series of rocky rapids. The island of Tachompso Difficulty in
is identified by Heeren with Kalabshe, and by Man- TMhom'ps^
nert with Derar, but really there is nothing but f^^g*'^®
Herodotus's calculation of 12 schoeni from Elephan-
tine, by which to ascertain its true position. The
lake cannot be found at all, but the features of the
region may have been changed, and the lake have
been choked up by sand. During the yearly inun-
dation however, those parts of the Nile, where the
mountain chains recede from the banks, present the
appearance of lakes. The name Tachompso signi-
fies the resort of ''many crocodiles," from Hamso,
or Amsa, the Coptic for ''a crocodile."^ The city city and
of Meroe was situated within the triangle of Upper MeroeTitii-
Nubia, and the ruins of its temples and pyramids an<^k oT
are still to be seen near the modern town of Shendy. f ^.^^'Yii
The ancient kingdom of Meroe probably included the Tacazze
the triangular tract of Shendy between the Tacazze NUe.^^''^
and the Blue Nile, and was regarded by the ancients
as an island, though it is not so described by Hero-
dotus. It was the Mesopotamia of the Blue Nile
and Tacazze of Africa, and was called by the Arabs
Algezirah, like the Mesopotamia of the Euphrates

^ ii. 33, 34. 2 j[j_ 32, g^e also chapter on Libya.

* Crocodiles prefer basking on low sandy islands, at a distance from
noise and distm-bance.

520

AETHIOPIA.

AFRICA.

CHAP. VII.

Automoli
within the
triangle of
Sennaar,
formed by
the White
and Blue
Niles.

Macrobians.

and Tigris.^ The ruins of pjrramids and temples
in the neighbourhood of Shendy, have been identi-
fied with those of the ancient Meroe. The course
of the Nile from the southern boundary of Aegypt
to the junction of the Nile with the Tacazze, is
about 700 miles, and from hence to Shendy is about
80 miles farther. This agrees tolerably well with
the estimated two months' journey stated by Hero-
dotus. A modern writer ^ however would identify
the city of Meroe with that of Merawe in Upper
Dongola ; first, from the coincidence in the name ;
secondly, from the magnificent ruins found there;
and thirdly, because, being much nearer to Aegypt,
it would account for Herodotus' s placing the Auto-
moli of Sennaar at a distance of two months' jour-
ney from Meroe. That Herodotus has made some
mistake may be readily admitted, for his information
was founded on hearsay. But when he describes
Meroe as being two months' journey from Aegypt,
he undoubtedly alludes to a city southward of the
junction of the Nile and Tacazze, which ancient
geogfaphers are almost unanimous in calling an
island. Wlien however he describes the Automoli
as being two months' journey southward of Meroe,
he may be alluding to Merawe, (a colony of the
former city,) being misled by the similarity in the
names, and carried away by his passion for round
and similar nmiibers, to which we have frequently
referred.^ The Aegyptian emigrants, called Automoli,
were situated at the farthest point up the course of
the Nile known to Herodotus, probably in the coun-
try now called Sennaar, a second triangular tract
formed by the White and Blue Niles, to the south
of the triangle of Meroe. The Macrobian Acthio-
pians have been placed in the maritime region near
Capo Guardafui, occupied by the Galla and Somauli
tribes ; but we shall be better able to return to this
subject when we have developed Herodotus' s de-

^ See page 245. ^ Edinburgh Review, vol. xli. p. 190.

3 See especially page 72, note.

AETHIOPIA. 521

scription of the people. That the river seen by the afmca,
exploring party of Nasamones was believed by our chap. vn.
author to be the Nile, is tolerably certain from his ^~r^
mention of the crocodiles, and his conjecturing that J'^J^^^^^f ^-
the Nile in its upper course flowed from west to east, either that
The river itself may have been that of Bornou, or °J 5°"^!-'
even the Niger, but we shall have occasion to return ger.
to this subject in the following chapter, on the Li-
byan nations.

The Aethiopia of Herodotus seems, in its widest Aethiopia
sense, to have answered to the Hebrew Cush, and to tus, its wide
have included all the nations of Southern Libya ; ^ Jg^J^'^"
southward it extended to the sea,^ and south-west-
ward it formed the extreme limits of .the habitable JJ^^^^Jf/^^^f'
world. The great capital of Aethiopia was Meroe.^ The lanciand
northern parts were sandy deserts, producing however p^°p^®-
towards Aegypt a little grass and herbs ; '^ but the
regions of the south produced an abundance of gold,
together with huge elephants, and wild trees of every
variety, inclusive of ebony wood. The men were
very tall, very handsome, and long-lived,^ and they
had black complexions, curly hair, and black semen,
like the Indians.*' Herodotus also tells us that the
Aethiopians, or "black nations of Libya," were of
the same dark complexion as those Aethiopians of
Asia, who were marshalled with the Indians in the

^ iv. 197- Aethiopia was so called from at9io\p, " a man burnt by the
sun, or of a dark colour." Abyssinia was called Habesch, or " mixture,"
by the Arab geographers, to indicate the supposed Arabic origin of the
people, and their subsequent intermixture with the Africans. The Abys-
sinians themselves prefer being called Itjopians, and name their country
Manghesta Itjopia, or the " kingdom of Aethiopia."'

2 iii. 17. 3 ii_ 29. ^ iii. 25.

' iii. 1 14. This description of the men refers more properly to the
Macrobians. The Berbers however in Upper Nubia and eastward of
the Nile are described by Burckhardt as being a very handsome race.
" Their native colour," he says, " seems to be a dark red-brown. Their
features are not at all those of the negi-o ; the face being oval, the nose
often perfectly Grecian ; the upper lip however is generally somewhat
thicker than is considered beautiful among northern nations, though it
is still far from the negro lip. They are tall and thin, even more so than
Egyptians, very healthy, sick persons being rarely found amongst them."
[Travels in Niibia.) The Berbers, says Heeren, are undoubtedly a Nubian
race, although they call themselves Arabians that they may not be con-
founded with the negroes, and they even speak the Arabic language.

6 iii. 101 ; vii. 70.

522

AETHIOPIA.

AFRICA.

CHAP. YII.

Arab races
in Aethio-
pia.

Three
Aethiopian
nations
mentioned
by Herodo-
tus,

I. Aethio-
pians above
Aegypt.

Worship of
Dionysus
and sacred
city of
Nysa.

Nomadcs.

army of Xerxes ; but the hair of the Asiatic Aethi-
opians was straight, whilst that of the Libyan Aethi-
opians was curly, and the language of the two nations
was also different.^

By referring back to the account of the Arabians
in the chapter on Independent Asia, we shall see
that Herodotus includes a large portion of Eastern
Africa, under the name of Arabia. That two dis-
tinct races, one consisting of the Aethiopians, or
aborigines, and the other of nomade Arabian tribes,
occupied Lower and Upper Nubia in ancient times,
is confirmed by our author's statement, that the
Arabians and Aethiopians above Aegypt were asso-
ciated in the army of Xerxes,^ under the same com-
mander, and, singularly enough, exactly accords
with the accounts of modern travellers.^

Three different Aethiopian nations of Libya are
mentioned by Herodotus, viz. 1. The Aethiopians
above Aegypt and those of Meroe ; 2. The Auto-
moli; and, 3. The Macrobians.

I. The Aethiopians above Aegypt included a va-
riety of tribes, which extended from the borders of
Aegypt southward, into the distant regions beyond
Meroe. They celebrated Dionysiac festivals, and
possessed the sacred city of Nysa, where Zeus car-
ried the infant Dionysus sewed up in his thigh ;*
and they also occupied the half of the island of
Tachompso. Mention is made of the nomades, the
Ichtliyophagi, and the Troglodytae. The Aethiopian
nomades dwelt round a large lake in the immediate
neighbom*hood of the island of Tachompso,^ whilst

1 vii. 70.

2 vii. (59. According to a passage in the description of Africa by Juba,
the king of Numidia and contemporary of Augustus, the banks of the
Nile from Philae to Meroe were occupied by Arab tribes, differing from
the Aethiopians. PHny, vi. 34.

^ Heeren has pointed out that it would be as difficult to draw a pre-
cise line between tlie Arabs and aborigines in eastern Africa, as between
the negi'oes and Berljcrs in the western regions. The language how-
ever might, as he says, be a test to some extent, as it is imlikely that the
Arabs should have relintjuishcd (heir language to adopt that of a bar-
barian people ; though many of (he latter may have learnt to speak the
Arabic.

< ii. 146: iii. 97. •' ii. 29.

AETHIOPIA. 523

others probably wandered through the rocky desert africa.
of Nubia, which extends eastward towards the Red ^^^'^- ^"•
Sea. The Ichthyophagi, or fishermen, dwelt in the ichthyo-
neighbourhood of Elephantine, and some of them p^'^s^-
were acquainted with the language of the Macrobian
Aethiopians, or black nations, on the coast of the
Erythraean, who lived far away to the south-east ;
and accordingly some of the Ichthyophagi were sent
as ambassadors to the Macrobians.^ The Aethiopian Trogio-
Troglodytae, or cave-dwellers, are also mentioned, '^^^''^'
but Herodotus seems to say that all the Aethiopians
in this region lived in subterranean dwellings.^ All, ^f c^^^^*^.
or nearly all, the black nations of Lower Nubia seem ses.
to have been subdued by Cambyses. They lived on
the same kind of grain as the Calantian Indians.
They did not exactly pay tribute to the Persian
empire, but every third year they carried gifts, con-
sisting of two choenices(or quarts) of unmolten gold,
two hundred blocks of ebony, five Aethiopian boys,
and twenty large elephants' tusks, and this they con-
tinued to do down to the time of Herodotus.^ The ^^^^*''™°
Aethiopians who served in the army of Xerxes were ment of the
attired in the skins of lions and panthers, and car- ^\*eTmy
ried bows, four cubits long, made from the palm tree, °^ Xerxes.
with short arrows made of cane and tipped, not with
iron, but with a stone sharpened to a point, and of
the same sort as that used for seals.* They were
also armed with javelins, tipped with the horn of an
antelope, and made as sharp as a lance, and heavy
clubs knotted with iron. Before going to battle they
smeared one half of their bodies with chalk, and the
other half with red ochre. ^ The ffreat capital of all ?i^y°f

o Jr Meioe :

^ iii. 19. Ichthyophagi, or " fish-eaters," are generally regarded as the
lowest in the scale of civilization, and yet Cambyses selected ambassa-
dors from their number to send to the Macrobians.

2 This is also confirmed by Agatharchides, as quoted by Diodorus
(lib. iii.)- Agatharchides describes the Troglodytae as herdsmen, and in-
cludes the Ichthyophagi amongst them. Their women were in common.
They lived in caves during the heavy rains, but hastened with their
cattle into the valleys directly the weather became favom-able.

3 iii. 97.

* Sharp Aethiopian stones were used by the embalmers, and probably
in circimicision. See p. 497.

5 vii. 69. Tall negroes daubed with red ochre are described by Pliny,

524

AETHIOPIA.

AFRICA.
CHAP. vir.

•worship of
Zeus and
Dionysus.

Automoli
distant a
four
months'
journej''
from Ele-
phantine
and a two
months'
from
Meroe.

Consisted

of 240,000

deserters

from the

Aegyptian

■warrior

caste.

Question as
to whether
settled on
the White
or the Blue
Nile.

Elue Nile,
the true
Nile of the
ancients.

Aetliiopia was the large and celebrated city of Meroe,
whose inhabitants were probably more civilized than
the other Aethiopians. They only worshipped Zeus
(Ammi) and Dionysus (Osiris), but honoured these
deities with great magnificence. They also pos-
sessed an oracle of Zeus, and made war in whatever
country and at whatever time the oracle commanded
them.'

11. The Automoli were situated as far from Meroe
as Meroe was from Elephantine, and consequently,
as it took fifty-six days, or two months, to get from
Ele^^hantine to Meroe, it took 112 days, or four
months, to get from Elephantine to the Automoli.
These people were called Asmak, which, in the
Greek language, signifies, '' those who stand at the
king's left hand." They were descended from a
body of 240,000 Aegyptians of the warrior caste,
who, having been on duty in the garrisons of Ele-
j)hantine, Daphnae, and Marea, for a space of three
years, at last revolted from king Psammitichus and
went over to Aethiopia. There the Aethiopian king
settled them on the lands of some of his own disaf-
fected subjects, and hence the Aethiopians them-
selves became more civilized, and adopted the
Aegyptian manners.^

The position of the Automoli, or Aegyptian set-
tlers, has been much contested. The jjyramids at
Meroe would prove that they were not very far off,
and no reliance can be placed upon the statement
of Herodotus, that they inhabited a country two
months' journey off. They were however evidently
situated at the farthest point up the Nile known to
Herodotus, and we accordingly have no hesitation
in placing them in the triangle of Sennaar, which is
only a journey of ten days to the south of Meroe.
Herodotus however, like his successors, only men-
tions one Nile ; hence arises the vexed question as to
whether the White or the Blue river was the true Nile

and are now to be foinid 500 jrcographical miles south of Sennaar.
Cooley, Ptolemy and the Nile, p. 1 7-
' ii. 29. - ii. 30.

Cf.

AETHIOPIA. 525

of ancient geograj^hy. The White Nile is the largest africa.
and longest, and is therefore generally taken for the '^"^^•- ^"-
true one ; but, if this be the case, it is impossible to
explain how the Greeks trading for ivory, which
was chiefly obtained from the elephant haunts at the
foot of the Abyssinian mountains, should have over-
looked the Blue river. Moreover, the united stream
perfectly resembles the Blue river in natural features
and cultivation, and is in fact a continuation of it.
They have similar high banks, with clumps of wood
at intervals ; they are both lined with villages, in-
creasing in number the higher we ascend ; and there
has been a comparative dense population on both
streams as far back as tradition reaches. On the
other hand, the White river presents a totally different
aspect. It resembles an immense lagoon, often from
five to seven miles wide, and with banks so low, as
to be covered at times with slime, to a distance of
two or three miles from the water. No town is situ-
ated on its banks, nor is there any tradition of a town ;
and it is asserted, by a competent observer, that, for
a long way up its stream, nature has opposed insuper-
able obstacles to the settlement of an agricultural
population. The conclusion therefore is unavoidable,
that the Nile of the ancients, on the banks of which
dwelt the Aegyptian settlers, was the Blue river. ^

1 Cooley, Claudius Ptolemy and the Nile, p. 11. Mr. Cooley adds,
that to many it may appear surprising that the White river should ever
have escaped the observation of intelligent travellers ; for now that the
head quarters of the Turks are established at Khartum, all Europeans
see the junction of these rivers, and not a few, crossing the desert of
Bahiyudah,west of the Nile, are ferried over the White river to Khartum.
But in old times this route was unknown. When Meroe flourished, the
traffic of the country lay with the capital on the east of the river. The
road from Meroe to Sobah went, we may be assured, like the modern
road from Shendy to Sennar, in a straight line, while the Nile curved
westwards, and thus the main road of the country passed at a consider-
able distance from the mouth of the White river. But it happens also
that the eastern bank of the Nile, opposite to the White river, is covered
by a comparatively extensive wood, which has probably existed there
from time immemorial. Hence some travellers, as Poncet, Du Roule,
and Krump, have passed that way without even hearing of the White
river, while Bruce, eagerly inquiring for it, yet missed seeing it. Thus
the facts, that it lay at a distance from the road, that it was screened from
the view, and that it had no attraction for traders, fully account for the
neglect which it experienced from the ancients. Ihid. p. 13.

526 AETHIOPIA.

AFRICA. III. The Macrobian Aethiopians inliabited that
cHAP.Tii. part of Libya which lay on the South Sea/ and were
III. Macro- ^^^^1 to bc the tallcst and handsomest of all men,
wanAethio- and, according to their own accomit, their customs
tallest and differed from those of all other nations, especially in
of nJukiud. respect to the regal power, which they conferred
upon the strongest and tallest of all their nation.
ichthyo- Cambyses sent presents by the Ichthyoj^hagi to the
?oyfse"t'by reigiiiiig moiiarch, consisting of a purple garment,
Cambyses. ^ goldcn nock-chain, bracelets, an alabaster box of
Reply of the ointmont, and a cask of palm wine.^ The Macro-
^^^' bian king unstrung a bow, and desired them to

deliver it to Cambyses with this challenge, " that
when the Persians could string the bow they might
invade Aethiopia, but that till then they might
thank the gods for never having tempted the Aethio-
Hisremarks pians to invado them." ^ He next began to make
dfffS-ent remarks upon the presents. Concerning the pur^^le
senfby^ garment, he said, when he heard of the dyeing pro-
Cambyses. cess, " Dcccitful are the men, and deceitful also are
their garments." Concerning the neck-chain, and
bracelets, he said, "We have stronger fetters than
these." Upon the box of ointment, also, he made
the same remark as upon the purple garment. The
palm wine however delighted him, and he asked
what was the food of the Persian king, and how
long the Persians lived. The Ichthyophagi replied
that the king fed on bread, and described to him its
preparation from wheat ; and they added that the
longest life of a Persian was eighty years. The
Aethiopian then declared he was not surprised that
men who fed on muck should live for so short a
period, and that they could not live so long did they
Longevity not rcfrcsli themselves with the wine."^ He also in-
crobians.'^ formcd tlic Icl itliy opliagi that most of the Aethio-
pians lived to be one hundred and twenty years of
age, and some even more ; and that they fed on
Fountain of "boiled flcsli, and drank milk. The Ichthyophagi
walerrlike HOW cxprcssed tlicir astonislimcnt at this longevity,
'"^- upon which the king led them to a fountain, which

1 iii. 21. ~ iii. 20. 3 jii, 21. " iii. 22.

AETHIOPIA. 527

gave the same brilliancy to bathers as oil, and sent africa.
forth an odour resembling that of violets ; and the chap. vn.
water was so weak that nothing would float upon it,
neither wood nor anything lighter. '^ If this latter
statement be true," says Herodotus, "the water is
the cause of their longevity." ^ The Aethiopian king
then conducted the Ichthyophagi to the common
gaol, where all the prisoners were fettered with Prison fet-
golden chains, brass being amongst this people the ^"^'^ ° ^° ' "
rarest and most precious of all metals.^ Last of all sepulchres
the ambassadors visited the Aethiopian sepulchres. ° °'^^ ^ '
These were said to be prepared from crystal, in the
following manner. The body was dried and covered
with gypsum, and painted to resemble real life as
much as possible. It was then placed in a hollow
column of crystal, which in that country was dug
up in abundance and easily wrought. The body
was thus plainly to be seen all round, without emit-
ting any unpleasant smell, or being in any way
offensive. The nearest relations afterwards kept
the column for a year, during which they offered
sacrifices and first-fruits to the deceased. At the
expiration of that period however it was carried out
and placed in the neighbourhood of the city.^

The tradition of the table of the sun, which was TaWeofthe
said to exist amongst the Aethiopians, is also related *™"
by Herodotus. In the suburbs of some city, not
named, there was a meadow filled with the cooked
flesh of every kind of quadruped. This meat was
placed there every night by the city magistrates,
for some purpose not specified, but during the day,
any, who chose, might go and partake of it. The
natives however said that the earth itself, from time
to time, produced these provisions.*

The Macrobians, or "^'long-lived" Aethiopians, Macrobiaus

• T 1 XX 1 J 1 1 1 identified

were said by Herodotus, as we have already seen, by ueeren
to live on the borders of the South Sea, and the Sua^and
Icthyophagi from the coasts of the Arabian Gulf, somauii

^ Water was vulgarly supposed by the ancients to be wholesome in
proportion to its lightness. Celsus, ii. 18.
2 iii. 23. 3 iii. 24. * iii. 18.

528

AETHIOPIA.

AFRICA.

CHAP. VII.

tribes, but
by Cooley
with the
Automoli.

Proofs in
favour of
the latter
theory.

Table of
the sun, an
old Acgyp-
tian festi-
val.

were sent to tliem as spies in the guise of ambassa-
dors. Hence they have been generally referred to
the maritime region on the east, and accordingly
Heeren identifies their country with that of the
Galla and Somauli tribes, near Cape Guardafui, in
the immediate neighbourhood of the Arabian land
of frankincense, and to the south of the Straits of
Babelmandeb.^ We are however thoroughly dis-
posed to follow the opinion of Mr. Cooley,^ that the
Automoli and Macrobians were identical, and that
Herodotus missed the truth from being content with
Greek appellatives, and not inquiring after the na-
tive names. Both nations stand at the southern
known limit of Aethiopia, and the description of the
tall and handsome Macrobians may well apply to
the descendants of the warrior caste of Aegypt.
The Macrobians were probably known to the Ich-
thyophagi, or traders of the coast, and spoke a lan-
guage aldn to that of Meroe, and therefore the Ich-
thyophagi were selected to be ambassadors to their
country. The table of the sun, which Herodotus
ascribes to the Macrobians, and which Heeren sup-
poses was an allusion to the market-place where gold
and frankincense were exchanged for oxen, salt, and
iron, did, in reality, appertain to an old Aegyptian
festival, which, in the time of Herodotus, had grown
obsolete.^ It answered to the Roman lectisternium
and consisted in taking the images of the gods from
their temples, and placing them on richly covered
couches before tables spread with meat and wine.
Hence arose the Greek idea that Zeus and the dei-
ties of Ol5mipus repaired at stated seasons to enjoy
a banquet among the Aethiopians.* The Macro -

' Bruce however maintains that the Macrobians were a tribe of the
Shanc-allas (lowland bhieks) on the north-western frontier of Abyssinia
and Rennell tliinks that they were Abyssinians.

2 Claudius Ptolemy and the Nile, by William Desborough Cooley
p. 20.

^ Dr. Fidw. Ilincks, (Proceedings of the British Archaeological Asso
ciation, lS45,) (juoted by Mr. CooUty.

* Horn. (Jdyss. i. 22 — 25. The festival seems also to be alluded to ir
Isaiah Ixv. 1 1, "But ye arc they that forsake the Lord, that forget mj
holy mountain, tiiat jjrepare a table for that troop, and that furnish th
drink oflering unto that number."

AETHIOPIA. 529

bians, or Automoli, would thus both be placed in africa.
tlie triangle of Sennaar; and here Calliand was chap. vn.
struck by the close resemblance between the modern '^^~.
inhabitants and the Aegyptians represented on the J^^'^J'g^^^J^^;
moninnents ; ^ and nearly every freeman is a land- modem iu-
owner like the members of the military caste in Ae- sennaaV °
gypt. The people speak pure Arabic, though per- ^J^JigJ^^ ^e-
haps, if inquiry was made after the local dialects, gyptians.
traces might yet be found of the Aegyptian lan-
guage, and Mr. Cooley has pointed out two or three
of the ancient names of the country which seem to
be Aegyptian. But we must now conclude this
chapter, and proceed to the third and last division
of Africa described by Herodotus.

1 Calliaud, Voy. a Meroe, vol. ii., quoted by Mr. Cooley.

2 M

CHAPTER VIIL

LIBYA PROPEE.

AFRICA. Extent of the Libya Proper of Herodotus. — Face of the country.-

CHAP. VIII.

The Kong Mountains, basin of the Niger, and Mountains of the Moon. — ■
Great plain spreading from the Kong Mountains northward to the Me-
diterranean— Supposed by Herodotus to consist of three belts, viz. 1st,
Inhabited country along the coast; 2nd, Wild Beast country of the
Atlas ; and 3rd, Sandy Waste, or desert. — Corresponding to the modern
names of Barbary, Beled-el-Jered, and Sahara. — First Belt, or In-
habited Country. — General description. — Occupied, according to He-
rodotus, by three races, viz. Greeks, Phoenicians, and Libyan nomades. — ■
Four divisions of country occupied by four races, viz. Cja-ene by the
Greeks ; Carthage by the Phoenicians ; Tripoli and Tunis by the Li-
byan nomades; and Morocco and Algiers by the Libyan husbandmen.
— Necessity for placing the Libyan husbandmen in the Second Belt, or
Wild Beast region. — I. Cyrene. — General description of the countrj^ —
Herodotus's account of the colonization of Cyrene. — Theraeans imder
Corobius reach the Libyan Platea. — Pass over to the continent and set-
tle in Aziris. — Remove to Cyrene. — Increase in numbers. — Divided into
three tribes by Demonax. — Lands and the office of priesthood assigned
to the king. — Connexion between the CjTenaeans, Libyans, and Ae-
gyptians. — Three harvests of Cyrene. — The Cyrenaean lotus. — Topo-
graphical notices. — Cyi-ene, containing the statue of Aphrodite sent by
Ladice, and that of Athene sent by Amasis. —Fountain of Thestes in
Irasa. — Leucon. — Hill of the Lycaean Zeus. — Barca founded by emi-
grants from Cyrene. — Inhabitants transplanted to Barca in Bactria. —
II. Libyan Nomades. — Extended from Aegypt westward to Lake Tri-
tonis, or the Lesser Syrtis. — The Lake Tritonis of later writers identified
with the salt lake of El Sibkah in Southern Tunis. — Character of the
country of the nomades. — ^Its zoology according to Herodotus.— At-
tempted identifications by modern naturalists. — Division of the nomades
into twelve nations.- — Their general manners and customs. — Abstained
from the flesh of cows and swine. — Cauterized the heads of children four
years old, either on tlie crown or the temples. — Extraordinary good
health. — Worship of the Sun and Moon, and of Athene, Triton, and
Poseidon. — Greeks derived from them the aegis of Atlienc, the festival
exclamations in the temples, and practice of four-horse chariot driving. —
Libyan mode of interment. — The Twelve Nations. — 1. Adyrmachidae,
who followed Aegj'ptian customs, but were otherwise filthy and slavish.
— 2. Giligammae, opposite the Libyan Platea, the first region of the
silphium plant. — .3. Asbystae, inland of Cyrene, who drove four-horse
chariots, and followed Cyrenaean customs. — 4. Auschisae, including tlie
Cabalcs, dwelt near the Hesperidcs, and followed Cyrenaean customs. —

LIBYA PROPER. 531

5. Nasaraones, a powerful nation on the Syrtis, who, during summer, AFRICA,
removed to Augila. — Fed on locusts, and had their women in common, chap. viii.

—In swearing, laid their hands on tombs.— In di\dning, slept on the se- ' _"

pulchres, and accepted their dreams as oracles. — Pledged their faith by-
drinking out of each other's hands. — Buried their dead in a sitting pos-
ture.— Lived in portable huts made of basket-work. — -6. Psylli, who
made w^ar on the south wind, and were buried in sands blown from the
Sahara, — 7. Garamantes, who properly belonged to the oasis of Fezzan.
— 8. Macae, who occupied the banks of the Cinyps, which was the best
corn land in the world. — 9. Gindanes, whose women wore an ancle ring
for every lover. — 10. Lotophagi, who lived on cakes made from the fari-
naceous part of the fruit of the Rhamnus Lotus. — U. Machlyes, who
dwelt on the right bank of the river Triton. — Argonautic legend con-
nected with this locality, — 12. Auses, who lived on the left bank of the
river Triton. — -Worshipped a native goddess corresponding to the Athene
of the Greeks. — Lived apart from their women, whom they had in com-
mon.— III. Carthage. — -General description of the country. — City
situated on a peninsula at the bottom of the Gulf of Tunis. — Boundaries
of the Carthaginian empire. — -Jealousy of the people an effectual bar to
the progress of geographical science. — Herodotus's ignorance of Car-
thage.— Second Belt, or Wild Beast region, or Beled-el-Jered. — General
description. — According to Herodotus included the Libyan husband-
men.— Three nations of husbandmen. — 1. Maxyes, who wore a tuft on
the right side of their heads, and daubed themselves red. — 2. Zaveces,
whose women drove the war chariots. — 3. Gyzantes, who subsisted on
honey and monke5^s. — Island of Cyraunis, now called Karkenah and
Gherba. — Lake from which gold-dust was obtained by dipping in
feathers smeared with pitch. — Geography of Western Africa further
illustrated by two stories told by Herodotus. — Carthaginian story of the
dumb barter earned on with the natives of the gold coast. — Persian
story of the voyage of Sataspes. — Third Belt of Sandy Waste, or the
Sahara. — General description. — Basin of the Niger and the Kong Moun-
tains to the south of the Sahara. — Herodotus's account. — Sandy ridge
stretching from the Aegyptian Thebes to the Pillars of Heracles, and
containing a chain of inhabited salt hills at intervals of ten days'
journey between each. — Five nations of salt hills mentioned by He-
rodotus.— 1. Ammonians, who possessed a temple to Zeus, the ram-
headed god of Thebes, and a hot spring sacred to Helios. — ^Neighbom-ing
city of Oasis in the Island of the Blessed, inhabited by Samians. — 2.
Augilae, whose date country was visited by the Nasamones. — 3. Gara-
mantes, who covered the earth with salt before cultivating it, and
possessed kine walking backwards. — Hunted the Aethiopian Trog-
lodytae. — Included a timid tribe who shunned all other men, and had
neither weapons nor knew how to fight. — 4. Atarantes, M'ho had no
names and cursed the sun. — 5. Atlantes, who ate no meat and dreamed
no dreams. — Description of Mount Atlas. — The salt mine where the
houses were built of blocks of white and purple salt. — Actual extent of
Herodotus's personal knowledge in Libya and sources of his informa-
tion. — Visited Cyrene, and the neighbouring Libyan nomades. —
Collected information from the nomades. — Could not have reached
Carthage. — Obtained information however from Carthaginian travel-
lers.— General ignorance of Western Africa. — His description of the chain
of salt hills in the Sahara derived from doubtful information collected
at Thebes from a variety of sources. — Attempt to identify the people and
places on the modern map. — Narrative of Herodotus probably refers to
the caravan route towards the interior. — 1st station — Ammonium. — Iden-
tified with Siwah. — Twenty days join-ney from Thebes. — Intermediate sta-
tion at El Wah supposed to be omitted by Herodotus. — 2nd station —

2 M 2

532 LIBYA PEOPEE.

Aiigila. — The great mart for dates. — 3rd station — Garamantes. — Identi-
fied ^ith Fezzan. — Station at Zuila twenty days' journey from Augila. — -
Intermediate station at Zuila supposed to be omitted by Herodotus. — •
Explanation of the people's placing salt upon the soil. — Horns of kine
perhaps bent forwards by artificial means. — Hunting of the Troglodyte
black men in the mountains of Tibesti explained by the modern razzias
for the kidnapping of the villagers into slavery. — Timid race of Gara-
mantes perhaps identical with the inhabitants of Terboo. — 4th station —
Atarantes. — Route probably took a southerly direction towards Soudan
and Nigritia. — Station perhaps to be identified with that at Tegerry. —
5th station — Atlantes. — Position unknown. — Soiu'ces of Herodotus's in-
formation mere caravan gossip. — Confusion respecting Mount Atlas. — Salt
mine identified with the mines of Tegazah. — Desert country southward
of the chain of salt hills. — Story told by Herodotus of an expedition of
five Nasamones to a large river flowing from west to east, and containing
crocodiles, to a city inhabited by short black men. — General credibility of
the story. — Identification of the river w'iththe Niger, and of the city with
old Timbuctoo.^ — Conclusion.

AFRICA. The Libya Proper of Herodotus comprised the

CHAP. Yin, -^riioie of Northern Africa between the Atlantic, the

Extent of Mediterranean, and the western frontier of Aegypt ;

Projiir of ^^^^ ^^^ southern boundary may perhaps be indi-

Herodotus. catcd by the supposed course of the Niger, or Joliba.

It thus included the region of Mount Atlas and

desert of Sahara ; but before we proceed to develope

our author's description, it will be necessary to

glance at the face of the country.

Face of the Tliroughout tlic ciitire breadth of Central Africa,

The'^Kong from tlic Mountain of Lions which overlooks the

basilfof'the Atlantic at Sierra Leone, to the chaos of rocky

Niger, and niasscs wliicli fomi the hi2:hlands of Abyssinia, there

Mountains . •, , i ■ n i i' c •

of the Moon. IS supposecl to ruii a vast chain oi elevations oi im-
mense extent and enormous height. Its eastern
quarter is thought to have been known to Ptolemy
and the Arabian geographers, under the general
name of the Mountains of the Moon.^ Its western
quarter is known on modern maps as the Kong
Mountains, and runs along the north of the Gulf of
Guinea ; thus enclosing the kingdoms of Ashantee,
Dahomey, and Benin. At the eastern extremity of
the Kong Mountains the river Niger, Joliba, or
Quorra, having flowed from west to cast, and passed
the mysterious city of Timbuctoo, at length forces

' It is still a mooted point whether the name of Mountains of the
Moon ought not to be applied to the Snowy Mountains of Eastern Africa,
rather than to the imaginary central chain.

LIBYA PROPER. 533

its prodigious mass of waters through an opening in africa.
the range, and proceeds southward to the sea, form-

CHAP. Till.

ing in its lower course the greatest delta in the

known world. Farther to the east we may suppose
the Kong Mountains to be connected with the Moun-
tains of the Moon ; but it must be remembered that
the very existence of the latter is more than doubtful.
Park and Clapperton passed the Kong Mountains,
but the far interior has never been explored ; and
though it has been presumed that very lofty eleva-
tions lie to the south of the region of Bornou, yet
the great problem still remains unsolved, namely,
whether Central Africa is occupied by the Moun-
tains of the Moon, or by vast steppes, like those of
Central Asia. Recent discoveries would lead us to
adopt the latter opinion.

But to return to the western region. Northward Greatpiain
of the Kong Mountains and the basin of the Niger, iromthlf
an immense low plain spreads towards the Mediter- Mountains
ranean. This plain is chiefly occupied by the great "„°5Jr^"^
Sahara, or "sea of sand;" but a comparatively nar- Meditena-
row tract of mountainous country, including the chain ^^^'^"'
of Mount Atlas, separates Sahara from the Mediter-
ranean coast. The three belts of territory thus in- Supposed
dicated, namely, the Mediterranean coast, the JstJ'con"
Atlas chain, and the desert, were apparently sup- ^eitsfvizr*^
posed by Herodotus to extend in parallel lines from ist.iniiabit-
the frontier of Aegypt to the shore of the Atlantic, along the
The first belt, or coast region, he calls the "In- wS'Beast
habited country;" the second belt, or Atlas chain, ^j°g"J^[J^
he calls the "Wild Beast country;" and the third andSid, '
belt, or desert region, he calls the "Sandy Waste," waste, or
and describes it as stretching from the Aegyptian '^'^^"■^•
Thebes to the Pillars of Heracles, and as including
the salt hills or oases hereafter to be noticed.^ Nie-
buhr mentions a fourth belt, consisting of the desert,^
but this is evidently the same as the Sandy Waste.
It must be remarked, that this arrangement of Concspond-
Herodotus is not only founded upon the natural modera ^
features of the country, but also strictly corresponds "^^^^® °^

^ iv. 181. Comp. ii. 32. - Diss, on the Geog. of Herod.

53^

LIBYA PROPER.

AFRICA.

CHAP. Till.

BarbaiT,
Beled-el-
Jered, and
Sahara.
First
Belt, or
Inhabited
country.
General de-
scription.

Occupied,
according to
Herodotus
by three
races, viz.
Greeks,
Phoenici-
ans, and
Libyan
noniadcs.

to the modern names of Barbaiy, Beled-el-jered,
and Sahara. The inhabitants generally are called
Moors, Berbers, Tuarics, and Tibboos, and, where
not intermingled with Arab blood, may be regarded
as the descendants of the Libyan aborigines.

The First Belt, which Herodotus calls the In-
habited Country, may be more correctly described
as including the northern side of Mount Atlas, which
slopes towards the Mediterranean. It is called
Barbary, from its ancient inhabitants, the Berbers.
It comprises Mauritania, Numidia, Africa Proper,^
Cyrenaica, and Marmorica ; or the northern parts of
Morocco, Algiers,^ Tunis, and Tripoli. It consists of
ridges of low hills and large terraces or plains, and
indeed the whole region presents every variety of
surface, but is remarkably well watered by numerous
rivers which descend from the Atlas Mountains.

Herodotus considered that this first belt, or
Inhabited Country, extended along the Mediter-
ranean from the frontier of Aegypt to the promontory
of Soloeis ; and he tells us that it was inhabited by
Greeks and Phoenicians as well as by Libyans.^ In
another place he divides the Libyans occupying this
belt into two classes, namely, the nomades and the
husbandmen ; ^ but we shall have occasion to point
out as we proceed, that though the husbandmen
were placed in a direct line with the nomades, yet
that they were in reality included in the second
belt, or Wild Beast region. Accordingly we shall
now take a general survey of the first belt, or In-
habited Country, and endeavour to maj) it out in
accordance with the three races, of Cyrenaeans, Li-
byan nomades, and Carthaginians, and then develope

Four divi-
sions of
country oc-
cupied by

our au

thor's description in geographical order.

The northern coast of Africa spreads out in the
shape of a vast semicircle, but is broken in the centre
l)y a huge oblong indentation nearly op2:>ositc the

' TVie Africa of the Romans comprised the proper temtory of Car-
thage.

^ This territory is now in (he hands of the French under the name of
Algeria.

Mi. 32. Mv. 186, 191.

LIBYA PEOPEE. 535

promontory of Italy. The eastern corner of this africa.
indentation is occupied by the Great Syrtis ; and c^^i'- ^"i-
its eastern side is formed by the large promontory of four races,
Eastern Tripoli, at present known as the Green l'\^^''^''^
Momitain, but which was anciently inhabited by the Greeks ;
Greek colonists of Cyrene. The vv^estern corner of Sfe Phot^^
the indentation is occupied by the Little Syrtis, T^f^ii'^^^^
which we shall find occasion to identify with the Tunis by
Lake Tritonis of Herodotus ; and its western side is nonaadelT
formed by the promontory of Northern Tunis, which co tnd°AT-
was anciently inhabited by the Phoenicians of Car- p^^ by the
thage. The whole line of country, from the fron- bandmen.
tier of Aegypt to the coast of the Atlantic, but
exclusive of the two promontories of Cyrene and
Carthage, was apparently occupied by a continuous
chain of Libyan nations. The eastern half, or that
between Aegypt and the Little Syrtis, (or Lake
Tritonis,) was held by the Libyan nomades, who
being in the neighbourhood of Cyrene, seem to have
been closely connected with the Greek settlers.^
The western half, or that between the Little S5^rtis
and the Atlantic, was held by the Libyan hus-
bandmen, who seem to have been equally closely
connected with the Phoenicians of Carthage, by
whom, indeed, they were probably regarded as sub-
ject states. The northern promontory of Tripoli
was thus held by the Cyrenaeans, and the northern
promontory of Tunis by the Carthaginians ; but all
the remainder of the habitable region of both Tripoli
and Tunis was in the hands of the Libyan nomades,

1 Many of the nomade tribes Avere also under the dominion of Car-
thage, for though they could not probabl}^ pay much tribute, yet they
were employed in the Carthaginian armies, and in forming the caravans
over the desert. The boundary between the empires of Cyrene and
Carthage seems to have been somewhere about the middle of the Syrtis.
Sallust tells us (Jugurth. 79. Comp. Val. Max. v. 6, ext. 4) that the two
cities agreed to fix the boundary at that point where envoys sent out
from both cities at the same time should meet each other. By diligence,
trickery, or chance, the Carthaginian envoys performed about seven-
ninths of the distance before meeting the Cyrenaeans, and the latter
refused to fix the boundary unless the Carthaginians consented to be
buried alive on the spot. The two Carthaginians sacrificed themselves
for the good of then- country, and monuments were erected on the spot
named after them, and also called altars.

536 LIBYA PEOPEE.

AFRICA, and the whole of the habitable region of Algiers and
cuAP. Till. Morocco was in the possession of the Libyan hus-

bandmen.
Necessity We shall now describe the three first of these di-
theLiiTyal visions in geographical order, and develope our
mTnin*the ^^^tlior's information concerning the several nations
second occupying the several territories ; first treating of
Wild Beast the Grcclv settlement at Cyrene ; secondly, of the
region. neighbouring Libyan nomades ; and thirdlj^^ of the
Phoenician settlement at Carthage. If, indeed, our
division was formed upon a political instead of a
geographical basis, we should have included the
Libyan husbandmen in the present branch of our
subject, and thus have been enabled to treat of the
four nations rmdertwo great heads, viz. 1st, Cyrene
and the neighbouring nomades ; and 2nd, Carthage
and the neighbouring husbandmen ; but we shall
see further on, that the country of the husbandmen
was really comprised in the second belt, or Wild
Beast region, and we are obliged therefore to de-
scribe them under this latter heading.
I. Cyrene. I. Cyeene and the smTouudiug territory held by
scri^jTion of tlic Greek settlers, occupied the promontory which
thecountiy. projccts iuto the Mediterranean directly opposite
to the Peloponnesus, and is at present known by the
name of Green Mountain. It includes, perhaps, the
most delightful region on the surface of the globe.
It consists of a table land running parallel with the
coast, and sinking down towards the sea in a suc-
cession of terraces clothed with verdure and well
watered by mountain springs. These terraces are
thus exposed to the cool sea-breezes from the north,
and are sheltered by the mass of the mountain from
the sands and hot winds of the Sahara on the south ;
whilst tlic different elevations enjoy a great diversity
of climates, and in the time of Herodotus produced a
succession of harvests which lasted for eight months
out of the twelve. The city was situated about ten
miles from tlie sliore, and upon the edge of an upper
terrace about 1800 feet above the level of the Medi-
terranean. At the foot of this terrace is a fine sweep

LIBYA PKOPER. 537

of table land, most beautifully varied with wood, africa.
among which are scattered tracts of barley and chap. yih.
corn, and meadow^s nearly always covered with
verdm^e. Eavines, the sides of which are thickly
planted with trees, intersect the comitry in various
directions, and supply channels for the mountain
streams in their passage to the sea. The Cyrenaeans
took advantage of the descent in terraces to shape
the ledges into roads, leading along the side of the
hill ; and these drives are to this day distinctly lined
with the marks of chariot wheels, deeply indented
in the stony surface. The ruins of the city, though
terribly defaced, are very extensive, and a full de-
scription of them may be found in the interesting
volumes of Delia Cella and Beechey.^

The colonization of Cyrene is described by Hero- 2^™'^|°^"^.'^
dotus as having taken place under the following thecoioni-
circumstances. A band of emigrants from the island cymie^
of Thera in the Aes-ean, had set out by the direc- Tiievaeans

T r 1 • T '1 under Loro-

tion ot an oracle to seek for a settlement m Libya ; bins leacii
and under the guidance of a purple dyer from Crete, piatca.'^^^
named Corobius, they succeeded in reaching the
Libyan island of Platea,^ which is now called
Bomba, and lies in the Gulf of Bomba, on the east-
ern side of the promontory of ancient Cyrenaica.

Here the Greeks remained for two years, and then, ^^J'^^°^^^j" *°
by the direction of a new oracle, they crossed over nent, and
to the opposite continent, and settled in the district azMs!'^
called Aziris, which was enclosed on two sides by
the most beautiful hills, and on the third by a river ; ^
a description which appears to refer to the valley of
the river Temmineh, which flows into the Gulf of
Bomba, nearly opposite to the small island of Platea,
or Bomba. '^ Here they dwelt for six more years. Remove to
but in the seventh the neighbouring Libyans in-
duced them to leave Aziris by promising to conduct

^ Beechey, Expedition to discover the Northern Coast of Africa ; Delia
Cella, Narrative of an Expedition from IMpoli to the Western Frontier of
Eriy])t, translated by Aufrere, etc. I am also indebted to the able articles
on Cyrenaica and Cyrene, in Dr. Smith's Diet, of Greek and Roman
Geography.

- iv. 151. ^ iv. 158. * Paoho, Voyage de la 3Iannariane.

538

LIBYA PROPER.

AFRICA.

CHAP. Till.

Increase ia
numbers.

Divided
into three
tribes by
Demonax.

Lands and
the office of
priesthood

tliem to some lands which were far better adapted
for a settlement. Accordingly, the guides led them
towards the west, but passed through the finest part
of the country, which was called Irasa, during the
night. At last the party reached a fountain, named
Thestes, which was sacred to Apollo,^ and the guides
pointed out the district to the Greek emigrants as a
fitting locality for a settlement, " for here," said
they, " the heavens are open."^ The Grreeks adopted
the suggestion, and founded the city of Cyrene.^

For a long time the colonists felt no increase or
diminution in their numbers, but in the reign of
Battus the Fortunate, about 80 years after the found-
ation of Cyrene, the oracle at Delphi encouraged
the Grreeks generally to proceed without delay to
Libya, in order to be in time for the division of the
colonial lands amongst the settlers. Accordingly, a
large multitude of emigrants from all parts arrived
at Cyrene,^ and the city subsequently became as
large as the Libyan island of Platea.^ The inhabit-
ants were formed by Demonax of Mantinea into
three tribes, viz. 1. The Theraeans and their imme-
diate neighbours (the Libyan nomades, or Perioeci).
2. Greeks from the Peloponnesus and Crete. 3.
Greeks from the islands of the Aegean. Certain
portions of land were also assigned to the Idng,

^ iv. 159. The fountain of Thestes, sacred to Apollo, has been iden-
tified by Delia Cclla. It consists of a very copious stream of water,
pushinf;; out of a large oval aperture, at the foot of a rocky hill, towards
the north-east of the ancient town. The aperture is connected with a
tunnel, which extends far into the heart of the hill. Delia Cella pene-
trated it for a few yards in spite of his guides, who assured him that it
was the abode of evil spirits ; and he found the coolness of the subterra-
nean i;assage, and the mui'muring of the water, n::ost grateful and
refreshing. Subse(juent]y, he informed the Bey of Tripoli, whose expe-
dition he was accom])anying, that he had discovered a fountain suffi-
ciently large to supj)Iy the wants of the whole army, and of all the
Bedouins and their (locks, who followed in the rear. Accordingly the
Bey jjrocecded witli his army and followers to fhe ancient fountain, and
Ihey all with shouts of joy began to plunge in (heir hands, their feet, and
(heir heads ; and as (he Bey ordered (he whole army (o ])i(ch (heir tents
in ancient Cyrene, not a day passed (hat these waters, sacred (o Apollo,
were not ])ollu(ed by (liat l)arbarian and his slaves.

2 iv. l.'iS. By (he heavens being o))en, they meant that (hei-e was an
abundance of rain. " 'i'lie windows of heaven were opened." (ien. vii. IL

•T iv. U)(). ' iv. 159. ■' iv. ir){l

LIBYA PROPEE. 539

together witli the office of priesthood ; and a senate afiiica.
was constituted, of which the king appears to have chap. vm.
been president.^ Notwithstanding the early dis- assi-neci to
putes about the land, the Greek settlers at Cyrene the Idug.

-■- ,1 1 If I ' n ■ Counexion

seem to have been possessed oi great miluence over between the
the Libyan nomades in their neighbourhood.^ On Lfbyansr"^^'
the other hand, it was from the Libyans that the tians^*^^^^'
Grreeks learned the name and worship of Poseidon,^
and adopted the dress and aegis of Athene, the festi-
val exclamations in the temple, and the custom of
driving four horses abreast/ The influence of
Aegypt was also felt, not only over the nomade
races on her border,"'^ but also as far as the Greek
cities of Cyrene*' and Barca;'' for we find that
the women of neither place would eat the flesh of
cows or swine, out of respect for the goddess Isis,
and that festivals were celebrated at Cyrene in her
honour.® This however may be accounted for, by
the fact that the early Greek settlers married Libyan
wives, and thus the population of Cyrene was largely
infused with Libyan blood ; ^ and indeed if we may
believe Herodotus, the very name of Battus, which
was borne by the founder, was a Libyan word sig-
nifying '^king."^"

Concerning the fertility and productiveness of Three har-
Cyrene, we also obtain the following particulars Jlne." ^'
from Herodotus. ^^ The district of Cyrene was the
highest part of all the country inhabited by the
Libyan nomades, ^^ and, wonderful to relate, it had
three harvests. First, the fruits near the sea be-
came ready fpr the harvest and vintage. Secondly,
those of the middle or hilly region, called the up-
lands. Thirdly, those on the highest lands. So
that by the time that the first harvest had been

1 iv. 161, 165. 2 iv. 170, 171. 3 ii. 50. * iv. 189.

s iv. 168. f- iv. 186. ^ i^. 159. « j^, isQ,

9 iv. 186—189. Comp. Grote, vol. iv.

^° iv. 155. The name of Battus was borne by the founder, and by his
successors alternately vi^ith the Greek name Arcesilaus.

'1 iv. 186.

^" That is, Cyrene was situated on the highest ground in all the coast
region between Aegypt and Lake Tritonis, now occupied by Tripoli and
Southern Tunis.

540 LIBYA PEOPEE.

AFRICA, eaten, and the vintage drank, the last was gathered
"^- in, and consequently tliere were altogether eight

The Cyre- niontlis of liarvest and gathering time/ The Cy
naean lotus, j^enaean lotus is also mentioned as being the shape
in which the Aegyptians made their merchant ves-
sels.^ Herodotus seems to distinguish it from the
Aegyptian lotus, which was indeed a totally differ-
ent thing. The Aegyptian lotus was a bulbous
water-plant,'' and the Cyrenaean a kind of thorn
[Zizyphiis napeca). The fruit is said to be about the
size of a wild plmii, and contains a stone like a date.
Wine is made from this lotus, and cattle are fed
with it, and tliere can be no doubt but that it was
the food of the Lotophagi. It is the Rhamnus Lotus
of Linnaeus. The modern mode of preparing it for
food will be noticed further on, in treating of the
Lotophagi, the tenth nation of the nomade Libyans.
^ The to]302:raphical notices of Cyrene, and the

phicaino- country occupied by the lireeJi settlers, are very
Cvrene con- ^w. Li the city of Cyrenc was the statue of
tainingthe Aplirodite, wliicli Ladice, the wife of Amasis, dedi-

StlttlG 01 ^ m

Aphiociitc, cated there after she was reconciled to her husband,
{iice,^aud '^ and which was still standing in the time of Llerodo-
*?1*°^ ^ tus.* Also the ffilded statue of Athene, which Ama-

Athene sent . ., ". iti c -\ ' ipi^ rm

hy Amasis. SIS scnt With a 2:»amted likeness ol himseli. ihe
ThcLt^in fountain Thestes, in the district of Irasa, already
irasa. mciitioned, was celebrated as the sjDot where the
Lcucon. Cyrenaeans defeated Apries.*' At Leucon, east of
Cyrene, Arcesilaus was defeated by the Libyans,
with the loss of 7000 heavy- armed Cyrenaeans;^
Hill of the and the liill of the Lycaean Zeus must have been
Zeus'"" ii"^ ^^^^ neighbourhood.^

Baica The city of Barca was founded at no great dis-

founded by taiicc bv a iiumbcr of emiOTantsfrom Cyrene.'' The

emigrants J ^ i/-. /^ in .i

from Cy- women of Barca, like those of Cyrene, would neither

taste the flesh of cows nor that of swine, from re-

inhabitants ^pcct to tlio Acgyptiaii goddess Isis.^" The Bar-

edToVarca cacaus, having been captured by the Persians, were

in Eacti'ia.

' iv. 199. 2 ii. 96. 3 See page 493. ^ ii. 181.

■'> ii. 182. " iv. 159. ' iv. IGO. « iv. 203.

^ iv. HiO.

ii. 96.

^ See page 493.

iv. 159.

' iv. IGO.

" iv. 159.

LIBYA PROPER. 54:1

transplanted by Darius to a village in Bactria, to africa.
which they gave the name of Barca, and which was chap. vm.
still inhabited in the time of Herodotus/ '

II. The Libyan Nomades, who were probably ii. Libyan
more or less dependent upon Cyrene, extended, ac- Extended"
cording to Herodotus, from the frontier of Aegypt, ^o""
westward to the lake Tritonis, and river Triton.^ westward
By the lake Tritonis Herodotus seems to mean the TritonTs, or
Lesser Syrtis, at present called the Gulf of Khabs ; g^'^.f^''**'^'"
for he tells us the story, of Jason being cast upon its
shallows,^ and he makes no distinction between the
Greater and Lesser Syrtis.* His information how-
ever was evidently derived from some Argonautic
poet, and he could have been very little acquainted
with the real geography of the coast. The Triton,
he tells us, was a large river, which discharged itself
into the great Lake Tritonis, and in it was an island
named Phla.^ Later geographers, having obtained a
more exact knowledge of the coast, discovered a
large inland lake, having an opening to the Lesser
Syrtis, and also a river flowing into it. Accordingly
they represented the river Triton as rising in a
mountain, and forming the Lake Tritonis on its
course to the Lesser Syrtis. This lake is undoubt- The lake
edly the great salt lake in Southern Tunis, called iatei°writ"ers
El-Sibkah; but it has no longer any opening to the 'SSe'^
sea, and the whole coast is so much altered by the ^JVi*: f
drifting of sands from the Sahara, that it is impos- in Southern
sible to identify the river Triton, though some sup- ^"'^'^'
pose that it is represented by the Wady el Khabs.
The Arabs still have a tradition that the lake once
communicated with the river,''

' iy. 204. 2 iv. 186, 191. s iv. 179. * ii. 32, 150. ^ j^. 178.

^ Sir G. Temple was seven hours in crossing the lake during the dry
season. He says that on approaching it the grass and bushes become
gradually scarcer ; then follows a tract of sand which some way beyond
is in parts covered with a very thin layer of salt ; this gradually becomes
thicker, and more united; then it is found in a compact or unbroken
mass, or sheet, which can however be penetrated by a sharp instrumentj
and here he found it to be eleven inches in depth ; finally, in the centre
it had become so hard, deep, and concentrated, as to baffle all attempts
to break its surface except with a pickaxe. In several parts of the bed
of the lake are elevated plateaus, forming islands in the rainy season, and

542

LIBYA PROPEE.

AFRICA.

CHAP. YIII.

Character
of the
country of
the
nomades.

Its zoology,
according to
Herodotus.

Attempted
idcntilica-
tions by
modern
naturalists.

The whole region inhabited by the Libyan no-
mades, namely, that between Aegypt and the river
Triton, is described by Herodotus as low and sandy,
whilst the country westward of the river was woody
and mountainous.^ ' This indeed is the general
character of the soil along the coast of the Grreat
Syrtis ; whilst farther eastward the fertile territory
of Cyrene was in the hands of Greek settlers.

According to Herodotus, the following animals
were to be found in the territory of the Libyan no-
mades, viz. the |)igargi, zorcas, bubalies, asses without
horns and that never drank, oryes, which were as large
as oxen, and from whose horns were made the elbows
of the Phoenician citherns ; foxes, hysenas, porcu-
pines, wild rams, dictyes, thoes, panthers, boryes,
land crocodiles, about tliree cubits long, and very
much like lizards, ostriches, small one horned ser-
pents, and three species of mice, viz. the dipodes, or
two-footed, the zegeries, and the hedgehogs. Zegeries
is a Libyan word, and equivalent to the Greek word
/Bovvoi, or hills. Weasels were also produced in the
silphium very much resembling those of Tartessus.
In Libya also were to be found those animals that
existed elsewhere, excepting the stag and wild boar,
which were not to be seen.^ Modern naturalists
have found it difficult to identify all the above
animals catalogued by Herodotus. The pigargi,
zorcas, (or dorcas,)^ bubalies, and oryes, were ap-
parently different species of the African antelope.
The three first are restored to their ancient titles.
The joigargus is distinguished by the whiteness of
its buttocks. The bubalis is called the wild cow by
the Arabs. The oryes are supposed to be the same
as the antelope leucoryx of modern naturalists, and
the oryx of Pliny and Aristotle. The dictyes and
boryes cannot be recognised. The thoes were pro-
bably jackals, or lynxes. The land crocodile seems
to have been the same as the Lacerta Dracaena of

the largest of them is supposed to be the Phla of Herodotus. Excursions
in ihe Mediterranean, vol. ii.

' iv. Mil. - iv. 192. ■'' vii. 09.

LIBYA PEOPEE. 543

Linnaeus. The dipodes were most likely the jer- Africa.
boas, and obtained their name from the great length <^hap, vm.
of their hind legs, upon which they usually stand.
The zegeries may have been the cape rat, which
burrows u.nder ground, and in so doing throws up
the earth in the form of a hill. Herodotus appears
to have been mistaken when he said that wild boars
were not to be found in this country, as Shaw, Bruce,
and others say that they are abundant/

Herodotus describes twelve nations of Libyan no- Division of
mades, namely, the Adyrmachidae, the Griligammae, mades°'into
the Asbystae, the Auschisae, the Nasamones, the J^^ti
Psylli, the Graramantes, the Macae, the Gindanes,
the Lotophagi, the Machlyes, and the Auses. All Their ge-
these tribes subsisted on flesh, and drank milk, but nersa^r"
they abstained from the flesh of cows, for the same AbsSeci
reason as the Aegyptians, and refrained from keep- a'^'J^*!^®
ing any swine. ^ Many of these nations had a sin- and swine.
gular custom with respect to their children, which
however may not have been general amongst all
the nomades, though this point is uncertain. When Cauterized
a child was four years old they cauterized its head their diii-°
with uncleansed wool, some of them burning the jlgare^oid
veins in the crown of the head, and others the veins either on'
in the temples ; and if, during the cauterization, the orthL ^"^
children were seized with convulsions, they were ^""p^'^^-
sprinkled with the urine of the she-goat, which was
said to be an effectual restorative. By this opera-
tion they considered that they prevented any injury
arising from humours flowing from the head, and
they also said that they were indebted for their re- Extraordin-
markably good health to this extraordinary practice, health."'^
It is certain that these Libyans were the most healthy
people in the world, but Herodotus does not know
whether this is the cause of it, he only repeats what the
Libyans themselves say.' Respecting the religion of Worship of
these nomades, Herodotus tells us that they all sa- Moon'^'and
crificed to the Sun and Moon, first cutting off the ear TritoitTmi
of the victim and throwing it over the house, and Poseidon.

1 See notes of Baehr, Larcher, &c. ~ iv. 186. See also p. 486.

■' iv. 187.

544 LIBYA PROPER.

AFRICA, then tAvisting its neck. Those however who dwelt

CHAP. VIII. round Lake Tritonis sacrificed chiefly to Athene,

r7T~[ and next her to Triton and Poseidon.^ From the

rived from Libyan females the Greeks derived the costume and

aeli^of"^ aegis of the statues of Athene ; only the Libyan dress

Athene, cousistod of leather, and the fringes that hung from

the aegis were not serpents, but thongs. The name

of aegis also proves that the dress of the Pallas figures

originated in Libya ; for the Libyan women threw

goatskins, fringed and dyed with red ^ and with all

the hair off, over their dress, and from these goat-

the festival sMns tlio Grocks took the name of aeffis. Herodotus

exclama-
tions in the

to-"

also tells us that the festival exclamations in the
temples, tcmplcs Originated in Libya, for the Libyan women

practised the same custom, and did it very well.^
and practice Further, tho Greeks learned to drive chariots with
horse^cha- ioiiY liorscs hamesscd abreast fi-om the Libyans.^ Li
^^?^'Jj^''^°^- burying their dead, all the Libyan nomades followed
mode of tlic Grcok custoui, oxccpting the Nasamones, who,

interment. in • j_ i j_i • •j_j_*

as we shall see, interred the corpse m a sittmg pos-
ture, watching the person about to expire to prevent
his dying in a reclining posture. The dwellings of
the nomades consisted of moveable huts, constructed
of the asphodel shrub, and interwoven with rushes.^
The twelve ^Yg shall now dcscribo the twelve nations of Libyan
nomades in geographical order, running east and
west from Aegypt to the Lesser Syrtis.
!\^°?^^', L The Adyrmachidae beg-an at the western fron-
^^■\w follow- ticr of Aegj])i, at the Plmthinetic Bay,^ and stretch-
tian cus-"" ed to tlio liarbour called Plunos. Their customs in
were' other- general wcro like those of Aegypt, but tliey wore

' iv. 188.

- Moses was commanded to use " rams' skins dyed red " for the cover-
ing of the tabernacle, (Exod. xxv. 5 ; xxxv. 7,) and these were probably
brought out of Aegypt, as they are spoken of in the first year of the wan-
derings. They are still manufactured in Tripoli, and form a principal
article of commerce with the caravans trading to Mourzuk and the far
interior.

" On the occasion of an eclipse of the sun, the Moorish song of death,
and woullah-woo, or howl for the dead, not only resounded from the
mountains and valleys of Tripoli, but was undoubtedly re-echoed through-
out the continent of Africa. Tully, Narrative of a Ten Years' residence
at Tn'iioh'.

' iv. 189. ■'•' iv. 190. -5 ii. 6.

LIBYA PROPER. 545

the Libyan costume. The women wore a brass afuica.
chain, or ring, on each leg, and suifered their hair chap. vm.
to grow to a great length. When they caught ver- ^ise mthy
min on their persons, they bit them before throw- ^^^ slavish.
ing them away.^ They alone, of all the Libyans,
brought all their virgins about to be married to the
king, who exercised a certain privilege with those
who pleased his fancy. ^ This people seem to have
wandered over the eastern quarter of Tripoli, and
at times even to have penetrated the Aegyptian
territory. Herodotus himself tells us that their
customs were Aegyptian, and Scylax places them
within the Aegyptian frontier, between Apis and
Canopis.^

2. The GiLTGAMMAE occupied the country west- 2.giligam-
ward, from the Adyrmachidae as far as the island ^4\TLi-
Aphrodisias. Off the middle of their coast was ^^^^'£5^^*®^'
situated the island of Platea, which was colonized gionofthe
by the Cyrenaeans ; and on the continent was the pknt.^™
port of Menelaus with the district of Aziris, which
the Cyrenaeans inhabited. Here the silphium
plant '^ was found for the first time ; it extended from
the island of Platea to the mouth of the Syrtis. The
customs of the people were similar to those of the
other Libyans.^ According to this account we may
presume that the Giligammae originally occupied
the coast region, from the port of Plunos westward
as far as the island Aphrodisias, which has been

^ The Bedouins in this neighbourhood are filthily dirty. They told
Delia Cella that if they washed themselves their flocks would no longer
follow them, a sufficient proof of the potent odours they send forth. In
Fezzan, says Mr. Richardson, {llissmi to Central Africa,) it is a grand
piece of etiquette for every man to have the murdering of his own lice.
If you pick a louse off" a man's sleeve you must deliver it up to him in-
stp,ntly to be mm-dered, as his undoubted right and privilege.

2 iv. 168. 3 Scylax, p. 45.

* The silphium was a kind of laserpitium, or assafoetida, which was
used as an aperient for man, and was also employed for fattening cattle
and making their flesh tender. It formed a very great article of trade,
and at length became so valuable that it was sold at Rome for its weight
in silver, and hence always appeared on the medals of Cyrene. Delia
Cella thought he recognised it in a poisonous plant, which occasioijed a
great mortality amongst the camels belonging to the expedition which
he accompanied.

= iv. 169.

2 N

546 LIBYA PROPER.

AFRICA, identified with the island of Al Hiera, almost in the
CHAP. Tin. centre of the Cyrenaean territory. The beautiful
district of Aziris opposite Platea, which was first
occupied by the Greek settlers, must therefore have
properly belonged to this nomade tribe. At a
subsequent period however the Giligammae were
pushed back into the interior by the colonists at
Cyrene.

3. AsBYs- 3. The AsBYSTAE inhabited the country south of
of'cyreue^ CyTcne, and were thus cut off from the sea by the
four-hmse Cyrenaeaus, who occupied the maritime tract. They
chariots, practisod driving four-horse chariots more than any
ed^cyre^ otlicr Libyan nation, and endeavoured to imitate
to^niT *^"^' niost of the customs of the Cyrenaeans. ^ We may pre-
sume that this tribe, like the Griligammae, had been
driven more into the interior by the Cyrenaeans.

4. AuscHi- 4. The AuscHiSAE dwelt to the south of Barca,
ing the Ca- and extended to the sea near the Hesperides. In
neir' thJ'^^* tlio coiitre of their territory dwelt the Cabales, a
Si follow' •'^™^^^1 nation touching the sea, near the Barcaean
ed cyienae- towu of Tauchcira. The people, like the Asbystae,^
an cus oms. gg^^^ ^^ havo cliicfly imitated the manners of

the Grreek colonists, and practised four-horse chariot
driving.^ The proper territory of these, two tribes
of Auschisae and Cabales can be easily indicated
on the modern map. The Hesperides lived near
the city of Berenice, the modern Bengazi, which
was anciently called Hesperides, or Hesperis ; and
Scylax distinctly mentions the gardens and lake of
the Hesperides in this neighbourhood. The town
of Taucheira was afterwards called Arsinoe.

5. nasamo- 5. The Nasamones were a very numerous people,
erfu'i nation wlio inhabited the Syrtis, and a small portion of the
tiiwho^^'' neighbouring country eastward.* In the summer,
during sum- i^owcver, thcv left their cattle on the coast, and
moved to moved southwards into the interior, as far as the

mcr re-
moved
Augila

region of Augila,'^ in order to gather the dates ; for
here there were numbers of palm trees growing to a

1 iv. 170. 2 iv. 171. 3 iv. 170. * ii. 32.

' We shall have occasion to describe the oasis of Au^la, which still
preserves its ancient name, when we treat of the salt hills in the third
belt of Sandy Waste.

LIBYA PROPER. 547

great size, and all of them were productive. This africa,
people were also accustomed to eat locusts in the chap. vm.
following fashion. When they caught a quantity ^^^^ ^^ j^_
they dried them in the sun ; and then having ground custs, and
them to powder, they would eat them mixed with Avomen in
milk.^ Every man kept several wives, but, like the ^<^"^''^°'^-
Massagetae, indulged in promiscuous intercourse,
first fixing a staff in the ground as a signal. When
a Nasamonian was first married, it was customary
for the bride, on the wedding night, to grant her
favours to all the guests in turn, and afterwards to
receive a present from each. They seem to have in swear-
paid great attention to the tombs of their ancestors, thfii-^hSids
for in swearing they laid their hands on the sepul- on tombs.
chres of those who were celebrated for the greatest slept on thi'
honesty and excellence ; and their divinations were anTSept-
also performed at the tombs, where they prayed and ed their

,.,-»•, - -. ' -. . J ± J dreams as

laid down to sleep, and on waking accepted as an oracies.
oracle whatever they might have dreamt. In pledg- Pledged
ing their faith each party di^ank in turns out of the by^diinking
other one's hand, and if they had no liquid they other 's^^'^^
took up dust from the ground and licked it.^ The hands.
Nasamones were also the only Libyans who buried deTcUn a*^''^
their dead in a different way to the Greeks. They f^l"^^ ^°^'
interred the corpse in a sitting posture, and when
any one was about to die they took care to keep
him sitting, in order to prevent his expiring whilst
lying upon his back. Their dwellings were port- Lived in
able, and were constructed of the asphodel shrub, huts%ade
interwoven with rushes.^ From the foregoing de- ^^k!^'''^'^
scription it is plainly to be seen that the Nasamones
were a powerful and savage people, occupying the
coast of the Grreat Syrtis, and also stretching far into
the interior. Beside their own territory they took

^ The locusts are still eaten by the Bedouin descendants of the Nasa-
mones. Delia Cella saw an immense swarm of locusts shower down
upon the ground as thick as hail, and the Marabouts, Bedouins, and
Negi-oes eagerly devom-ed a quantity, which they toasted before the fire,
and preserved what they could collect, by means of the salt which they
found amongst the sands.

~ iv. 1 72. 3 iv. 190.

2 N 2

548 LIBYA PROPER.

AFRICA, possession of the lands previously held by the Psylli,
CHAP. Yin, -^yliom we shall next describe.

6. Psylli, 6. The PsYLLi wero ail oxtiiict nation, which in
who made aiicicnt timcs lay on the western borders of the

■\var on the . J , /» i • t

south wind, Nasamoniaii territory. A curious story oi their de-
buriJ^Hu struction was told by the Libyans, and is repeated
from the'"' ^y Herodotus, who however refers to them as his
Sahara. gole authority for it, that the hot winds from the
southern desert blew upon the lands of the Psylli
and dried up all their water tanks, until the whole
country within the Syrtis was totally deprived of
water. The Psylli accordingly took counsel to-
gether, and with one consent determined to make
war on the south wind ; but when they reached the
desert the south wind blew against them and buried
them in the sand. The nation having thus perished,
the Nasamones took possession of their territory.^

7. gara- 7. The (xARAMANTES are described by Herodotus
who proper- ^s belonging to the Libyan nomades, though at the
to?he°olf same time he tells us that they dwelt south of the
of Fezzan. Nasamoucs, and within the Wild Beast region which

formed the second belt.^ A people of the same name
are also described at greater length, and with
some striking j)oints of difference, as dwelling
round the third salt hill in the third belt, of Sandy
Desert.' It is evident that they inhabited the region
of Fezzan, but though we thus name them here, and
indicate their position in accordance with the ar-
rangement of Herodotus, we shall postpone further
entering u23on his description of them until we treat
of the oases in the third belt.

8. macae, 8. The Macae dwelt along the sea-coast to the west
pied the" of the Nasamones. They shaved their head so as
Snyps'^*'' to leave a tuft of long hair in the crown,* and when

' iv. 173. The south winds blowing over the Sahara, are loaded with
clouds of sand, which, according to Delia Cella, will sometimes smother
whole caravans.

2 iv. 174. 3 iv. 183.

* The Macae shaved their heads, excepting a tuft of hair which they
left at the crown. The Ausos (iv. 180) let their hair grow only in front.
The Maxyes (iv. 191) only allowed their hair to grow on the right side of
the head. The mode of cutting the hair was probably the mark of dis-

LIBYA PKOPER. 549

at war used the skins of ostriches for defensive africa.
armour.^ The river Cinyps flowed through their chap.vhi.
country, rising from a hill called the Graces, and which was
discharging itself into the sea. The hill was 200 com iSid
stadia from the coast, and was thickly covered with i" the
woodland, whilst all the Libyan territory as far as we
have described was quite bare.^ The banks of the
Cinyps was at one time occupied by the Spartan
colony under Dorieus, but after three years the latter
were driven out by the Macae and Carthaginians.
This was the most beautiful spot in all Libya, ^ and,
like the river, was known by the name of Cinyps. It
was the only district in Libya which could be com-
pared with Europe or Asia for fertility ; and, indeed,
for the growth of corn it was equal to the best land in
all the world. Unlike the rest of Libya, the soil of
Cinyps was black and well watered by springs, and
neither injured by drought nor exhausted by too
much rain ; and the harvests here resembled those
of Babylon, and produced three hundred-fold.* The
river Cinyps may be identified with the Wady Kha-
han, a small river of Northern Africa flowing into
the sea between the Greater and Lesser Syrtis.
The Macae, and the four remaining tribes of
Gindanes, Lotophagi, Machlyes, and Auses, seem to
have occupied western Tripoli and southern Tunis
as far as the Lesser Syrtis, and we may therefore
place them on the map in regular order according
to the arrangement of Herodotus.

9. The Gindanes were situated next the Macae. 9. om-
Their women wore bands of leather round their whosTwo-
ancles, putting on a fresh one for every lover who "n and°e^
obtained their favours. She who wore the greatest ^ing for
number of bands was held in the highest estimation, ^^^^

tinction between the several tribes, and remains of this custom seem to
be still preserved by the present Tuariks.

1 The Bedouins in this neighbourhood still hunt the ostrich, and hav-
ing first carefully preserved the fat, which they [fancy will (like Hol-
loway's ointment) cure every kind of ailment, they carry the skin with
the feathers on to Bengazi for sale, where it forms one of the principal
articles of trade.

3 iv. 175. 3 v,42. i iv. 198.

550 LIBYA PEOPER.

AFRICA, as being loved by tlie greatest number of men.' The
CHAP. Tin. name of this tribe seems to be preserved in the
"^ modern town of Ghadames.^

10. LoTo- 10. The LoTOPHAGi occupied that part of the coast
lived ok which projected into the sea in front of the Grin-
fromthe'^^^*^ daiics. They subsisted solely on the fruit of the
farinaceous lotus. Tliis fruit was as laro'o as the mastic berry,

part of the . iiiji n ^ i i

fruit of the and its sweetness resembled that oi the date; the
Stu™''''* Lotophagi also made wine from it.^ We have al-
ready described this lotus/ Mungo Park tells us
that the natives convert the berries into a sort of
bread, by exposing them for some days to the sun,
and afterwards pounding them gently in a wooden
mortar, until the farinaceous part of the berry is
separated from the stone ; and this meal is then
mixed with a little water and formed into cakes,
which, on being dried in the sun, resemble in colour
and flavour the sweetest gingerbread. The stones
are afterwards put in a vessel of water and shaken
about, so as to communicate a sweet' and agreeable
taste to the water ; and this, with the addition of a
little pounded millet, forms a pleasant gruel called
fondi, which is the common breakfast amongst
many of the natives on the upper course of the
Niger. ^

11. mach- 11. The Machlyes dwelt on the sea-coast next the
dwelt 0^° Lotophagi, and were likewise accustomed to eat the
bank of^the lo^us, tliougli uot to the Same extent. Their country
river Tri- extended as far as a large river called Triton. This

river discharged itself into the great lake Tritonis,

^ iv. 176. Delia Cella tells us that] the more opulent females still
wear silver bracelets round their ancles, but he does not know if they
retain their ancient signification.

2 Herodotus's notices, here and elsewhere, of the disgusting sensual-
ism of the native tribes of Northern Africa, are fully confirmed by every
traveller who has accompanied the caravans from Tripoli to Ghadames,
Ghat, or Mourzuk. The men indulge their passions without restraint,
and in many tribes all the women are accessible. No elevated senti-
ment, no refined ideas, are to be found amongst them. Cf. Richardson,
Mission to Central Africa in 1850, -51, ^uissim.

^ iv. 77- _ * See page 540.

^ Park, Travels in Africa. We may infer from the above description
that the lotus-caters of the poefs, (Homer, and Mr. Tennyson,) seem to
have passed their lives as school-boys sometimes pass their half-holidays
— forgetting their troubles by means of gingerbread.

LIBYA PEOPER. 551

where the island named Phla was situated. The africa.
Lacedaemonians are said to have been commanded ^"^^- ^"^•
bv an oracle to colonize this island.^ The following ;; ~

J IT- • -ji-j T 1 Argonautic

story was also told m connexion with it. J ason and legend con-
his ship Argo were said to have been driven into the this loZi-
shallows of the lake Tritonis, when a Triton appear- '*y-
ed and offered to pilot his ship safely out if Jason
would give him the brazen tripod which was on
board the vessel. Jason consented, and the Triton
redeemed his promise, and on receiving the tripod
placed it in his own temple. He then delivered an
oracle from the tripod, in which he declared that
when a descendant of the Argonauts should fetch
away the tripod, it was decreed by fate that a
hundred Greek cities should be built around the
lake. The neighbouring Libyan nations, having
heard of this prophecy, carried away the tripod and
concealed it, in order to prevent the contingency
upon which the oracle depended.^ We have already
pointed out the situation of the lake Tritonis and
river Triton mentioned by Herodotus.^

12. The AusES came next. Both they and the ]^^^ ^y!^f'
Machlyes dwelt round the lake Tritonis, and were on the left
separated from each other by the river Triton.* ri^^r"^*^®
The Auses suffered their hair to grow on the front Triton.
of the head, whilst the Macae, as we have seen, wore
long hair at the back. Every year the maidens Worshipped
separated into two companies, and contended against goddeL^cor-
each other with stones and cudgels; considering [^^^^^''^''^s
that by so doing they were performing the ancient ^^^^f^^ °^
rites to the goddess of their land, who was the Athene
of the Greeks. Those who died from their wounds
were called false maidens. Before the combat, the
most beautiful virgin of them all was arrayed in a

1 iv. 178. 2 iv. 179. 3 See page 541.

* Herodotus tells us (iv. 186, 191) that Lake Tritonis and the river
Triton form the boundary between the Libyan nomades on the east and
the husbandmen on the west ; yet here he places the Auses, whom he
describes as nomades, on the western bank of the lake, and beyond the
river Triton. Rennell thinks that Herodotus speaks generally in one
place, and particularly in the other, and that, in consequence, the lake
was entirely surrounded by nomade tribes. We need scarcely add, that
this solution of the apparent inconsistency is obviously correct.

552 LIBYA PROPER.

AFRICA. Corinthian helmet and Greek armour, and placed in

CHAP. Yni. a chariot, and conducted round the lake. Before the

■ Greeks settled in the country, the maiden, according

to the opinion of Herodotus, was dressed in Aegyp-

tian equipment, as the shield and helmet were both

brought from Aegypt into Greece. Athene was said

to be the daughter of Poseidon and the lake Tri-

tonis ; but being offended with her father, she ap-

Lived apart plied to Zcus and was adopted as his daughter. The

women,'^''^ Auscs indulged in promiscuous intercourse with the

Avhomtiiey ^Qmon, but did not live with them. The men met

113.0. in J t • -I ■% -t ~t •

common, togcthor ovory third month, and upon that occasion
the grown-up children were declared to belong to
that man whom they most resembled, and who was
henceforth considered to be their father.^ This is
the last nation of nomades, and we now turn to our
author's description of Carthage, and of the Libyan
husbandmen.
III. Car- III. Caethage was situated on that commanding
Snerai de- promoutory of the African coast, which runs out into
theSuntry. tho vcry contro of the Mediterranean, and nearly
approaches the opposite shore of Sicily. In the
northern part of this promontory there is a large
bay, formed by the projection of Cape Bon in the
east, and of Cape Zebid in the west, and at present
City situat- known as the Gulf of Tunis. On a small peninsula
peninsula at juttiiig out at tlio bottom of tlic bay was built the
oflhe" GuTf ancient city. On the southern side of the peninsula
of Tunis, there is at present a large lagoon, running inland as
far as the modern city of Tunis ; on the northern side
of the peninsula is an extensive salt marsh. The
great changes effected in the coast by the inroads of
the Mediterranean, the deposits of the river Bagradas,
and the seaward drifting of the sands, renders it
almost impossible to identify the ancient harbours ;
but fortunately it is unnecessary in the present vo-
Imne to weary the reader with a disquisition upon
the subject. Both the lagoon and the salt marsh
were of great depth in ancient times. On the land
side the city was protected by a triple line of walls,

~^ ' iv. 180.

LIBYA PKOPEE. 553

of great height and thickness, and flanked by towers ; africa.
and these walls ran right across the peninsula from chap. vm.
the present lagoon to the salt marsh.

The boundaries of that empire of which the city Boundaries
was only the nucleus cannot be exactly ascertained. ^hagfnSn'^'
In the time of Herodotus, the Carthaginian dominions empire.
appear to have extended eastward to that part of
the Syrtis where they came in contact with those of
Cyrene, whilst they were formed on the south by the
range of Mount Atlas. The western boundary can
scarcely be identified, but it is certain that in that
direction the whole African coast was studded with
Carthaginian colonies. The uniform object of Car-
thage was to monoj)olize the commerce of the ancient
world. Her grasping and sordid policy in pursuance Jealousy of
of this end rendered her deaf to the literary cravings L^effeSai
of her age ; and by her jealous fears lest rival states eari*° ro!
should learn her trading secrets, she has effectually g^ess of
debarred posterity from doing justice to her enter- carscfcfuce.
prising discoveries. No Carthaginian author has
left any record of those geographical results which
had been attained by the leaders of her caravans and
the officers of her merchantmen, and all such inform-
ation would have been utterly lost, had it not been
for writers of distant nations and later periods.' The
facts collected by Herodotus concerning Western
Africa and the oases of Sahara are therefore espe-
cially valuable; and aided by the discoveries of
modern travellers, and above all by the researches of
the learned Heeren, the reader may obtain some
idea of the commercial routes into the interior of
Africa, and of the great extent of the extraordinary
caravan trade, which was organized and carried on
by the merchants of one of the least known cities of
antiquity. Carthage itself, however, is not even Herodotus's

1 It may be m-ged that the Carthaginian writings were destroyed by
the Romans after the Punic wars, and that another Alexandrian Hbrary
may have been destroyed by warriors as barbarous as the followers of
Mohammed. But scarcely any writings have been preserved by the
whole Phoenician nation, and the question of how far the geography of
Marinus of Tyre has been preserved in that of Ptolemy must be left for
abler critics to decide.

554

LIBYA PROPER.

AFRICA.

CHAP. Till.

ignorance
ofCarthage.

Second
Belt, of
AVild Beast
region, or
Beled-el-
jered.
General
descrii^tion.

named by Herodotus. Its inhabitants he sometimes
calls Phoenicians, and sometimes Carthaginians, or
rather Carchedonians, but from the brevity of his
notices and scantiness of his information, it is cer-
tain that he never visited their city, and indeed the
citizens guarded their territory from the approaches
of foreigners, v^ith a jealousy exceeding that of
Lacedaemon, and bearing a strong resemblance to
that of Japan. ^ He tells us that they brought an
army of 300,000 men against Gelon, including Phoe-
nicians, Libyans, Iberi, Ligyes, Elisyci, Sardonians,
and Cyrnians;^ and that they offered sacrifices to
Hamilcar, and in Carthage and all her colonial
towns erected monuments in memory of that hero.^
We therefore hasten to leave this city for the second
belt, or Wild Beast region, which includes the coun-
try of the Libyan husbandmen.

The Second Belt, which Herodotus calls the Wild
Beast region, comprises in a general sense the south-
ern parts of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli,
and extends over the southern side of Mount Atlas.
We must however remember that this chain is loftiest
and broadest towards the west, where it occupies the
whole of the southern provinces of Morocco and
Algiers, and is indeed the Atlas Proper of ancient
geography. As it approaches Tripoli it becomes
narrower, parched, and sterile, and at length dwin-
dles down to a mere chain of barren rocks. The
western quarter is well supplied with water, and is
the peculiar haunt of savage beasts ; it therefore well
deserves the name of Wild Beast country, bestowed
upon it by Herodotus. The Arabs call it Beled-el-
jered, or the Land of Dates, from the vast quantity of
that fruit wliich grows there, and which constitutes
an article of food and of commerce, extremely im-
portant to tlie various tribes who frequent its borders.
The later Greek and Roman geographers called it
Gaetulia ; and it is known even by their poets as the
native haunt of savage beasts. The region is only

' i. 166, 167 ; iv. 169, 195. Comp. Arnold, Hist, of Rome, chap, xxxix.
2 vii. 165. ^ vii. 167.

LIBYA PROPEE. 555

fertile in those places wliere water is to be found, Africa.
and gradually loses itself in a sandy desert ; but its ^"^^- ^"i-
inhabitants are still, and always have been, the
greatest trayelling merchants in the world. They
form the principal portion of those great caravans
which penetrate the great desert, and reach the
golden regions of the mysterious interior ; or they
proceed to the far east, and carry their rare commo-
dities to the distant marts of Arabia and Persia.

This second belt includes tlie Libyan husband- Amjrdmg
men of Herodotus, for though he places them in a otus, in-
direct line westward from the nomades, yet he Libyan*'^
describes their territory as beinff haunted by wild i^i^isbanci-

*/ o J men.

beasts.^ We must therefore assume that the husband-
men occupied the second, or Wild Beast, belt, having
the Carthaginians of the Inhabited Country on their
north, and the Sandy Waste on their south.

Only three nations of husbandmen are distinctly ^^^i^^^ „
mentioned, namely, the Maxyes, the Zaveces, and husband-
the Gryzantes ; but to these we shall add such other ™'^^'
information as Herodotus is able to furnish con-
cerning the western region of Northern Africa.

1 . The Maxyes were a nation who lived in houses, i- maxyes,
and allowed the hair to grow on the right side of tuftoTthe'^
the head, but shaved it on the left. They daubed tSSd?
their bodies with red lead, and said that they were f^*^! daubed
sprung from men who came from Troy.^ red.

2. The Zaveces were a nation whose women 2.zateces,
were accustomed to drive the war chariots.^ We ^ °^^

women
drove the

may thus presume that the Zaveces bred horses, and
the traditions concerning the Amazons in these re- chariots,
gions may have arisen from the custom above de-
scribed. The use of war chariots by the Cartha-
ginians in the early period of their history was
probably borrowed from this people.^

3. The Gyzantes were a nation amongst whom 3. gyzan-
the bees made a great quantity of honey, but it was subsisted o
said that their confectioners made even more. They ^Tukcys.^^
painted themselves vermillion like the Maxyes, and

1 IV. 191. 2 iv. 191. 3 iv, 193.

* Heeren's Africa, vol. i.

556 LIBYA PEOPER.

AFRICA, were accustomed to eat the monkeys wliich abound-
cHAP.viii. g(-j jjj their momitains/ Honey of a delicious
flavour is still collected from the clefts in the neigh-
bouring rocks, whither great swarms of wild bees
are attracted by the sweets of perpetual spring.
The modern inhabitants chiefly subsist upon this
honey, and what they do not consume they barter
with the Bedouins for butter, barley meal, and
woollen garments.^ The manufactured honey is
prepared from the juice of palms. ^
Island of The island called Cyraunis was said by the Car-
now cdied thaginians to lie off the coast of the Gyzantes. It
K^keuah ^^g 200 stadia in length, but its breadth was very
Gherba. inconsiderablc. It was easy of access from the con-
tinent, and abounded in olive trees and vines ; it
Lake from also Contained the celebrated lake, where the maidens
dust^wc?s°^'^ of the country drew up gold-dust out of the mud by
obtained by nieaus of foathcrs besmeared with pitch. Herodotus

dipping in 1T1-

feathers scarccly knows whether to believe this story or not,
ITh pitch, and he only repeats what was related to him ; he is
however more inclined to believe it than otherwise,
for he had himself seen pitch obtained in a similar
manner from a lake in Zacynthus.^ Cyraunis has
been identified with the islands of Karkenah and
Gherba off the eastern coast of Tunis, to the north
of the Lesser Syrtis. These two islands were an-
ciently joined by a mole ; the largest was called
Cercina, and the smaller Cercinitis. Their length
agrees with the 200 stadia of Herodotus, and they
are narrow in proportion.
Geography The gcography of Western Africa, according to
Africrfur-^ Hcrodotus, is further illustrated by two stories which
ther iiius- Q^,Q ^^](j ijy Q^p author. The first, which he obtained

trated by n -i • ' i r t i

two stories fr^om a Carthaginian source, throws a ray oi light

by'^H^odo- upou the ancicut gold trade on the coast of Guinea.

^'^- The Carthaginians stated, he says, that they were

accustomed to sail to a nation beyond the Pillars of

^ iv. 194. ^ Delia Cella, Expedition in Barhary.

^ The method of preparing this honey is desciibed by Dr. Shaw. Cf.
Travels in Barbary.
* iv. 195.

LIBYA PROPEE. 557

Heracles for the purposes of barter. On reaching africa.
the spot they took their merchandise on shore, and chap. vm.
arranged it upon the strand, and then returned to canhagi-
their ships, and made a great smoke. The natives ^J^^^f °^f^^
seeing the signal, came down to the strand, and barter car-
placed gold against the wares, and also retired. The the native?
Carthaginians then again landed to see if the natives "J^^^^"^^ go^'i
had offered enough gold, and if they found it suffi-
cient, they carried it away and left their wares ; if,
on the other hand, they were dissatisfied with the
amount, they again returned to their ships and
waited, and the natives brought more gold, until
the strangers were satisfied. Neither party ever
wronged the other, for the merchants would not
touch the gold until the value of their wares was
brought, nor would the natives touch the merchan-
dise until the gold had been accepted and taken
away.^

The second story was probably obtained by He- Persian
rodotus from some Persian source, and was as fol- To°yIgeof^
lows. Sataspes, in punishment for an outrage upon Sataspes.
a noble lady, was sentenced by Xerxes to be im-
paled, but his mother prevailed upon the king to
grant him a free pardon, on condition that he sailed
round the Libyan continent, as far as the Arabian
Grulf Accordingly Sataspes proceeded to Aegypt,
and embarked from thence in an Aegyptian ship
manned with Aegyptian sailors. He sailed through
the Pillars of Heracles, doubled Cape Soloeis, (now
called Cape Cantin,) and steered towards the south,
but after traversing a vast extent of sea for many
months, and finding that he had still more to pass,
he returned to Aegypt. In his subsequent audience

1 iv. 106. This description of the dumb trade between the Cartha-
ginians and the natives of the coast of Guinea, bears upon its very face
the stamp of truth, and we see not the slightest reason for doubting its
authenticity : the simphcity and frankness of sailors and savages are pro-
verbial. Prof. Heeren however desires to prove, on the authority of one
or two modern travellers, that an inland trade is still carried on in the
same confidential manner with the inhabitants of the gold countries, on
the banks of the Niger. Captain Lyon certainly was told that such was
the case, but I cannot help thinking that his informant must have been
previously acquainted with the story told by Herodotus.

558

LIBYA PKOPER.

AFRICA.

CHAP. VIII.

Third
Belt, of
Sandy
AVaste, or
the Sahara.
General
description.

Basin of the
Niger, and
the Kong
Mountains,
to the south
of the
Sahara.

with Xerxes, he told the king that, in the most dis-
tant regions which his vessel had reached, he had
sailed past a nation of little men, who wore garments
of palm leaves ; that whenever he and his crew went
ashore, the little men left their cities and fled to the
mountains ; but that he did not suffer his sailors to
do any injury to their lands or property, beyond
carrying away some of their cattle. The reason
why he did not perform the circumnavigation of
Libya was, as he declared, because his vessel was
stopped, but Xerxes would not believe his story,
and ordered him to be impaled, according to his
original sentence.^

The Thied Belt, which Herodotus calls the
Sandy Waste, is occupied by the Sahara, or '' sea of
sand," and extends, as he very accurately remarks,
from the borders of Aegypt to. the coast of the
Atlantic; and we may observe that it stretches
under the same degree of latitude through Arabia,
and the Persian provinces of Kerman and Mekran,
to the desert of Moultan in the region of the Punjab.
The Sahara however by no means forms one con-
tinual sterile ocean of sand. Not only are several
fruitful patches interspersed here and there, but
whole districts may be found in the form of steppes,
over which the nomade hordes of the desert wander
with their herds. The desert is broadest in its
western half, between Morocco and Soudan ; and
narrowest to the south of Tripoli, in the direction of
Fezzan and Lake Tchad; but as it approaches
Aegypt it again becomes broader. Southward of
the sandy solitudes happier regions again are found.
The dark obscurity which hung round the Kong
Mountains is clearing away. The streams which
issue from this mighty ridge, swollen by the violence
of the tropic rains, overflow their banks like the
Aegyptian Nile, and fertilize the neighbouring soil.
Instead of sandy desert the eyes of the sun-burnt
traveller may often wander delightedly over extensive
plains covered witli shady woods ; or over the breasts

' iv. 43. Sec also pp. 335, 344.

LIBYA PROPER. 559

of gently sloping hills, which contain wi1:hin a few africa.
feet of their surfiice the richest veins of gold. Ere chap. vm.
long the barren lands and the fertile spots will be '
alike explored ; the entire course of the Niger will
be accurately known to every geographer, and the
spirit of discovery will at last unfold to the civilized
world a true picture of the fabled Timbuctoo.^

The Third Belt, or sand ridare, lay, according to Herodotus's
Herodotus, to the south of the Wild Beast tract, and sandy ridge
stretched from the Aeg3rptian Thebes to the Pillars t-om^i^
of Heracles. Along this ridge, and at intervals of ^^f^Pj\^^
about ten days' journey from each other, were hills the Piiiars ;
covered with masses of salt in great lumps, and at andcontaS-
the summit of each hill a spring of cool and sweet |,"?nVawted
water gushed out from the midst of the salt. Around salt hiiis, at
the spring dwelt the farthest people towards the tendlys'°
desert, and southward of the Wild Beast region.^ fc^een
Five only of the nations occupyins^ these salt hills are each.

«/ X t/ CJ ^ Jh IVG IltltlOTlS

described by Herodotus, namely, the Ammonians, ofsaithius
the Augilse, the Graramantes, the Atarantes, and the b'y HeroS
Atlantes ; but beyond the salt hill inhabited by the "t^^-
Atlantes, Herodotus cannot name the nations ; he
only knows that they each occupied a salt hill at
an interval of ten days' journey from each other,
and extended as far as the Pillars, if not beyond
them.^ Herodotus describes these five nations in the
following order.

1. The Ammonians were situated ten days' jour- iNtfwho^'

' The French traveller Caillie was the first European who returned
alive from Timbuctoo ; Park and Laing both reached it, but their accounts
have been lost. Whilst writing this note we learn that Dr. Barth,
who accompanied the lamented traveller Mr. Richardson on his mis-
sion to Central Afi'ica, has succeeded in reaching this city, and we
hope soon to receive his detailed description. ^ iv. 181.

^ Salt was, and still is, one of the most important articles of commerce
in the interior of Africa. The fertile and thickly peopled districts in the
valley of the Niger, and to the south of that river, are entirely destitute
of salt ; whilst immense magazines of it have been established by nature
in the great barren waste of the Sahara. Large quantities are found in
the dry beds of salt lakes; and layers of it frequently extend for many
miles, and rise in hills, which also contain pits and mines both of white
and coloured salt. The commodity is either fetched by caravans com-
posed of the swarthy race who dwell about the Niger, or else it is carried
to them by foreign merchants who take gold-dust or other wares in
exchange. Cf. Leo Afi-icanus, and the Travels of Dapper, Hornemann,
and Lyon, quoted by Heeren.

560 LIBYA PROPER.

AFnicA. ney from Thebes, and possessed a temple to the
CHAP. VIII. Theban Zeiis. They were a colony of the Aegyp-
possessed a tians and Aethiopians, and spoke a language resem-
tempie to blino; that of both nations. They made the ima^e

Zeus the ~ . ^

ram-iieaded of Zous With a ram's faco, the same as the Thebans,
Thebes, and ^^'^^ soem to liavo derived their name from this deity,
a hot spring y^]^Q ^g^g callod Ammon by the Aea^yptians.^ They

sacrGQ. to , "^ o»/ J. J

Helios. also possessed another kind of spring water besides
that which rose from the salt hill, namely, a spring,
which in the morning was tepid ; at mid-day, when
they watered their gardens, was very cold ; and at
eveningtide gradually became warmer, until at
midnight it boiled and bubbled, and then gradually
cooled again. This fountain was called after Helios.^
Neighbour- gevon days' journey from Thebes, across the sands,
Oasis situ- was the city named Oasis, in a country called the
Siand^ofAe Islaud of tlic Blesscd. This city was inhabited by
Shabited'^'^ Samians, said to be of the Aeschrionian tribe. Be-
by samians. tween Oasis and Ammonium fifty thousand Per-
sians, who formed the army of Cambyses, were
destroyed by heaps of sand carried along by a very
strong south wind.^

2. AuGi- 2. The AuGiLAE, or people of Augila, inhabited a
dat^e'^un-^ Salt hill, whicli, as we have already seen, was visited
si7e7bvthe ^J ^^^^ Nasamoncs every year, for the purpose of
Nasamones. gathering in the date harvest.^

3. gara- 3. The Garam ANTES were a very powerful nation,
who covered wlio laid Salt upon the earth and sowed it. The
SthSbe- shortest route fr^om the Garamantes to the Loto-
fore cuiti- phagi was a 30 days' journey. Amongst these peo-
and possess- plc wcro kiuc wlio grazed walking backwards, for
walking their horns, being bent forward, would stick in the
backwards. gj-Qund if thc auiiTials attempted to walk forwards.

In other respects the kine were only peculiar from

Hunted the having a thicker and harder hide. The Garamantes

Trogiody*-^ huiitcd tlic Aetliiopiaii Troglodytae in four-horse

*^^- chariots. The latter were the swiftest runners

known, but fed upon serpents, lizards, and similar

reptiles ; and their language could only be com-

1 ii. 42. '' iv. 181. ^ jij, 26. ^ iv. 182.

LIBYA PEOPEE. 561

pared to the screeching of bats.^ The Garamantes africa.
are also described as a nation of Libyan nomades, chap.vhi.
who avoided the society of all other men, and neither inchuied a
possessed any warlike weapons nor knew how to timid tribe,
defend themselves.^ These probably only formed a led^diother
single tribe of the powerful nation of Garamantes ; haTneither
but we shall have occasion to return to this subject ^eaponsnor

"^ knew how

further on. to fight.

4. The Ataeantes, who were the only people 4. ataean-
known to Herodotus who had no names ; for though had no °
they were all called Atarantes, yet no man had a cuSthe^
name for himself. They were accustomed to curse sim.
and abuse the sun for scorching themselves and

their country.^

5. The Atlantes, who were the last nation in 5. atlan-
this direction whom Herodotus could name. They atl^no nieat
were said to eat no meat, and to dream no dreams, ed nf *^'^™'
They were named after Mount Atlas, which was dreams,
situated very near their salt hill.* This mountain
formed the boundary of Herodotus's knowledge in

this direction. He describes it as being narrow Description
and circular, but so lofty that its summit, both in Itias'!'^''
summer and winter, was always hid by the clouds.
The Atlantes called it the Pillar of Heaven.^ All The salt
that he knew of the desert, beyond this point, was ttiThouses
that it probably extended to the Pillars of Heracles, ^j^h biocL
and that there was a mine of salt in it, ten days' "^'y^f^g^^'J'^
journey beyond the Atlantes, and inhabited by men.
At this salt mine all the houses were built of blocks
of salt, for no rain ever fell in that part of Libya,
otherwise the walls would have melted away. The
salt dug out from the mine was of two kinds, namely,
white and purple. Southward of the sandy ridge,
and towards the interior of Libya, the country was
desert, without watery without animals, without
wood, and without rain or any kind of moisture.^

The foregoing account of Herodotus must now be Actual ex-
compared with actual geography ; but first of all it rodotus's
will be necessary to investigate the real extent of knowiedo^e

1 iv. 183. 2 iv^ 174 3 iv. 184 4 jbid.

5 iv. 184. « iv. 185.

2 o

562 LIBYA PEOPER.

AFRICA, our author's personal Imowledge of all these regions,
CHAP. Yiii. Qj^^ ii^Q sources of that information which he derived
in Libya, froui othors. That he visited Cyrene, may, I think,
of hisTa-^°' be taken for granted, both from his detailed accounts
formiitiou. relating to the history and topography of the colony,
roufand^" aud his distiuct notices of the inhabitants.^ Here
bouSu?Li- ^1^0 ^^^ probably met with the Cyrenaeans who
byan no- talked witli Etearchus about the sources of the Nile,
and expedition of the Nasamones.^ It is most pro-
bable that he proceeded there by sea after his so-
journ in Aegypt, for he notices the Aegyptian cus-
toms prevailing amongst the Adyrmachidae,^ and
the inhabitants of Cyrene and Barca,* and he also de-
scribes the territorial boundaries of the more eastern
tribes of nomades, by a reference to points on the
coast.^ We may likewise presume that he made ex-
cursions amongst the neighbouring nomades, espe-
cially as the power and influence exercised by the
Cyrenaean colonists would secure him from any kind
Collected of danger. It is however certain that he did not visit
from'Thr'' all the nomade tribes, for he could not tell us whether
nomades. .j-j^^y ^|^ cautcrizcd their children's heads or not;^
but he has most assuredly collected much trustworthy
information from those natives of whom he was
enabled to make inquiries.^ That he ever reached
Sreach Carthage seems incredible. A traveller like He-
ed Car- " rodotus would probably have been received by the
thagc. Carthaginians with the same kind hospitality that
the Algerines of a later period extended towards the
Christian trader. His account of lake Tritonis and
the river Triton was, as we have already seen, most
Obtained probably derived fr"om some Argonautic poet.^ It
however'"'^ is liowevcr evident, that in the course of his travels
th°ajiuian Hcrodotus found some Carthaginians who were more
travellers, communicativo than the ge»erality of their jealous
countrymen, for they told him of the gold-dust
obtained in the island of Cyraunis by means of
tarred feathers,'' and of the dumb kind of barter

^ See page 536.
5 iv. 168—171.
" See page 541.

2 ii. 32.

•^ iv. 168.

4 iv. 1.59, 186

« iv. 187.

3 iv. 195.

' iv. 173, 187.

LIBYA PEOPEE. 563

carried on for gold with the natives of the coast of africa.
Western Africa/ Probably his information con- chap. vm.
cerning the Libyan husbandmen of the Wild Beast General ii^-
region was obtained from the same quarter. Of all 5^^^^^^;!^"^
the nations of the salt hills, it is equally certain that AMca.
he could not have visited one, or he would have
given us some account of the oasis of Ammon whilst
relating the story of the audience between the
Cyrenaeans and the king Etearchus.^ His knowledge HisdescHp-
of the Sandy Waste region was thus entirely de- chSnofsait
rived fr^om hearsay; and it is remarkable that in giJ^J'^J^f
this part of his geographical description he nowhere rived from

. • 1 • ,~i • ■ TTT 1 doubtiul ill-

mentions his authority. We may however presume formation,
that he collected his materials at Thebes, as it was xSer^ ^*
from this city that his chain of salt hills commenced ; ^ fr°°^ ^7^-
and there can be no doubt that he obtained his in- sources.
formation from a great variety of sources, and ar-
ranged it after his own fashion and according to pre-
conceived theories.

Having thus glanced at the sources of our author's Attempt to
information, we shall now try to test its authenticity peopie-^iST
and develope its character, by endeavouring to iden- ^^^'^^^3°/^^.,^
tify the people and places he has described with map.
those which are to be found on the modern map. o/iierodo-

The reader must imagine himself at Thebes,* and ^^y^gfg^i^'to
we shall assume that the narrative of Herodotus is the caravan

P , -1 . , . /> , -1 • route into

an imjDeriect description 01 a caravan route begin- the interior.
ning at Thebes, and running towards the interior in
a direction corresponding to the modern caravan
road.^

1 iv. 196. 2 ii. 32. 3 iy. 181.

* For most of the following facts I am indebted to the researches of
Professor Heeren, but I have compared them generally with the results
set down by more recent geographers, and also made a few additions
which it is unnecessary to point out.

5 Heeren argues that the description of Herodotus is that of a caravan
road, fi-om the following circumstances. First, the route passes in its
whole length across deserts which can only be travelled over by caravans,
which alone, indeed, could have carried those accounts to Aegypt which
Herodotus collected. Secondly, the distances are calculated by days'
journeys, and the resting-places mentioned are those in which fresh
water is to be found. Thirdly, the route pointed out by Herodotus is
about the same as that now in use. For fm-ther particulars the reader
is referred to Heeren's Researches, Africa, vol. i.

2 0 2

564

LIBYA PKOPER.

AFRICA.

CHAP. VIII

1st station
— Amruoui-
um. Idea-
tilied with
Siwah.

Twenty
days' jour-
ney from
Thebes.

Intermedi-
ate station
at El Wah,
supposed to
he omitted
by Herodo-
tus.

The first station is Ammonium, which can be
almost unhesitatingly identified with the modern
Siwah. This is an oasis about 10 miles long and
3 broad. The ruins of the ancient temple of Am-
mon have been discovered here by Mr. Browne,
whose accounts have been extended and confirmed
by Hornemann and Hoskins. It includes a pronaos
and a naos. The whole form and construction of
the building agrees with the ancient Aegyptian, and
traces of the worship of the ram-headed god are to
be seen in every part of the sculptures. A quarter
of an hour's walk from the south of the temple brings
the traveller to the fountain of the Sun. This is a
small pool, about 30 paces long, 20 wide, and 6
fathoms deep ; but it is so clear that the bottom is
seen, from whence bubbles continually arise, like
those from a boiling caldron. The temperature of
the water varies, being warmer at night than in the
day, and at day-break it generally smokes. It is
probably a hot spring, the warmth of its waters not
being observed during the heat of the day. The
oasis produces dates, pomegranates, and other fi:uits
in rich abundance. Near it is a large natural maga-
zine of salt, which rises in masses above the ground,
and some of these salt patches are above a mile
long. One difficulty in the identification still re-
mains. Herodotus says that the distance between
Thebes and Ammonium is a ten days' journey,
whereas the distance between Thebes and Siwah is
400 geographical miles, or almost exactly twenty
days' journey. Heeren therefore conjectures that
one tstation has been omitted ; and it is certain that
Herodotus mentions in another place a city named
Oasis, in a country called the Island of the Blessed,
which he says was situated seven days' journey from
Thebes, across the sands.' This Island of the
Blessed may be identified with the Great Oasis, or
El Wah, and the road from Thebes to Siwah must
necessarily lead directly through it. El Wah is
really formed of two oases ; the eastern one, which

' iii. 20.

LIBYA PEOPEE. 565

is more properly the Great Oasis, is called El Africa.
Kargeh; the western one is called El Dakel.^ The chap.vih.
two are separated by a sandy tract of thirty hours'
journey, but were supposed by the ancients to form
one oasis. El Kargeh is about seven days' journey
from Thebes, and undoubtedly contained the city
Oasis, which is mentioned by Herodotus. Either
here therefore, or else in El Dakel, must have been
the station omitted by Herodotus.

The second station is Augila, a well-known name 2nd station
both in ancient and modern geography ; and it is The^gfeat
exactly a ten days' journey from the palms of^^^^g^"'^
Siwah, over the arid plains and parched barren
hills of the desert of Barca to the date groves of
Augila. In the present day Augila lies in the great
thoroughfare for caravans from Western Africa to
Cairo, and is a principal mart for dates ; and Hero-
dotus expressly mentions that the Nasamones from
the Syrtis journeyed to Augila every year to obtain
this fruit.^

The third station is in the country of the Gaea- oni station
MANTES. Herodotus tells us that these were a power- mantes.
ful people, dwelling to the south of the Psylli, and Jvlth'rez-
thirty days' journey from the Lotophagi. The ^^i^-
Psylli dwelt in the centre of the Syrtis territory,
between the Lotophagi and the Nasamones. We
are therefore directed to the present Fezzan, the
first inhabited country southwards of the Lotophagi.
Fezzan is 400 miles long from north to south, and
perhaps 250 miles broad from east to west. The station at
city and territory of Zuila, near the centre of the ty"iays'"^*^"
country, and about two days' journey fi-om Mour- {""m au-
zuk, the present capital, is still the station for cara- gi^^.
vans between Aegypt and Soudan, and would be
about a thirty days' journey from the Lotophagi.
Here however there is just the same difficulty as in
the case of Siwah; for Zuila in Fezzan is twenty
days' journey from Augila, and not ten days', as

' El Kai-geh and El Dakel are each so called after their principal
cities.
2 iv. 182.

566 LIBYA PROPER.

AFRICA, specified by Herodotus as tlie distance between
CHAP. vni. Augila and the Garamantes. Heeren again sug-
P'ests an omission, and finds that the small valley
diate station of Zala is a caravan station exactly midway
sxipposedto between Augila and Zuila, and consequently ten
Ib^H^rod? tlays' journey from each. The Garamantes, ac-
otus. cording to Herodotus, cultivated their territory

by placing salt upon the soil; they possessed
kine with horns bending forwards, and having
thick hides ; and they hunted the Aethiopian Trog-
Expiana- lodytac in four-horse chariots.^ Resj^ecting the
people's placing salt upon the soil, we are told by modern
upon'^^r * travellers that produce can only be raised from the
^°^- barren soil of Fezzan by means of manure ; and we

may presume that salt was employed for this pur-
pose in the time of Herodotus.^ We are also told
that Fezzan abounds in some parts in white clay,
which is mixed with sand to render it more produc-
tive. If therefore we reject the theory that salt
may have been used to stimulate the soil, we may
admit, that from ignorance or carelessness, that
mineral might have been confounded with white
Horns of clay. As regards the kine with horns bending
haptbent forward, no such species have been described by
Stificiar ^^ naturalists. Fezzan contains three species of buffalo,
moans. and the extraordinary thickness and hardness of
their hides is noticed by modern travellers ; and as
the neatherds of Africa frequently amuse themselves
by giving an artificial form to the horns of their
cattle by continually bending them, we may follow
Heeren in presuming that the Garamantes did the
Hunting of same. The hunting of Troglodyte black men
dytcbkck' scarccly requires an explanation. They wore a
mounta?ns^ ^^^^ Hcgro raco, dwelling in the caves of the neigh-
ofTibesti bouring mountains, who were kidnapped by the

I iv. 183.

^ Fezzan is by no means one large oasis. It is in fact a portion of the
Sahara, in which fertile valleys occur a little more frequently than in
the other portions, Ijut are still separated by deserts, sometimes perfectly,
and at others slightly, sprinkled with herbage. Mr. Richardson believed
that the entire population did not exceed twenty-six thousand. Mission
to Central Africa, vol. i.

LIBYA PEOPER. 567

Garamantes, and sold for slaves. The rock Tib- afkica.
boos, as they are called, still dwell in the mountains '^"'^i'- ^'"i-
of the Tibesti range, which are situated in the f^ny ^.
deserts of Borgoo, some days' journey to the south fiJe^jJfoJig^/
of Fezzan. Richardson describes them as living razzias, for
either in huts, or in caverns scooped out of the sides ping^SThe'
of hills. ^ The old inhabitants however were un- -SiaTery.
doubtedly negroes, among whom the Tibboos have
settled themselves by force. This hunting of the
human race is still carried on with a barbarity and
cruelty, which is incomprehensible to Europeans,
and loudly calls for the interference of the civilized
powers. Every year there is a razzia ; an army of
cavalry and infantry is sent out upon these bloody
expeditions, and brings away thousands of men,
women, and children, into hopeless slavery. In
1851, whilst Mr. Richardson was at Zinder, he saw
a string of captives, the fruits of one of these fright-
fal razzias, brought into the town. Little boys
running alone, mothers with babes at their breasts,
girls of various ages, old men bent double, aged
women tottering, and then, last of all, the stout
young men ironed neck to neck.^ Such are the
horrors that still prevail in Central Africa. The
language of the Troglodytae resembled, according
to Herodotus, the shrieking of bats, and the Augi-
lians still say that the language of these tribes is
like the whistling of birds. One other circumstance
mentioned by Herodotus must also be noticed. In
his description of the Libyan nomades he again Timid race
mentions the Graramantes, but here he speaks of mantes^
them as a people who shun all society and inter- }jg^\^P^i
course with mankind, and who neither possess with the

1 1 . T r 1 n 1 inhabitants

weapons, nor know how to deiend themselves. ofTerboo.
This is a very different character to that which he
assigns to the Garamantes of the salt hill. We must
therefore understand it to apply merely to a single
tribe, who dwelt in some out of the way corner of
the desert, at a distance from the caravan route.
The poor inhabitants of the village of Terboo, in ■

^ Mission to Central Africa, vol. i. ^ Mission, vol. i.

568 LIBYA PROPER.

AFRICA. Fezzan, almost answer to the account given by our
CHAP. yju. author. The thirty days' journey from the Gara-
■ mantes of Fezzan to the Lotophagi, who were situated
in the neighbourhood of the present Tripoli, would
lead exactly along the same line of road by which
the caravans now go fr-om Fezzan to Tripoli, and
which forms as nearly as possible a journey of thirty
days. This route through the Lotophagi, also,
doubtless led to Carthage.
4tii station Tho fourth statiou is the country of the Atarantes,
tes. ' The course is now uncertain. We have seen that
babij^ook tl^6 route from Thebes and that from Carthage both
a southerly j^^t iu Fczzau, tho couutrv of tho Garamantes ; and
towards though Hcrodotus plainly gives the chain of salt
NigritTa!^'^' hills a westerly direction, yet we have no hesitation
in so far following Heeren as to presume that it
really took a southerly direction, like the modern
caravan route through Bornou to Soudan and Nigri-
tia, countries which have been celebrated in all ages
for the export of gold and slaves. On the west the
desert was impenetrable, as Herodotus himself ad-
mits, and there could not be the slightest induce-
ment beyond that of mere adventure, like that which
actuated the Nasamonian youths, for any caravan
to attempt to penetrate the Sahara from its eastern
station per- side. Wo sliall therefore follow Heeren in this
identified^ southern track, and adopt his identification of the
T?^eny.*^^* prcsont statiou with Tegerry, the southern frontier
town of Fezzan, towards Bornou, and almost eight
days' journey from Zuila. Herodotus tells us that the
Atarantcs had no proper names, and were accustomed
to curse the sun ; and Leo informs us, that the people
of Bornou were called after their height, thickness, or
some other accidental quality, and therefore bore only
niclcnames. Mr. Blakesley, however, justly remarks
that Herodotus really meant that the Atarantcs had
no names at all, and were a mere herd of men. Leo
also adds, that they invoked the rising sun with
great vehemence ; but their present religion, as we
need scarcely say, is tlic Mohammedan,
oth station The fifth and last station mentioned by Herodotus

LIBYA PROPEE. 569

is that of the Atlantes. It may be placed almost africa.
whereyer the reader pleases on the great commer- chap. vm.
cial route leading to Bornou. The Mount Atlas in its _j^^-^^.
vicinity certainly cannot be identified, unless the Position
reader chooses to consider it as represented by the "''^''°^^'
mountains of Mandara, to the south of Bornou. He-
rodotus is evidently trusting to mere caravan gossip, Somcesof^
and is also misled by his own conjectures. He sup- infornSn
posed that the sandy ridge which includes the salt "^n goSp
hills, terminated at the Pillars of Heracles, because
he thought it was parallel with the Wild Beast tract
and the Inhabited Country. Consequently, whilst Confusion
he is evidently alluding to the caravan route through Moun?''^
Fezzan towards Bornou and Soudan, he has got ^*^^^'
some confused notion of the snow-capped summits of
the Atlas range, far away in Morocco, towards the
western coast of Africa ; and the western extremity
of this chain had probably been frequently seen by
Carthaginian merchants, on their way to the gold
countries of the Senegal, and from them he appar-
ently received much of his information.

The salt mine described by Herodotus is supposed sait mine
by Heeren to be identical with the large salt mines wiThthe
of Tegazah, described by Leo Africanus as situated xg^^'^^j^
about twenty days' journey from Timbuctoo. Ibn
Batuta says, that the houses of the people are built
of rock salt, and covered with the hides of camels.

Southward of the sandy ridge the country became Desert
entirely desert, '' without animals, without wood, s°™hv7ard
and without springs, rain, or any kind of moisture."^ of sartm™
A gleam of light was however thrown upon this dis- story toia "
tant region by an exploring expedition from the tus o/an °"
country of the Nasamones ; and the results obtained ^^ ^g''4''''°'^
by this first recorded attempt to penetrate the dark Nasamones
interior of the African continent, reached the ears of desert^ to a^
the great father of history. It seems that the Greeks, AowiuT'"''
to whom Herodotus was indebted for his informa- fiomwest
tion, were inhabitants of Cyrene, in the promontory containing
of northern Tripoli, now called the Green Mountain. an°d to^dty
These Cyrenaeans had penetrated as far as the oasis jniiaj^ited

J JL Ijy short

^ iv. 185 black men.

570 LIBYA PEOPEE.

AFRICA, of Amnion, or Siwah, to consult the oracle. Here
CHAP. VIII. they had an audience with Etearchus, the king of
the Ammonians ; and after a conversation upon a
variety of subjects, they chanced to talk about the
river Nile, and the circumstance that no one was
acquainted with its fountain-heads. Etearchus then
remarked, that at one time certain Nasamones, a
powerful but sensual tribe of nomades, occupying
the region of the Syrtis,^ once came to the oasis to
consult the oracle, and were asked if they could
supply any information concerning the deserts of
Libya. They replied that there were some daring
youths amongst them, sons of the most powerful
men, who having reached man's estate formed many
extravagant plans, and amongst others chose five of
their number by lot, and deputed them to explore
the deserts of Libya, and see if they could make any
additions to the then existing state of geographical
discovery. The five young men set out on their
expedition well supplied with water and provisions.
They first passed through the Inhabited country,
then the Wild Beast country, and after this they
crossed the desert and made their way towards the
west. After a journey of many days, during which
they traversed much sandy ground, they at length
saw some trees growing in a plain. Accordingly
they approached and began to gather the fruit, upon
which some small men, who were shorter than men of
middle stature, came up and seized them and carried
them away. These natives were totally ignorant
of the language of the Nasamones, nor could the
latter understand the speech of the natives. How-
ever the natives conducted their prisoners through
vast morasses, until they reached a city where all
the natives were as short and black as themselves.
By the city flowed a great river running from the
west to the cast, and containing crocodiles.^ Such
was the account given by Etearchus, king of the
Ammonians, to the Cyrenaeans who reported it to
Herodotus, and the Cyrenaeans added that the king
1 See p. 546. "^ ii. 32.

LIBYA PEOPER. 571

assured them that the Nasamones returned home in africa.
safety, and that the short black men whom they had chap. vm.
seen were all necromancers. Etearchus considered
that the river flowing past the city of black men from
west to east was the Nile, and Herodotus thinks
there is reason for this theory, for the Nile flows
from Libya and intersects it in the middle ; and he
conjectures, inferring' things known from things un-
known, that the Nile sets out from a point corre-
sponding with the Ister.^

The river seen by the Nasamones has been sup- General
posed to refer to the Yeou, or river of Bornou, and "/the story.
the vast morasses to Lake Tchad ; we however tiJn^'oAhe
strongly incline to the older opinion expressed by ^'^'^^tv'*^
Rennell, that the river alluded to was the Niger, and and of°the
the city of short black men was Timbuctoo. The oMTim^
westerly course of the Nasamones commenced long ^"ctoo.
after they had entered the desert, and they crossed
none of the salt hills, nor indeed passed along the
beaten caravan track which would alone have led
them to the Lake Tchad, as it led Denham and
Clapperton. Herodotus supposed that the route of
the Nasamones led to the south of the salt hills,
whereas it led to the west. The recent origin of
Timbuctoo is no objection to this view, any more
than the small stature of the natives ; and if we may
regard the Nasamones as represented by the modern
Tuarics, they are the very men to have performed a
similar exploit to that described by our author.
Every traveller describes the Tuarics as the finest
race ever seen ; tall, straight, and handsome, with a
certain air of independence and pride, which is very
imposing. Three Tuarics once told Richardson that
they had eaten nothing for fifteen days, and that
lamented traveller adds that there can be no doubt
of the fact, as both the Tibboos and the Tuarics can
at a pinch remain without food for ten or twelve days
together. We therefore see every reason to believe
in the thorough authenticity of the story of the expe-
dition of the Nasamones, and that these first labour-

1 ii. 33.

572 LIBYA PEOPEE.

AFRICA, ers in the field of African discovery, actually readied
CHAP. VIII. the banks of the Niger, and penetrated the old city

where now stands the still mysterious Timbuctoo.
Conclusion. Here then, on the very verge of ancient and mo-
dern knowledge, we take our farewell of the father
of history. The spirit of the old Halicarnassian,
bearing his tablets on his breast, has led us a long
and pleasant pilgrimage through the ancient world ;
and ever and anon have we halted on our way to
refresh our memories and spirits with the contents
of his immortal page, whilst modern discovery,
pointing out the various scenes which met the good
old father during his early travel, has vouched for
the credibility of those everlasting writings, to which
nature herself is the best and eternal witness.

APPENDIX I.

TRAVELS OF HERODOTUS.

Foe the sake of reference, and as an illustration of the geo-
graphy of Herodotus, it has been thought advisable to bring to-
gether in the present shape, by the assistance of Dahlmann,
Ukert, and others, such allusions and notices throughout our
author's history, as seem to indicate a personal visit to any locality,
and at the same time to sketch out such a range of travel as he
may be supposed to have undertaken, if we may place any reliance
upon the evidence thus supplied.

In Asiatic Greece Herodotus was, of course, personally acquaint-
ed vdth the several districts of his native land, Doris, Ionia, and
\^olis;^ but in European Greece there was no province, and
probably no place of consequence, which he did not examine with
his own eyes."^ He seems to have consulted the oracle in the oak
forests of Dodona,^ inspected the treasures at Delphi,'^ and traced
out sunilarly consecrated gifts at Thebes.^ At Athens, which he
compared with Ecbatana,^ he doubtless remained a considerable
time. He also travelled in the Peloponnesus, and perhaps visited
Corinth;'^ and likewise entered Lacedaemon, where he probably
obtained a list of the glorious 300 Spartans who fell at Thermo-
pylae ;^ and from thence he might have journeyed to the peaceful
neighbotirhood of Olympia, on the western coast, and seen the six
ruined cities of Triphylia buUt by the ancient Minyae.^ That he
also bent his steps to Northern Greece, is almost proved by his
graphic descriptions of the battle-fields of Thermopylae and Plataea,
and by his account of the gorge, or defile, throiigh which the

' i. 142 ; ii. 10. ^ For further references see Ukert, vol. i.

3 ii. 55. " i. 14, 20. « ii. 52. « i. 98 ; v. 89.

7 i. 24. 8 vii. 224. » iv. 148.

574 APPENDIX I.

Peueiis flows between Ossa and Peliou.^ He ^was also in the
peninsiila of Mount Athos, Avliere lie saw the city of Crestona in-
habited by the Pelasgians;^ and as he circumstantially describes
the advance of Xerxes' army from place to place along the inner
edge of Greece,^ we cannot for a moment doubt his personal
acquaintance with the whole extent of the coast of the ^Egean
Sea. He extended his travels to the islands also, and beside
those in his immediate neighbourhood must have even been to
Salamis. He knows how to speak of the mines of Thasos which he
had himself inspected, and the most important of which, as well as
the temple of Heracles, he attributes to the Phoenicians ;^ and on
visiting the islands Avest of Grreece, Zacynthus astonished him by
the phenomenon of obtaining pitch by plunging myrtle branches
into a lake.^

In tracing his supposed travels to other lands, we will take first
in order those which related to Grreece. He seems to have passed
through the Hellespont and the Propontis, where he halted in the
island of Proconnesus, and also visited Cyzicus on the Asiatic
shore ; ^ and having then probably sailed through the Bosphorus,
he calculated all this extent of water on a rough average of length
and breadth.'' He next' entered the Euxine Sea, and took the
mean proportion of that vast body of water in both directions,
reckoning the voyage by the number of days and nights,^ but
could hardly have sailed through the Lake Maeotis, or he would
not have estimated it as only a little less than the Euxine.^ Pene-
trating beyond the fair circle of Grreek colonies, he inspected a
portion of Thrace,"' but did not upon that occasion '^ go beyond the
Danube or Ister, yet at some other time^^ he must have passed the
mouths of that river. He also made acqiiaintance with the
Scythians when he visited the country that lies between the Bog
or Hypanis and the Dnieper or Borysthenes, where the two rivers
run towards the sea, and where he beheld the- huge brazen vessel,
capable of containing 600 amphorae, which was said to have been
made of tlie polished arrow-heads of the Scythians.'^ In both
these countries he thought he saw traces of the expedition of
Sesostris,^'' as he did also in Colchis ^^ and in Palaestine.'*'

Before, however, we trace our author to Palaestine, we must
notice that he Imew the interior of Asia Minor, including Lydia
and its city of Sardis, by ocular demonstration. ''' He was also no

' vii. 129. 2 i 57 .■, ^-_ 108—130; 196—201.

* ii. 44 ; vi. 47. ^ iv. 195 » iv. 14. ' iv. 85.

8 iv. 86. » Ibid. '" ii. 10.3. " V. 9, 10. '^ iv. 47.

" iv. 81. Comp. 7G. » ii. 103. ^^ ^ io4, 106.

" ii. 106. Comp. iii. 3. " iii. 5.

TRAVELS OF HERODOTUS. 575

less acquainted with the coast of Phoenicia ; for that which is only
a matter of conjectiu-e at the beginning of his work,i ig afterwards
confirmed,^ namely, his actual residence at Tyre, to which place he
had sailed,3 in order to solve the historical problem, " Whether the
Heracles there worshipped was a god of very great antiquity, and
a distinct personage from the Heracles who once lived among men,
and was honoured as a deified hero in Greece. " At that time he
had already been in Aegypt, since it was there that the problem
was presented to him ; and it is very probable that, after having
obtained sufficient acquaintance with the memorable events of his
father-land, he embarked at one of the ports of Greece, perhaps
Athens or Corinth, for Aegypt, from whence he afterwards sailed
to Phoenicia.* Wliat Herodotus has done for Aegypt has been
already exhibited in the body of the present work ; it is sufficient
to mention here, that he made the long journey from Memphis to
Thebes and Hehopolis, and that he stayed for some time in the
south at Elephantine, and employed himself in dOigent inquiries
concerning the countries farther onward.^ It may be clearly in-
ferred that he did not himself visit the Aethiopians who dwelt
directly south of Elephantine,^ nor the inhabitants at a greater dis-
tance;'' but he made himself acquainted with every important
object and place within his reach, not only with pyramids, obelisks,
and the amazing labyriuth, but also with cities whose splendour
was of more recent date, such as Sais, where, since the time of
Psammitichus, stood a noble royal castle.^ He also explored the
Delta in every direction, and he surveyed the battle-field near the
Pelusiac mouth, where the Aegyptians surrendered their inde-
pendence to the Persians ; and the more recent one at Papremis,
where the still fresh skulls of the slain bore witness to the second
eifort made by the nation to recover its ancient independence .^ Be-
yond the boundaries of Aegypt he also made discoveries right and
left. On the Arabian side he visited the city of Buto,'° on the Seben-
nytic mouth of the JSTile, and saw the floating island, which, how-
ever, at that tune, declined either to float or move.'^ Having heard
that there were winged serpents in the neighbourhood, he went
to examine the phenomena, and was so far gratified as to see their
bones and spines in vast heaps. ^^ He probably penetrated no far-
ther into the interior of xirabia, for he knew the length of the
mountain chain only by hearsay.'^ On the west it is almost certain
that he never visited Carthage, but he assuredly went to Cyrene,

1 i. 1—5. 2 ii. 104. * ii. 44. * Dahlmann, iv. 3. = ii. 29.

6 iii. 20, 23. 7 iv. 183. ' ii. 130. » iii. 12. '» ii. 75.

" ii. 156. '2 ii. 75. 13 ii 8 Comp. iii. 107.

576 APPENDIX I.

and probably by sea/ tliougb we find no farther traces of his foot-
steps in Libya, excepting in the coimtry immediately to the west
of Lower Aegypt, which submitted to Cambyses.^ We must now
transport him from the Aegyptian Delta to Tyre, from whence he
might also haA- e travelled into Palaestine, as he considered that the
inhabitants of the latter place had learnt the practice of circum-
cision from the Aegyptians, and found there some colinims raised
by Sesostris,^ and also appears to have visited Cadytis, (or Gaza,)
which many geographers erroneously identify with Jerusalem * He
certainly penetrated into the interior of Asia, but it is impossible
to determine how he prosecuted his travels. He however was
accurately acquainted vtdth the royal high-road which led from
Ephesus by Sardis to Susa.^ He saw the Euphrates and the
Tigris, and visited Babylon in its reduced splendour.^ He likewise
compared the city of Ecbatana with Athens \^ but this he must have
done from some caravanserai description, as it is almost impossible
he should have visited the city itself. That he visited Susa, the resi-
dence of the kings of Persia, may be taken for granted, as he says
that the so-called Lidian ants were preserved in the royal palace ;^
and it is clearly seen that he reached Arderica near Susa, where the
captive Eretrians from Euboea had been settled by Darius Hystas-
pes.9 In conclusion, it is hardly necessary to observe that Hero-
dotus did not extend his travels into India, nor even into Aria,
Bactria, or Gredrosia, or otherwise he would have done greater
justice to the actual extent and size of Asia, and have spoken less
vaguely of the Persian Gulf and the river Araxes.'o

1 iv. 181. Comp. ii. 96. " iii. 13, 15. ' ii. 104; 102, 106.

< ii. 159. Comp. iii. 5. See also p. 249. " v. 52—54. « i. 178—193.

' i. 98. 8 iii. 102. " vi. 119. " Dahlmann, iv. 5.

iPPENDIX 11.

TABLE OF HEKODOTEAN WEIGHTS, MONET, DBY AIS^D LIQUID
MEASURES, AND MEASUREMENTS OE LENGTH.

Euhoic or Attic Silver WeifjJits and 3Ioney.

WEIGHT (Avoirdupois.)

1 Obol
6 Obols .
100 Drachmas
60 Miiise .

1 Drachma
1 Mina
1 Talent

lbs. oz.

— 15
56 15i

grs.

11.08

66.5

.33.75

100.32

4
243

farth.
2.5
3

JSginetan Silver Weights and Money.

lbs

1 Obol
6 Obols .
100 Drachma
60 Minse .

5-1

grs.

78.95

30.46

d. farth.
2 1.166
1 3

1 Drachma . . —
1 Mina . . 1

1 Talent . . 82
The gold Stater of Croesus and the gold Daricus are each supposed to be worth

about 20 Attic silver drachma?, or 16s. 3f?.
Herodotus makes the Babylonian Talent equal to 70 Euboic minee, but Hussey
calculates its weight at 71 Ihs. \\oz. 69.45 (jrs. If however either of these are
reckoned by comparison with our gold money, they would be worth much
more.

Attic Dry Measures.

1 Choenix
48 Chcenices
1 Medimnus and \
3 Chcenices . )

1 Medimnus

1 Persian Artaba

gallons.

. 11
12

pints.
1.9822
7.1456

5.092

Liquid Measures.

gallons. pints.

1 Chcenix — 1.4867

48 Chcenices . 1 Amphora . . 8 7.365

Hesychius considers the Aryster to be the same as the Cotyla, Avhich Hussey

calculates to hold .4955 of a pint.

Measures of Length.

miles.

yards.

feet.

inches.

1 Digit (iinger's breadth)

—

.7584

4 Digits . . . .

1 Palm (hand-breadth)

—

3.0336

3 Palms

1 Span

—

9.1008

4 Palms . . . .

1 Foot

—

0.135

2 Spans or 6 Palms

1 Cubit .

—

6.2016

1 Cubit and 6 Digits

1 Royal Cubit

—

8.4768

4 Cubits

1 Fathom (Orgya) .

—

0.81

100 Feet or 16| Orgya;

1 Plethrum .

—

1.5

6 Plethra .

1 Stadium

—

202

30 Stadia . . . .

1 Persian Parasang

787

2 Parasangs .

1 Schoenus

494

The Arura contained 21,904 square English feet.
2 P

APPENDIX III.

geistebaij jochmus's identification of the eoute taken by
daeius teom the bosphoeus to the danube.

Lieut. -GrEN. Jochmus, in his notes on a journey to the Balkan
from Constantinople, read before the E-oyal Geographical Society,
Nov. 28th and Dec. 12th, 1853, has been able to identify many of
the localities where Darius halted with his army.

At Bunarhissar, near the Little Balkan, the Greneral unsuccess-
fully searched for the ancient inscription mentioned by Herodo-
tus,i and which AbdaUah Aga described to him as being " in
ancient Syrian or Assyrian," and which he maintained having
seen in the Tekeh every day during the eight years he passed
there as dervish. The General, however, was more fortunate in
finding the clear streams of the Tearus near Bunarhissar, and also
identified the river Artiscus with that noAV named Teke, near the
new Bulgarian colony of Dewlet Agateh, in the former territory
of the Odryssae. The result of the General's investigations re-
specting the route taken by Darius may be summed up as follows.
Darius crossed the Bosphorus on a bridge of boats, connecting
the two continents, at the site of the present new castles of
Asia and Europe, encamped successively at the sources of the
Tearus, (Bunarhissar,) and on the banks of the Teke, or Artiscus,
(at Dewlet Agateh,) and following the direction of Burgas and
Achioly, and subjecting the sea-towns, he passed the Balkan by
the defiles parallel to the sea-coast from Mesioria to Jowan Der-
vish, moving from south to north, by the same roads which were
chosen by Generals Eoth and Eudiger, and by Marshal Diebitsch,
who proceeded from north to south in 1829. The E-ussians also
in 1828, and Darius about 2300 years before them, passed the
Danube at that part of the river where it begins to branch, that
is, near the modern Issatscha.

' iv. 91.

APPENDIX lY.

THE VOYAGE OF HANNO,

COMMANDER OP THE CAETHAGINIANS, BOUND THE PARTS OF LI-
BYA WHICH LIE BEYOND THE PILLARS OE HERACLES, WHICH
HE DEPOSITED IN THE TEMPLE OE CRONOS.^

It was decreed by the Carthaginians that Hanno should under-
take a voyage beyond the Pillars of Heracles, and found Liby-
phoenician cities. He sailed accordingly with sixty ships of fifty
oars each, and a body of men and women to the number of thirty
thousand, and provisions and other necessaries.

When we had passed the PiUars on our voyage, and had sailed
beyond them for two days, we founded the first city, which we
named Thymiaterium, [and which was probably situated near
Marmora, and between El Haratch and Marmora]. Below it lay
an extensive plain. Proceeding thence towards the west, we came
to Soloeis, [or Cape Cantin,] a promontory of Libya, a place
thickly covered with trees, where we erected a temple to Poseidon ;
and again proceeded for the space of half a day towards the east,
until we arrived at a lake lying not far from the sea, and filled
with abundance of large reeds. Here elephants, and a great
number of other wild beasts, were feeding.

Having passed the lake about a day's sail, we founded cities
near the sea, called Cariconticos, and Gytte, and Acra, and Melitta,

■ The accompanying translation of the Periplus of Hanno is by Mr. Falconer
of C. C. Coll. Oxford. An edition of the Greek text, together with the English
translation, were published by Falconer in 1797 as a separate work, and two
dissertations were added ; the first being explanatory of its contents, whilst the
second was a repetition of Dodwell's reflections on its authenticity. It is in-
serted here merely as an illustration of the circumnavigation of Africa by the
Phoenicians described in Africa, chap. 1. Herodotus was evidently unac-
quainted with this document, and it is therefore considered better to make no
comments beyond the insertion of a few modern names as a guide to the general
reader. In these identifications Rennell has been generally followed. Gosselin,
in his Recherches sur la Geographic des Anciens, so shortens the voyage as to
make Cape Nun, in 28° N. lat., the boundary of the more distant navigation, but,
for reasons which need not be explained, we cannot adopt his views.

2 r 2

580 APPENDIX IV.

and Arambys. Thence we came to the great river Lixus, [or
Morocco,] which flows from Libya. On its banks the Lixitae, a
shepherd tribe, were feeding flocks, amongst whom we continued
some time on friendly terms. Beyond the Lixitae dwelt the
inhospitable Aethiopians, who pasture a wild country intersected
by large mountains, from which they say the river Lixus flows.
In the neighbourhood of the mountains lived the Troglodytae, men
of various appearances, whom the Lixitae described as swifter in
running than horses.

Having procured interpreters from them we coasted along a
desert country towards the south two days. Thence we proceeded
towards the east the course of a day. Here we foimd in a recess
of a certain bay a small island, containing a circle of five stadia,
where we settled a colony, and called it Cerne, [probably at the
spot now called Arguin or Ghir]. "We judged from our voyage
that this place lay in a direct line with Carthage ; for the length
of our voyage from Carthage to the Pillars was equal to that from
the Pniars to Cerne.

"We then came to a lake which we reached by sailing up a large
river called Chretes, [which appears to have been the river of St.
John, about sixty miles to the south of Arguin]. This lake had three
islands, larger than Cerne ; from which proceeding a day's sail, we
came to the extremity of the lake, that Avas overhung by large
mountains, inhabited by savage men, clothed in skins of wild
beasts, who drove us away by throwing stones, and hindered us
from landing. Sailing thence we came to another river, [the
Senegal,] that was large and broad, and full of crocodiles and
river-horses ; whence returning back we came again to Cerne.

Thence we saded towards the south twelve days, coasting the
shore, the Avhole of which is inhabited by Aethiopians, who would
not wait our approach, but fled from us. Their language was not
intelligible even to the Lixitae, who were with us. Towards the
last day we approached some large mountains covered with trees,
the wood of which was sweet-scented and variegated. Having
sailed by these mountains for tw-o days, we came to an immense
opening of the sea, [probably the mouth of the Gambia] ; on each
side of which, towards the continent, was a plain ; from which we
saw by night fire arising at intervals in all directions, either more
or less.

Having taken in water there, we sailed forwards five days near
the land, until we came to a large bay, which our interpreters in-
formed us was called the ■Western Horn, [now called the Gulf of
Bissago]. In this was a large island, and in the island a salt-
water lake, and in this another island, where, when we had landed,

APPENDIX IV. 581

we could discover nothing in the day-time except trees ; but in
the night we saw many fires burning, and heard the sound of
pipes, cymbals, drums, and confused shouts. "We were then afraid,
and our diviners ordered us to abandon the island. Sailing quickly
away thence, we passed a country burning with fires and perfumes ;
and streams of fire supplied from it fell into the sea. The coun-
try was impassable on account of the heat. We sailed quickly
thence, being much terrified ; and passing on for four days, we
discovered at night a coimtry full of fire. In the middle was a lofty
fire larger than the rest, which seemed to touch the stars. "When
day came we discovered it to be a large hill called the Chariot of
the Gods, [either Mount Sagres, or the Mountain of Lions which
overhangs Sierra Leone] . On the thii'd day after our departure
thence, having sailed by those streams of fire, we arrived at a bay
called the Southern Horn, [or Sherbro' Sound] ; at the bottom of
which lay an island like the former, having a lake, and in this lake
another island, full of savage people, the greater part of whom
were women, whose bodies were hairy, and whom our interpreters
called GroriEse. Though we pursued the men we could not seize
any of them ; but aU fled from us, escaping over the precipices,
and defending themselves with stones. Three women were however
taken ; but they attacked their conductors with their teeth and
hands, and could not be prevailed upon to accompany us. Having
kiUed them, we flayed them, and brought their skins with us to
Carthage. We did not sail farther on, our provisions failiag us.

ODEX.

Abae, 79.

Abantes, 109,

Abdera, 128.

Abydos, 228.

Abyssinia, or Habesch, 517.

Acanthus, 131.

ACARNANIA, 84.

Aces, river, remarkable plain contain-
ing the sources of, 292 ; confounded
by Herodotus with the Helmund and
Oxus, lb.

Achaeans, their origin not mentioned
by Herodotus, 33.

Achaeans of Pthiotis, 86.

AcHAiA, general description, 44 ; He-
rodotus's account, ib. ; topography,
ib.

Achelous, river, 84.

Achaemenidae, 270.

Acheron, river, 88.

Achilleium, 227.

Achilles, course of, 154.

Acraephia, 69.

Acropolis at Athens, 63 ; contained the
sanctuary of Aglaurus, ancient wood-
en hedge and Pelasgic wall, ib. ; tem-
ple of Erectheus, the Serpent, the
salt Spring, the sacred Olive, tropliies
in the Propylaea, 64.

Acrothoon, 118.

Acte Trachea, 127.

Adramyttium, 227.

Adrastus, shrine of, 43.

Adriatic Sea, 25.

Adyrmachidae, who followed Aegyp-
tian customs, but were otherwise
filthy and slavish, 544.

Aeacus, temple of, at Athens, 62.

Aega, 118.

Aegae, 44.

Aegaeae, 216.

Aegaleos, Mount, 66.

Aegean, isles of, 97.

Aegialeis, or " coast men," 44.

Aegialeis, Pelasgian, 219.

Aegidae, 53.

Aegilia, 108.

Aegina, island of, 110.

Aegira, 44.

Aegiroessa, 216.

Aegium, town of, 45.

Aeglae, probably the Ghiljies, 296.

Aegospotami, 132.

Aegypt, general description of, 350 ;
Herodotus's account, 351 ; situation
and boundaries of the country, ib. ;
supposed to be a gift of the Nile,
352 ; Lower Aegypt said by the
priests to have been anciently a bay,
corresponding to the Arabian Gulf,
ib. ; three facts in favour of the hy-
pothesis, ib. ; Ionian theory, 354 ;
theory of Herodotus, 355; voyage
of Herodotus up the Nile, by Helio-
polis and Thebes to Elephantine on
the southern frontier of Aegypt, ib.

Aegypt, north of Heliopolis, (i. e. the
Delta,) a broad flat, 356.

Aegypt, south of Heliopolis, a narrow
valley between the Arabian and Li-
byan mountains, 356 ; extent of the
voyage, ib. ; error in Herodotus's
calculation of the number of stadia,
ib. ; Herodotus's personal know-
ledge bounded on the south by Ele-
phantine, 357 ; divisions of Aegypt
not distinctly laid down by Herodo-
tus, 364; supposed by him to have
included Lower Aegypt, or the Delta,
and Upper Aegypt, or Heptanomis
and Thebais, 365 ; geology of Aegypt,
397, note ; population of, 489 ; ani-
mals of, considered sacred, 502 ;
cats, 503 ; dogs, 504 ; ichneumons,
ib. ; field-mice, ib. ; hawks, 505 ;
bears, ib. ; the ibis, ib. ; bulls, 506 ;
cows, ib. ; crocodiles, 508 ; tro-
chilus, 509; hippopotamus, 510;
otters, ib. ; lepidotus, ib. ; eel, ib. ;
fox-goose, ib. ; phoenix, 51 1 ; horn-
ed serpents, 512 ; fish, strange ac-
count of their generation, ib. ; mus-
quitoes, ib.
Aegypt, Lower, general description of,
367 ; topography of, 371 ; nomes of,
383.
Aegypt, Upper, description of, 386.
Aegyptian mythology, its eff'ect upon
Herodotus, 438 ; his initiation in the
mysteries, ib. ; his religious reserve,

584

INDEX,

ib. ; traces the deities of Greece to
an Aegyptian origiii, ib. ; effect pro-
duced on the modern student, ib. ;
religious conceptions of the Aegyp-
tians themselves, dependent upon
the spiritual and mental state of the
worshipper, 439 ; modem ideas of
Aegyptian deities dependent upon
the student's own state of religious
culture, ib. ; identification of Ae-
gj'ptian conceptions with revealed
truths, contradicted by the idolatry
and conduct of the people, ib. ; va-
luable character of Herodotus's in-
formation, 440 ; Aegyptians the most
pious of mankind, and the first who
instituted the forms and ceremonies
of religious worship, 441 ; astrology,
ib. ; prodigies, ib. ; omens, ib. ; di-
vination, ib. ; oracles held in the
highest veneration, 442 ; Aegyptian
deities divided by Herodotus into
three classes, viz. the eight great gods,
the twelve gods, and the gods sprung
from the twelve, ib. ; no heroes wor-
shipped, ib. ; chronology of the gods,
ib. ; explanation of the triple divi-
sion, 443 ; primeval belief in one
gi-eat God, ib. ; 1st Class of gods —
deified attributes, ib. ; 2nd Class —
lower emanations, ib. ; 3rd Class —
physical objects, abstract ideas, etc.,
ib. ; identification of the eight prim-
ary gods with Egyptian deities, 444 ;
confusion between the second and
third class deities, 453; miscellane-
ous divinities mentioned by Herodo-
tus, 454; Osiris, Isis, Horus, and
the calf Apis, 461.

Aegyptian architecture, its religious
character contrasted with the aes-
thetic architecture of Greece, ib. ;
plan of an Aegyptian temple, 368;
approached by an avenue of sphinxes,
ib. ; colossi and obelisks before the
gi-and entrance, ib. ; interior, con-
sisting of an open court, a portico,
an liypostile hall, and a holy recess,
ib. ; frequent multiplication of the
entrances, courts, porticoes, and
halls, both in front and on each side
of tlie holy recess, ib. ; names and
descriptions of the several parts, 369 ;
the sacred enclosure, or ieron, 370;
the avenue, or dromos, ib. ; the en-
trance, or propyiaea, ib. ; the open
court behind tlie propyiaea, ib. ; the
portico, or pronaos, ib. ; tlu; second
pronaos, or hypostile hall, ilj. ; the
proper temple, or naos, 371 ; cham-
bers, galleries, and passages, for the
use of the priests, ib.

Aegyptian castes, 481 ; two castes
omitted by Diodorus, ib. ; seven

castes in India, according to Megas-
thenes, ib. ; the seven Aegyptian
castes, according to Herodotus, 482;
the Priests or piromis, ib. ; the Sol-
diers, 483 ; the Herdsmen, 485 ; the
Swineherds,486 ; the Traders, ib. ; the
Interpreters, ib. ; the Steersmen, 487.

Aegyptians, manners and customs of,
480 ; physical characteristics of,
487 ; Herodotus's memoranda of
the contrasts between their customs
and those of other nations, 489 ;
their food, 492; carried round the
image of a corpse at drinking parties,
494; preserved an ancient dirge
called Maneros, ib. ; manner of
mourning, 495; embalming, 496;
art of medicine, 498 ; geometry, 499 ;
their modes of writing, ib.; ship-
buildmg, 501 ; feticism, 502 ; main-
tenance of animals, 503 ; established
mode of sacrifice, 507.

Aenea, 119.

Aenira, 107.

Aenus, 126, 128.

Aeolians, to be considered as Pelas-
gians, 33 ; their eleven cities on the
continent, and seven on the islands,
216 ; inhabited Ilium, 228.

Aeolidae, 80.

Aeschrionian tribe of Samians occupy-
mg the city Oasis, 560.

Aeschylus, his geographical know-
ledge, 8.

Aethiopia, Asiatic, its inhabitants con-
trasted with the Aethiopians of Li-
bya, 299; strange head-dress, ib. ;
country identified with Gedrosia, or
Beloochistan, ib.

Aethiopia, general description of, 515 ;
Aethiopia of Herodotus, its wide
signification, 521 ; his description of
the land and people, ib. ; Arab races
in Aethiopia, 522 ; three Aethiopian
nations mentioned by Herodotus,
viz. Aethiopians above Aegypt, ib. ;
Automoli, 524 ; Macrobians, 526.

Aethiopians above Aegypt, 522 ; wor-
ship of Dionysus, and sacred city of
Nysa, ib. ; nomades, ib. ; Ichthy-
ophagi, 523; Troglodytae, ib.; con-
quests of Cambyses, ib. ; costume
and equipment of the Aethiopians in
the army of Xerxes, ib. ; city of Me-
roc, 524 ; worship of Zeus and Dio-
nysus, ib.

Aetolia, scattered notices of, 84.

Aetolians of Elis, 45.

Africa, imperfect state of its geography,
335 ; considered by Herodotus to be
surrounded by water, excepting at
the Isthmus of Suez, ib. ; story of
its circumnavigation by Phoenicians,
ib. ; voyage of Sataspes, ib. ; possi-

INDEX,

585

bility of circumnavigating Africa,
subsequently denied by Plato, Epho-
rus, Polybius, Strabo, and Ptolemy,
336 ; difficulty in deciding the ques-
tion, 337 ; Herodotus's account of
the voj^age, ib. ; examination into its
possibility, ib. ; nature of the ships,
ib. ; character of the voyage, 338 ;
extent of coast to be traversed, ib. ;
mean rate of sailing, ib. ; aggregate
length of the voyage, ib. ; descrip-
tion of the supposed circumnaviga-
tion by the light of modern geogra-
phy, 339 ; story of the Phoenicians
obtaining supplies on their voyage by
sowing corn and waiting for the har-
vest, not incredible, 343 ; examina-
tion into the credibility to be at-
tached to Herodotus's relation, 344 ;
story of having the sun on the right
hand, no evidence of its truth, ib. ;
failure of Sataspes, no evidence of
its falsehood, ib. ; enterprising cha-
racter of Neco, 345 ; reasons for be-
lieving in the circumnavigation, ib. ;
Herodotus's general knowledge of
the African continent, 346 ; extreme
heat of the climate, ib. ; difficulty in
discovering Herodotus's boundary
line between Asia and Africa, 347 ;
confusion between the country of
Libya and the continent of Libya,
ib. ; division of the Libyan continent
into three tracts, viz. Aegypt, Aethi-
opia, and Libya Proper, 348. See
also Libya.

Agathyrsi, occupying Transylvania,
l79.

Agbatana. See Ecbatana.

Aglaurus, sanctuary of, 63.

Agora, town of, 128.

Agrianes, 130.

Agrianes, river, 126.

Agrigentum, 94.

Agylla, 177.

Ahriman, Persian custom of burying
alive in honour of, 274.

Alabanda, 238.

Alalia, 91.

Alarodii in the valley of the Aras, 285.

Alazones, 151.

Aleian plain, 240.

Algezirah, 251.

Alilat, an Arabian goddess, identified
by Herodotus with Urania, 320. ■

Alitta, an Arabian goddess, 320.

Alopecae, 65.

Alos, 87.

Alpenus, 82.

Alpis, river, 176.

Altai mountains, 186.-

Alyattes, his gifts at Delphi, 76 ; his
tumulus, 230.

Amasis, his wooden statues and woollen

corselet in the Heraeum at Samos,
102 ; his tomb at Sais, 375 ; dedi-
cated colossus at Memphis, 389 ; sent
statue of Athene to Cyrene,!:540.

Amathus, 96.

Ambraciots, 88.

Ammenemes III., discovery of his
name in the pyramid of Howara, 426.

Ammonians, who possessed a temple to
Zeus, the ram-headed god of Thebes,
and a hot spring sacred to Helios,
559 ; neighbouring city of Oasis,
560.

Ammonium identified with Siwah, 564.

Ampe, 264.

Ampelus, Cape, 118.

Amphiaraus, temple of, 68 ; oracle, ib. ;
gifts of Croesus, 69.

Amphicaea, 79.

Amphictyons, seats of, at Thermo-
pylae, 82.

Amphissa, 81.

Amun, the divine intellect, Aegyptian
representation of, 444. See Zeus.

Amyrgian Sacae, 293.

Anactorium, 84.

Anagyrus, 65.

Anaphlystus, 65.

Anana, 237.

Anaxagoras, taught that the overflow
of the Nile was occasioned by m.elted
snows, 359.

Anaximander, his map of the earth, 8.

Anchimolius, tomb of, 65.

Androcrates, precinct of, 71.

Androphagi, occupying Smolensk, 180.

Andros, island of, 98.

Angare'ion, 275.

Angites, river, 1-30.

Angrus, river, 136.

Anopaea, pass of, 83.

Antandrus, 227.

Anthela, 81.

Anthemus, 121.

Anthylla, 378.

Anticyra, 81.

Anubis, son of Osiris and Nephthys,
464, 474.

Anysius, 383.

Aparytae, 296.

Aphetae, 88.

Aphidnae, 65.

Aphrodisias, island of, 545.

Aphrodite, or Astarte, temple of, at
Askelon, plundered by the Scythians,
156, 248.

Aphrodite, the Babylonian, disgrace-
ful practices connected with her wor-
ship, 265.

Aphrodite, the Persian, called Mitra,
271.

Aphrodite the stranger, temple of, 389.

Aphrodite, the Aegyptian, identified
with Athor, 459 ; represented with

586

INDEX.

cow's horns, and confounded by He-
rodotus with Isis, ib. ; annual festi-
val connected with the wooden cow
at Sais, 460.

Aphrodite, the foreign, or Helen the
stranger, ib.

Aphrodite, temple of, at Cyprus, 97.

Aphtliites, 383.

Aphytis, 118.

Apia, 162.

Apidanus, river, 85.

Apis, Herodotus's account of, 471 ; be-
gotten on a cow by a flash of light-
ning, 472 ; known by his black hair,
white square mark on his forehead,
eagle on his back, beetle on his
tongue, and double hah-s in his tail,
ib. ; public rejoicings on his appear-
ance, ib. ; sacrilegious conduct of
Cambyses, ib. ; court for Apis built
at Memphis by Psammitichus, ib. ;
further notices of Apis from Pliny,
Strabo, and Diodorus, ib.; Aegyp-
tian ideas of Apis, 477 ; bulls sacred
to him, 506.

Apis, town of, 378.

Apollo, the Ptoan, precinct of, 69.

Apollo, the Ismenian, temple and ora-
cle of, in the Boeotian Thebes, 68.

Apollo, temple and oracle of, at Del-
phi, 75.

Apollo, the Triopian, national deity of
the IDorians, 220.

Apollo, temple of, at Buto, 376, 377.

Apollonia m Epirus, 88.

ApoUonia in Thrace, 126.

Apries, palace of, at Sais, 374 ; his
tomb, 375.

ApsLnthians, 128.

Arabia, general description of the
country, 314; Herodotus's descrip-
tion; ib. ; included African mountain
range between the Nile valley and
Arabian Gulf, ib. ; land of frankin-
cense, ib. ; the Arabian Gulf, 315;
supposed it to be much narrower
than it is in reality, ib. ; causes of
the error, ib. ; Herodotus's know-
ledge of Arabia confined to Arabia
Petraea, 316; assigias the Philistine
teiTitory to the Arabs, ib. ; nature of
the soil, ib. ; city of Patumos, ib. ;
river Corys, ib. ; defile near Buto
containing the bones of winged ser-
pents, 317; fabulous story concern-
ing the serpents, ib. ; rare produc-
tions of Arabia, 318; frankincense
guarded by serpents, ib. ; Cassia
guarded by fierce Vjats, ib. ; curious
manner of obtaining cinnamon from
the nests of large birds, ib. ; leda-
num obtained from the beards of
goats, 319; sheep with enormous
tails, ib. ; political relations of the

Arabians with Persia, ib. ; costume,
ib. ; manner of making contracts, ib. ;
worship of Dionysus, named Orotal,
and of Urania, called Alilat and
Alitta, 320.

Arabian mountains, compact limestone
from, used for pyramid casing-stones,
396.

Arabian Gulf. See Red Sea.

Arabs in Aethiopia, 521.

Aradus, 247.

Ararus, river, 1 44 ; identified with the
Sireth, 145.

Aratores, 152.

Araxes, river, Herodotus's description
of, 191; explanation of his apparent
contradictions, 192.

Arcadia, general description, 37 ; He-
rodotus's account, 38 ; topography,
ib.

Arcadian Pelasgians, 38.

Archandropolis, 378.

Ardericca, seat of the transplanted Ere-
trians, 269 ; its well containing as-
phalt, salt, and oil, ib.

Areiopagus at Athens, 63.

Ares, the Aegyptian, temple of, at Pa-
premis, 376 ; perhaps a form of Ty-
phon, or the evil principle, 457 ; his
oracle, ib. ; festival at Papremis, ib.;
mock-fight between the priests and
votaries, ib. ; popular legend to ac-
count for its origin, ib.

Ares, Scythian worship of, 163.

Arge, 98.

Argil us, 131.

Argiopius, 73.

Argippaei, at the foot of the Altai
mountains, 186 ; identified Avith the
Calmucks, 187.

Argo lis, general description of, 39 ;
Herodotus's account, ib. ; topogra-
phy, 40.

Argouautic legend comrected with Lake
Tritonis, 551.

Argos, town of, 40.

Argos, grove of, 41.

Aria, identified with Khorassan and
Western Afghanistan, 291.

Arians, ancient name of the Medes,
289,291.

Ariniaspca, 177.

Ariniaspi, 189.

Arisba, 105, 217.

Aristagoras, map of, compared with
Herodotus's description of the high-
way between Sardis and Susa, 332.

Aristeas, 177.

Ai-izanli, 289.

Armenia, answering to Erzroum and
part of Kurdistan, 281 ; Armenians
descended from the Phrygians, 282 ;
their country the highway between
Sardis and Susa, ib, ; watered by

INDEX.

587

four rivers, viz. the Tigris, Zabatus
Major, Zabatus Minor, and the Gyn-
des, ib. ; commerce with Babylon,
283 ; peculiar merchant-boats, ib. ;
extent of the Armenia of Herodotus,
284.

Arpoxais, 159.

Artace, 228.

Artaeans, 270.

Artanes, river, 132.

Artemis, sanctuary of, at Delos, 97;
at Samos, 103.

Artemis, the Aegyptian, temple of, at
Buto, 376 ; identified with Pasht, or
Bubastis, 451.

Artemis, altar of, in Byzantium, 126.

Artemisium, beach of, 109.

Artimpasa, 162.

Artiscus, river, 126.

Asbystae, who drove four-horse cha-
riots, 546.

Ascalon, its temple of Aphrodite, or
Astarte, 248.

Asia, general survey of, 195 ; two great
mountain ranges of Asia, the Altai,
ib. ; the Taurus, or plateau of Iran,
196 ; rivers of Asia, ib. ; separation
of the continent into three divisions,
197 ; extent of the Asia of Herodo-
tus, ib. ; discoveries of Scylax of
Caryanda, 198 ; Herodotus's own
map of Asia, 199 ; the four central
nations, ib. ; the two western Actae,
viz. Asia Minor ; Syria and Libya,
200 ; ancient division of Asia between
the Lydians, Babylonians, and Medes,
201 ; establishment of the Persian
empire of Cyrus, 202 ; division into
twenty satrapies by Darius Hystas-
pes, ib. ; extent of Herodotus's tra-
vels in Asia, 203; his general ac-
quaintance with Phoenicia and Asia
Minor, ib. ; visit to Babylon, ib. ;
travels along the great highway be-
tween Sardis and Susa, ib. ; visit to
Ecbatana very doubtful, ib. ; exam-
ination of the list of twenty satrapies,
204; reasons for including distant
tribes in the same satrapy, ib. ; ge-
neral want of geographical order
arising from Herodotus's ignorance
of the more distant satrapies, 205 ;
catalogue of nations in the army and
navy of Xerxes, 208 ; topography of
the languages of Asia, 209 ; lan-
guages of Asia Minor, from the
Aegean to the Halys, 210 ; Semitic
dialects between the Halys and Ti-
gi-is, ib. ; Persian dialects between
the Tigris and Indus, 211.

Asia, Persian geography of, as exhibit-
ed in the catalogue of nations in the
army of Xerxes, 322.

Asia Minor, physical geography of, 213;

different political divisions, ib. ; na-
tural separation into an eastern and
western division by the river Halys,
214 ; divided into four satrapies by
Darius Hystaspes, viz. Aeolis, Ionia,
Doris, Caria, Lycia, and Pamphylia,
216; Mysia and Lydia, 226; Hel-
lespont, Phrygia, Bithynia, Paphla-
gonia, and Cappadocia, 235 ; Cilicia,
240.

Asia, Upper, or plateau of Iran, 243 ;
traversed east and south by two
ranges, ib. ; Zagros, or moimtains of
Kurdistan, 244; Elburz and Ghur
mountains, ib. ; countries watered by
the Euphrates and Tigris, ib. ; Assy-
ria, ib. ; Babylonia, ib. ; Mesopota-
mia, ib. ; Syria, ib. ; Media, 245 ;
Cissia and Persis, ib. ; three satra-
pies knovsTi to Herodotus, viz. Syria
Proper, or Phoenicia and Palaestine,
ib. ; Assyria, or Babylonia, and Me-
. sopotamia, answering to Irak Arabi,
and Algezirah, 251 ; Cissia and Per-
sis, answering to Khuzistan and Far-
sistan, 267.

Asia, Independent, viz. Southern India,
306 ; Colchis, 312 ; Arabia, 314.

Asia, unexplored, a region bounded on
the west by the frontiers of Asia
Minor ; north, by the Phasis, the
Caspian, and the Jaxartes ; east, by
the Indus ; soiith, by Syria, Assyria,
Cissia, Persis, and the Erythraean,
278; divided into twelve satrapies,
viz. Euxine tribes, 279 ; Armenia,
281 ; Matiene and the Saspeires, 284 ;
Media, 285 ; south Caspian tribes,
289 ; Parthia, Chorasmia, Sogdia,
and Aria, 290 ; east Caspian tribes,
293; Bactria, 295; Gandara, 296;
Carmania, 297 ; Asiatic Aethiopia,
298; Northern India, 299.

Asine, town of, 48.

Asmak, 524.

Asopus, river of, 70, 81.

Assa, 118.

Asses without horns, and that never
drank, 542.

Assessus, 223.

Assyria, 244; comprehended, accord-
ing to Herodotus, Babylonia and Me-
sopotamia, and thus answered to Irak
Arabi and Algezirah, 251 ; inha-
bitants called Syrians by the Greeks,
and Assyrians by the Barbarians, 252;
great importance of this satrapy, ib. ;
want of rain supplied by the Euphra-
tes, ib. ; numerous canals, 253 ; ex-
traordinary growth of corn, ib. ; palm
trees, ib. See also Babylon.

Astarte. See Aphrodite.

Astrabacus, shrine of, 53.

Asychis, built eastern propylaea of the

588

INDEX.

temple of Hephaestus, 389; brick
pyramid of, 414 ; probably the same
as the northern pyramid ofDashoor,
415.

Atarantes, who had no names, and
cursed the sun, 561 ; their station
perhaps to be identified with Te-
£?errv, 5G8.

Atarbe'chis, 383, 459, 507.

Atarneus, '227.

Athene Alea, temple of, 38.

Athene Cralhia, temple of, 178.

Athene Poliuclms, temple of, 105.

Athene Pronaea, temple of, at Delphi,
75.

Athene Sciras, temple of, 109.

Athene, worshipped by the Libyans,
543, 551.

Athene, the Aegyptian, temple of at
Sais, 374 ; splendid propylaea built
by Amasis, ib. ; huge rock chamber,
ib. ; tombs of the Saite kings, Apries,
Amasis, etc., 375 ; Athene identified
with Neith, 452.

Athens, Herodotns's description of, 61 ;
four ancient divisions of the Athe-
nians, 62 ; re-classification into ten
tribes, ib. ; each tribe formed ten
demi, ib. ; three factions, ib. ; pub-
lic buildings, etc.^ ib. See also At-
tica.

Athor, identified with Aphi'odite, 459 ;
confounded with Isis, ib.

Athos, Mount, description of, 116 ; ca-
nal of Xerxes, ib.

Atlu-ibites, 383.

Athrys, liver, 132.

Atlantes, who ate no meat and dream-
ed no dreams, 561 ; their position
unknown, 569.

Atlantic Sea, 19 ; general course of the
currents of, 341.

Atlas, Moimt, description of, 561 ;
confusion respecting, 569.

Atlas, river, 132.

Atropatene, 286. See Media.

Attica, general description of, 57 ;
ancient history, 58 ; Herodotns's
account, 59; lonians enter Attica,
60; Ionian migration, ib. ; Atheni-
ans regarded as Ionian Pelasgians,
ib. ; manners, customs, etc., 61 ;
Herodotns's description of Attica,
ib. ; topography, 65. See also
Athens.

Auchatae, 160.

Augilae, whose date country was visit-
ed by the Nasamoncs, 560; Augila,
the great modern mart for dates,
565.

Auras, river, 132.

Auschisae, dwelt near the Ilespeiidcs,
and followed Cyrenaean customs,
516.

Auses, who lived on the left bank of
the river Triton, 551 ; worshipped a
native goddess corresponding to the
Athene of the Greeks, ib. ; lived
apart from their women, whom they
had in common, 552.

Automoli, country of, 518 ; situated
Avithin the triangle of Sennaar, form-
ed by the White and Blue Niles,
520; consisted of 240,000 desert-
ers from the Aegyptian warrior
caste, 524 ; question as to whether
settled on the White or the Blue
Nile, ib.

Autonous, precinct of, 79.

Axins, river, 114, 119.

Axus, 96.

Azanes, 39.

Azerbijan, 286.

Aziris, 537.

Babylon, the only city of Assyria de-
scribed by Herodotus, 254; site of
the ruins of Babylon near Hillah,
ib. ; three mounds on the eastern
bank of the Euphrates, ib. ; Muje-
libe, or " the overturned," errone-
ously supposed by Rennell to be the
temple of Belus, 255 ; El Kasr, or
" the palace," ib. ; Amram hill, 256 ;
remains of ancient ramparts, ib. ;
river embankment, 256 ; western
bank of the Euphrates, 257 ; small
scattered mounds, ib. ; BirsNimroud,
the tower of Babel and temple of
Belus, 258 ; its extreme antiquity,
ib. ; Herodotus's description of Ba-
bylon, 259 ; towers on the wall, 260 ;
one hundred brass gates, ib. ; the
city cut in two by the Euphrates, ib. ;
walls, ib. ; royal palace, ib. ; tem-
ple of Belus, ib.; statements of the
Chaldean priests, 261 ; bridge over
the Euphrates, 262 ; sepulchre of
Nitocris, ib. ; names of the city gates,
ib. ; destruction of the fortifications
by Darius, 263 ; dress of the- Baby-
lonians, 264 ; manners and customs,
ib. ; annual sale of maidens, ib. ; no
])hysicians, 265 ; embalming, ib. ;
funeral lamentations like those of the
Aegyptians, ib. ; burning of incense
after sexual intercourse, ib. ; dis-
graceful practices connected with the
worship of Aphrodite, ib. ; three
tribes of Babylonian Ichthyophagi,
266 ; Chaldeans, ib. ; Babylonian
sun-dial, ib. ; gnomon, 267 ; talent,
ib.

Babylonia, 244. See Assyria.

Babylonian empire, ancient extent of,
201.

Bactria, general description, 295 ; iden-
tified with Balkh between the Hin-

INDEX.

589

doo Koosh and the Osus, ib. ; He-
rodotus's account, 296 ; Bactria a
penal settlement, ib. ; costume of
the Bactrians, ib.

Bahr Yusuf. See Joseph's Canal.

Balkan range, 122.

Balkh, 295.

Barathron at Athens, 63.

Barbary, or Inhabited Libya, 533.

Barca, founded by emigrants from Gy-
rene, 540; inhabitants transplanted
to Barca in Bactria, ib.

Baris, the Aegyptian merchant barge,
501.

Bdellae, 509.

Belbina, isle of, 111.

Beled-el-Jered, or Wild Beast Libya,
533.

Belus, temple of, in Babylon, 260.

Berbers, 521, note.

Bermion, Mount, 122.

Bessi, 136.

Birs Nimroud, the tower of Babel and
temple of Belus, 258.

Bisaltia, 131.

Bisanthe, 132.

Bistones, 129.

Bistohis, Lake, 129.

Bithynian Thracians, 238.

Blessed, Island of the, 560.

Boebeis, Lake, 85.

BoEOTiA, general description of, 67 ;
Herodotus's account, 68 ; topogra-
phy, ib. •

Bokhara, 291.

Bolbotine mouth of the Nile, 363.

Borean A\inds, 12.

Boreas, temple of, at Athens, 62.

Bornou, river of, 521.

Boryes, 542.

Borysthenes, river, 145 ; identified with
the Dnieper, 147.

Bosphorus, bridged by Darius, 125 ;
Cimmerian, 157.

Bottiaeis in Macedonia, 114.

Brahmins, their division of the earth,
.361, note.

Branchidae, sanctuary of, 223.

Brauron, 65.

Briantica, anciently Galaica, 128.

Brongus, river, 136.

Brundusinm, 178.

Bryges, 132, 236.

Bubalies, 542.

Bubassus, peninsula of, 224.

Bubastis, city of, 371 ; its magnificent
temple of Bubastis, or Artemis, ib. ;
entirely surrounded by water, ex-
cepting at the entrance, 372 ; ancient
settlement of the lonians and Cari-
ans, 373 ; modern site of Bubastis
indicated by the mounds of Tel
Basta, ib.

Bubastis, or Pasht, identified with Ar-

temis, 451 ; festival of, ib. ; myth of,
468.

Bucolic mouth of the Nile, 363.

Budii, 289.

Budini, occupying Saratoff, 182.

Bur a, to^vn of, 45.

Busae, 289.

Busiris, city of, 374 ; temple of Isis, ib.

Busirites, 383.

Buto, city of, 376; temple of Apollo
and Artemis, ib. ; temple and oracle
of Leto, ib. ; floating island of Chem-
mis, with temple of Apollo, 377.

Buto, near Arabia, neighbouring defile
containing the bones of winged ser-
pents, 317 ; distinct from the other
Buto, 378.

Buto, the Aegyptian goddess, identified
by Herodotus with Leto, 450; her
temple and oracle, ib.

Byblus, the stalk eaten by the marsh-
men of the Delta, 493,

Byzantium, 125.

Cabales, the Libyan, 546.

Cabalians of Asia Minor, 235.

Cadmeans in Boeotia, 68.

Cadytis, 249 ; identified by Prideaux
with Jerusalem, ib. ; by Mr. Ewing
with Kedesh in Galilee, ib. ; by Col.
Kawlinson Avith Gaza, 250 ; correct-
ness of the latter view, ib.

Caicus, river, 227.

Calami, 103.

Calasires, 483.

Calatians, 311.

Calchedonia, 236.

Gale Acte, 93.

Callatebus, 231.

Callipidae, 151.

Callipolis, 94.

Callista, 100.

Calhsthenes, discovered the real cause
of the overflow of the Nile, 359.

Calydna, 224.

Camarina, town of, 93.

Cameirus, 96, 220.

Camels, Herodotus's description of,
301.

Camicus, 94.

Campsa, 119.

Canae, Mount, 227.

Canastraeum, Cape, 118.

Canopic mouth of the Nile, 363.

Caphareus promontory, 109.

Cappadocians, 239 ; extent and limits
of the Cappadocia of Herodotus, ib.

Carchedon. See Carthage.

Carcinitis, 154.

Cardamyle, town- of, 53.

Cardia, 128.

Carians, originally expelled from the
islands by the lonians and Dorians,
220 ; their inventions, 221 ; believed

590

INDEX.

themselves 'to be autochthones, ib. ;
united with the Lydians and Mysians
in the worship of the Carian Zeus,
ib. ; topography of the mterior, ib. ;
topography of the coast, 223.

Carian settlement near Bubastis, 373.

Carina, 227.

Carmania, including Sagartii, Saran-
gees, Thamanaei, Utii, and Mici,
297.

Carpathus, island of, 96.

Carpis, river, 176.

Carthage, situated on a peninsula at
the bottom of the Gulf of Tunis, 552 ;
boundaries of the Carthagmian em-
pire, 553 ; jealousy of the people an
effectual bar to the progress of geo-
graphical science, ib. ; Herodotus's
ignorance of Carthage, ib.

Caryanda, 223.

Carystus, 109.

Casius, Mount, 378.

Casmene, 92.

Caspatyrus, 198.

Caspian Gates, 291.

Caspian, East, Provinces, comprising
Sacae and Caspii, 293 ; costume,
ib. ; Amyrgian Sacae, a Scythian
tribe, conquered by Persia, ib. ; situ-
ated between the Oxus and Jaxartes,
ib. ; Caspii noi'th of the ancient
mouth of the Oxus, 294.

Caspian, South, Provinces, compris-
ing Caspii, Pausicae, Pantimathi, and
Dareitae, 289 ; costume of the Caspii,
290 ; identification of this satrapy
with Ghilan, Mazanderan, and As-
trabad, ib.

Caspian Sea, 25.

Cassiterides, 22.

Castalian Spring, general description
of, 75.

Casthanea, 87.

Catarrhactes, river, souixes of, 237.

Catiari, 160.

Cats, sacred to the Aegyptian Pasht,
503.

Caucasa, 105.

Caucasus, Mount, general description,
190; Herodotus's account of the
mountain and people, ib.

Caucones of Elis, 15.

Caiuius, its inhabitants really autoch-
thones, 222.

Cayster, river, 233.

Ceians, banque1ing-li:ill at Dclos, 98.

Celaenae, 237.
. Celtae, 174, 175.

Ceos, island of, 98.

Ceos, a promontory of Salamis, 109.

Cephallcnia, 91.

Cephcnes, 270.

Cephissus, river, 79.

Ceramic Gulf, 22 1.

Ceraunian mountains, 27.

Cercasorus, 364.

Cercopes, 83.

Chalcidice, peninsula of, 114.

Chalcis, 108.

Chaldaeans, 266.

Chalestra, 119.

Chalybes, 229, 280.

Charadra, 79.

Charites, hill of. See Graces.

Chemmis, floating island of, 376, 435.

Cheops, his causeway, 391 ; explana-
tion of Herodotus's description, 392 ;
traces still existing, ib.

Cheops, great pyramid of, 393; He-
rodotus's description, ib. ; time and
labour employed, ib.; dimensions, ib. ;
mode of construction, ib. ; ascent by
steps, or altars, 394 ; machines con-
structed of short pieces of wood, ib. ;
summit first completed, ib. ; burial
vault of Cheops surrounded by a
channel conducted from the Nile, ib. ;
inscription declaring the sums ex-
pended upon provisions for the work-
men, ib. ; comparison of the account
of Herodotus with modern investi-
gations, ib. ; ancient and modern
measurements, 395; three kinds of
material employed, 396 ; character
of the mechanical agencies employed,
397 ; internal blocks not so large as
Herodotus describes, ib. ; holes for
the insertion of the machines still
visible, 398 ; exterior coating of cas-
ing-stones of limestone or granite,
ib. ; Mr. Perring's observations on
the mode of construction, 399 ; inte-
rior of the Great Pyramid, ib. ; slop-
ing passage descending towards the
centre, ib. ; description of the Sub-
terranean Chamber, 400 ; burial
vault of Cheops not to be found, 401 ;
Queen's Chamber, 402; King's Cham-
ber, containing an empty sarcopha-
gus, 403 ; inscription mentioned by
Herodotus not to be found, 404.

Cheops, daughter of, her small pyra-
mid, 414.

Chephren, pyramid of, 404; Herodo-
tus's description, ib. ; site and pre-
sent dimensions, ib. ; Herodotus's
statement that there were no sub-
terranean chambers in it, confuted
by the investigations of Belzoni, 405 ;
sepulchral room called Belzoni's
Chamber, 406 ; Lower Chamber,
407 ; Aethiopian stone found to
be granite, 408 ; upper casing form-
ed of limestone, ib. ; Mr. Perring's
view of the construction of the in-
terior, ib.

Chersonesus, inhabited by the Thracian
Dolonci, 127*; topography, ib.

INDEX.

591

Chios, island of, 105 ; to-wn of, ib,

Choasp.es, river, 268, 275.

Choereae, 108.

Chorasmia, identified with Kharesm,
or Khiva, 291.

Chytri, 82.

Cicones, 128, 129.

Cilicians, anciently named Hypachae-
ans, 240 ; extent and limits of the
Cilicia of Herodotus, ib.

Cilia, 216.

Cimmerians, their ancient occupation
of Scythia, 154; sepulchre of the
Cimmerian kings, 155 ; Scythian
pursuit of the Cimmerians, ib. ; Cim-
merians in Asia Minor, ib. ; proofs
of the ancient occupation of Scythia
by the Cimmerians, 157 ; district of
Cimmeria, ib. ; Cimmerian Fort and
Ferry, ib. ; Cimmerian Bosphorus,
ib.

Cimon, sepulchre of, 62.

Ctayps, river, 548.

Cissia, 245 ; answering to Khuzistan,
267.

Cithaeron, Mount, 28, 66, 70.

Cithera, 94.

Cius, 228.

Clazomenae, 217, 233.

Cleonae, 118.

Clytiadae, 46.

Cnidus, 220, 221, 223.

Cnossus, 95.

Coela, in Euboea, 109.

Coeli, in Chios, 105.

Coenyra, 107.

Colaxais, 159.

Colchian Gates, 155.

Colchis, description of, 312 ; political
relations with Persia, ib. ; costume,
ib. ; manufacture of linen, ib. ; gifts
to Persia, ib. ; Colchians believed by
Herodotus to be of Aegyptian origin,
313.

Colias, Cape, 66,

Colophon, 233.

Colossae, 237.

Combrea, 118.

Compsatus, river, 129.

Conium, 238.

Contadesdus, river, 126.

Copais, Lake, 67, 69.

Corcyra, island of, 91.

Coressus, 233.

CoRiNTHiA, general description of, 41 ;
origin of its commercial importance,
Herodotus's account, 42 ; city of
Coriath, ib.

Coronaea, 69.

Corycian cavern, 79.

Corys, river, 316.

Cos, island of, 101 ; town of, 220.

Crathis, river, 44, 178.

Cranai, 59.

Creston, 121.

Crestonica, 114.

Crete, island of, 95.

Crisaean plain, 81.

Critalla, 240.

Crobyzi, 123.

Crocodiles, Herodotus's description of,
508 ; caught by means of a hook
baited with pork, 510.

Crocodilopolis, 423, 433.

Croesus, his gifts at Amphiaraus, 69 ;
at Delphi, 77.

Crossaea, 118.

Crophi, 361, 435.

Croton, 177.

Curium, 96.

Cush, the Aethiopia of Herodotus, 521.

Cyanean isles, 126.

Cybele, national goddess of the Lydians,
229.

Cyclades, islands of, 97.

Cydoniain Crete, 95.

Cydrara, 237.

Cyme, also called Phriconis, 216.

Cynetae, 174, 175.

Cynosarges, 65.

Cynosura, a promontory of Salamis,
109.

Cynurians, 37.

Cyprus, island of, 96 ; key of, 97.

Cyraunis, island of, now called Kar-
kenah and Gherba, 556 ; lake from
which gold-dust was obtained by dip-
ping in feathers smeared with pitch,
ib.

Cyrene, general description of, 536 ;
Herodotus's account of the coloniza-
tion of, 537; Theraeans under Co-
robius reach the Libyan Platea, ib. ;
pass over to the continent, and settle
in Aziiis, ib. ; remove to Cyrene, ib. ;
increase in numbers, 538 ; divided
into three tribes by Demonax, ib. ;
lands and the office of priesthood as-
signed to the king, 539 ; connexion
between the Cyrenaeans, Libyans,
and Aegyptians, ib. ; three harvests
of Cyrene, ib. ; the Cyrenaean lotus,
540 ; topographical notices, ib.

Cyrnus, island of, 91.

Cyrus, river, 280.

Cythera, island of, 40, 94.

Cythnos, island of, 99.

Cyzicus, island of, 228.

Dadicae, 296 ; identiaed with the Tad-
jiks, 297.
Dahi, 270.

Danube. See Ister.
Daphnae, 378.
Dardanians, 282.
Dardanus, 228.
Dareitae, 289.
Darius Hystaspes, his route through

592

INDEX.

Thrace, 125 ; his bridge over the
Bosphorus, ib. ; erects two columns,
ib. ; his bridge over the Ister, 127 ;
his division of the Persian empire
into twenty satrapies, 202 ; stone
figure of, at Susa, 268 ; canal of, see
Neco.

Dasc5'leium, 228.

Datus, 131.

Dauliims, 80.

Decelea, Go.

Deliiun, 69.

Delos, island of, 97.

Delphi, general description of, 75; He-
rodotus's account of the temple and
its treasures, 76 ; gifts of Croesus,
77 ; miscellaneous gifts, 78. .

Delta. See Aegypt (Loweu).

Delta, marshes of, 378 ; island of Elbe,
379.

Demeter, the Achaean, temple and
mysteries of, at Athens, 62.

Demeter, the Eleusinian, temple of, at
Platea, 73.

Demeter, the Amphictyonian, temple
of, at Thermopylae, 82.

Demeter, temple of, in Paros, 100 ; in
Aegina, 110.

Demeter, the Aegyptian, temple of, at
Memphis, 390. See Isis.

Democritus, discovered the real cause
of the overflow of the Nile, 359.

Derbend, defile of, 155.

Dersaei, 129.

Derusiaei, 270.

Despoto mountains, 123,

Dicaea, 128.

Dictyes, 542.

Dictynna, temple of, 95.

Didymi, 223.

Dindymene, mountain of, 229.

Dion, 118.

Dionysus, the Thracian, 136.

Dionysus, the Arabian, 320.

Dionysus, the Aethiopian, 522, 524.

Dionysus, the Aegyptian. See Osi-
ris.

Dipaea, 39.

Dipodes, 542.

Dnieper. See Borystiienes.

Doberes, 129.

Dodona, oracle at, 89.

Dogs, Aegyptian, 504.

Dolonci, Thracian, 127.

Dolopes, 86.

Don. See Tanais.

Dorians, their wanderings, 32 ; their
five cities of the Triopian confeder-
acy, 220 ; worship of Apollo at Tri-
opium, ib. ; exclusion of Halicar-
nassus, ib.

Dolus, mother country of the. Dorians,
84 ; topography, ib.

Doriscus, 128.

Dropici, 270.

Drymus, 79.

Dryopes in the Peloponnesus, 37.

Dryopis, 84.

Dyma, town of, 45.

Dyras, river, 81.

Dysorum, Mount, 116, 121.

Earth, early attempts to describe cir-
cumference of, 14 ; opinions of He-
rodotus upon the subject, 15; ex-
tent of his knowledge, ib. ; divisions
of the earth, 16 ; separation of Eu-
rope and Asia, 17 ; separation of
Asia and Libya, 18 ; seas bounding
the earth's extremities, 19.

Ecbatana, identified by Rennell with
Hamadan, and by Rawlinson with
Takhti-Soleiman, 287 ; described by
Herodotus, 288 ; story of its walls
considered to be a fable of Sabaean
origin, 288.

Echeidorus, river, 114, 120.

Echinades islands, 84.

Edoni, 129.

Edonia, 131.

Egestaea, 93.

Egypt. See Aegypt.

Eion, 130.

Elaeus, 127.

Elatea, 79.

Elbo, island of, 379.

Elburz mountains, 244.

Eicon, 69.

Elephantine, 435.

Eleusis, 65.

Elis, general description of, 45 ; He-
rodotus's account, ib. ; Aetolians,
Caucones, Minyae, ib. ; Elean seers,
46 ; no mules ibred in Elis, ib. ; to-
pography, ib.

Elisyci, 176.

Ellopian district, 109.

Elorus, river, 94.

El Wah, 564.

Enarees, 156.

Eiichelees of lUyria, 136.

Eneti, their sale of maidens, 136.

Enienes, 86.

Enipeus, river, 85.

Enneacrunos, 62.

Ephesus, 233.

Ephorus, denied the possibility of cir-
cumnavigating Africa, 336.

Epicnemidii, 80.

Epidamnus, 88.

Epidaurus, town of, 40.

Epirus, scattered notices in Herodo-
tus, 88.

Ephim, town of, 46.

Epizephyrian Locrians, 178.

Erasinus, river, 41.

Erectheus, temple of, 63.

Eretria, 108.

INDEX.

59^

Eretrians, transplanted to Ardericca,
269.

Eridanus, river, 22.

Erineus, 84.

Erochus, 79.

Erytheia, 174.

Erythrae, 69, 233.

Erythraean Sea, 19 ; isles of, 297.

Erythrebolus, 433.

Eryx country, 93.

Erzroum, 281.

Etearchus, his story of the Nasamonian
expedition into the Sahara, 570.

Etesian winds, 12; supposed by Thales
to cause the inundation of the Nile,
358.

Ethiopia. See Aethiopia.

Euboea, island of, 108.

Euphrates, river, account of, 263 ; an-
ciently overflowed the country, ib. ;
dams raised by Semiramis and Ni-
tocris, ib.; course of the river ren-
dered winding by Nitocris, ib. ; nu-
merous artificial canals, ib. See also
Babylon.

Europe, general survey of, 21 j ex-
tent of Herodotus's knowledge, ib. ;
seas of Europe, 24 ; Pontus Eux-
inus, ib. 3 Palus Maeotis (Maeetis),
ib. ; Propontis, ib. ; Caspian, 25 ;
Adriatic, ib. ; Ionian, ib.

Europe, Eastern, 183 ; great caravan
route, ib. ; character of the com-
merce, 184 ; Olbia the emporium,
ib. ; trade in corn, ib. ; slaves, ib. ;
furs, ib. ; gold from the Ural and
Altai mountains, 185 ; route north-
ward from the Budini, ib. ; desert
of seven days' journey, occupying
Simbirsk and Kasan, ib. ; route
towards the east, ib. ; Thyssagette,
occupying Perm, ib. ; Jyrcae on
the Ural mountains, 186 ; Scythian
exiles occupying Tobolsk, ib. ; Ar-
gippaei, at the foot of the Altai
mountains, ib. ; identification of the
Argippaei with the Calmucks, 187 ;
unknown regions north of the Argip-
paei, occupied by men with goats'
feet, and people who slept for six
months at a time, 188; identifica-
tion of the Altai, ib. ; eastern route
continued, ib. ; the Issedones, ib. ;
Arimaspi, 189; gold-guarding grif-
fins, ib. ; nations on the frontier
towards Asia, 190; general descrip-
tion of Mount Caucasus, ib. ; He-
rodotus's account of the mountain
and people, ib. ; the Massagetae,
191 ; Herodotus's description of the
river Araxes, ib. ; explanation of
the apparent contradictions, 192 ;
manners and customs of the Mas-
sagetae, ib.

2 Q

Europe, Northern, 178 ; region im-
penetrable from bees or frost, 179;
the Sigynnes, a Medic colony, fond of
chariot-driving, ib. ; nations border-
ing on Scythia, ib. : Agathyrsi, oc-
cupying Transylvania, ib. ; Neuri,
occupying Poland and Lithuania,
180 ; Androphagi, occupying Smo-
lensk, ib. ; Melanchlaeni, occupying
Orloff, 181 ; Sauromatae, occupy-
ing the country of the Don Cossacks
and part of Astracan, ib. ; Budini
and Geloni, occupying SaratofF, 182.

Europe, western, 173; region beyond
the Pillars of Heracles, 174; Tar-
tessus, ib. ; Erytheia, ib. ; Gadeira,
ib.; Celtae, ib. ; Cynetae, ib. ; account
of the river Ister, or Danube, ib. ; ex-
planation of Herodotus's description
of the Ister, and account of the Cy-
netae and Celtae, 175 ; the Iberi,
Ligyes, and Elisyci, 176; Italy, sin-
gular omission of Rome, ib. ; North-
ern Italy, occupied by the Ombrici
and Tyrseni, ib. ; Southern Italy,
occupied by Greek colonies, 177.

Euxine tribes, or Eastern Pontus,
comprising the Moschi, Tibareni,
Macrones, Mosynoeci, and Mares,
answering to Trebisonde, 279 ; He-
rodotus's account very meagre, ib. ;
extent of the satrapy, 280 ; order of
the nations according to Xenophon,
ib.

Euxinus, Pontus, 24.

Exampaeus, spring, 152.

Farsistan, 267.

Fayoum, description of the oval basin
of, 422 ; consists of three different
levels, ib. ; watered by a branch
from the Canal of Joseph, 423 ; geo-
logical constitution of the soil. See
also Labyrinth and Moeris Lake.

Fezzan, inhabited by the Garamantes,
565.

Frankincense, land of, 314.

Gadeira, 174.

Gaeson, 233.

Galaica, afterwards called Briantica,
128.

Galepsus, 118.

Gandara, comprising the Sattagydae,
Gandarii, Dadicae, and Aparytae,
296.

Gandarii, 296 ; identified with the peo-
ple of Candahar, 297.

Garamantes, covered the earth with
salt before cultivating it, and pos-
sessed kine walking backwards, 560 ;
hunted the Aethiopian Troglodytae,
ib. ; included a timid tribe, 561 ;
their country identified with Fezzan,

594

INDEX.

5G5 ; the timid tribe identified with
the inhabitants of Terboo, 567.

Gargaphia, 72.

Gebeleizis, 133.

Gedrosia, or Asiatic Aethiopia, 299.

Gela, town of, 93.

Geloni, 182.

Geometrj^ science of, originated in
Aeg-ypt, 499.

Georgi, 153.

Gephyraeans, 61.

Geraestns, 108.

Gergithes, inhabited Ilium, 228.

Germanii, 270.

Gerrhus, river, 146 ; probably the
Tastchenik, 148.

Getae, 127 ; their peculiar tenets, 132 ;
belief in the immortality of the soul,
ib. ; their deity Zalmoxis, 133.

Ghur mountains, 244.

Gigonus, 118.

Giligammae, opposite the Libyan Pla-
tea, the first region of the silphium
plant, 545.

Gindanes, whose women wore an ancle
ring for every lover, 549.

Gizeh. See Pyramids.

Glissas, 69.

Gobi, great desert of, 299.

Gonnus, pass of, 85, 87.

Gordium, 237.

Graces, hill of, 549.

Greece, European, general description
of, 27 ; face of the country, 28 ; He-
rodotus's account of Hellas, 29 ; fer-
tilized by rain, ib. ; subject to storms
and earthquakes, ib. ; lions, ib. ;
Sillikyprion, 30 ; character of the
people, ib. ; temples, ib. ; markets,
ib. ; trade, ib. ; miscellaneous no-
tices, ib. ; art of writing, 31 ; ob-
scurities in the history of the people,
ib. ; Herodotus's accoimt, ib. ; Hel-
las anciently called Pelasgia, and peo-
pled by Pelasgians and other tribes,
ib. ; character of the Pelasgians, 32 ;
mythical origin of the Hellenes, ib. ;
Dorian wanderings, ib. ; invasion of
the Peloponnesus by the Heracleids,
33 ; Achaeans unknown, ib. ; Aeoli-
ans and lonians considered as Pelas-
gians, ib. ; in historical times inha-
bitants all called Hellenes, ib. See
Peloponnesus.

(iriffins, gold-guarding, 189.

Gryneia, 217.

Gygaean lake, 230.

Gyges, his gifts at Delphi, 76.

Gymnopaediae, 53.

Gyndes, river, 282 ; its stream weak-
ened by the 180 canals of (!yrus, ib.

Gyzantes, who subsisted on honey and
monkeys, 555.

Hades, Aegyptian ideas concerning,
469, 470.^

Haemus, Mount, 122.

Halfay, 517.

Haliacmon, river, 114, 120.

Halicarnassus, its history, 2 ; excluded
from the Triopian confederacy, 220,
223.

Halys, river, 200, 239.

Hamadan, 287.

Hebrews. See Palaestine.

Hebrus, river, 126, 128.

Hecataeus, 8 ; supposed that the river
Ocean occasioned the overflow of
the Nile, 358.

Hecatonnesi, or Hundred Islands, 106.

Heliopolis, city of, 376 ; temple of
Helios with two obelisks, dedicated
b}' Pheron, ib.

Helios, the Aegyptian temple of, at He-
liopolis, 376 ; identified with Ra, 455.

Hellas of Herodotus, its wide significa-
tion. See Greece.

Helle, Sepulchre of, 128.

Hellenes, their mythical origin, 32 ;
general name for all Greeks in the
historic times, 33.

Hellenium at Naucratis, 377.

Hellespontines, 132, 235.

Helmund, river, 292.

Hephaestus, or Pthah, temple of, at
Memphis, 388 ; northern propylaea
built by Moeris, ib. ; six colossal
statues erected before it by Sesos-
tris, ib. ; western propylaea, and two
statues of Summer and Winter, erect-
ed by Rhampsinitus, 389 ; eastern
propylaea built by Asychis, ib. ;
southern propylaea, and court for
Apis, constructed by Psammitichus,
ib. ; colossus, 75 feet high, dedicated
by Amasis, ib. ; stone statue of Se-
thon, with a mouse, ib. ; account of
Hephaestus, 448.

Heptanomis. See Aegypt (Upper).

Hera temple, at Samos, 101.

Hera, the Aegyptian, 450, 460.

Heracleidae, their invasion of the Pelo-
ponnesus, 33.

Heracles, ancient temple of, at Tyre,
247.

Heracles, temple of, at Athens, 63.

Heracles, Pillars of, 174.

Heracles, foot-print of, in Scythia, 159.

Heracles, temple of, at Taricheia, 378.

Heracles, the Aegyptian, 455 ; his ora-
cle and temple, ib. ; Greek story of
tlie attempt to sacrifice him to Zeus,
ib.

Heracles and the serpent maiden Echid
iia, Gr(;ck mythus concerning, 161.

Heraeopolis, 126.

Herdsmen, Aegyptian caste of, 485.

Hermeopolis, 434.

INDEX.

595

Hermes, perhaps a miimm5'-formed
god, 456 ; subsequently identified
^vith Thoth, ib.

Hermione, town of, 40.

Hermotybies, 483.

Hernius, river, 229.

Herodotus, birth of, (b. c. 484,) 1 ;
contemporary state of Greece, ib. ;
period of his travels, 2, and Preface,
xiv. — xxii. ; Halicarnassus, its his-
tory, 2 ; Herodotus removes to Thu-
rium, 3 ; extent of his travels, ib.,
and Appendix I. ; his general in-
formation, 4; previous state of geo-
graphical science, 5 ; review of his
old age, 10 ; general simplicity of his
ideas, 14; his map of Asia, 199.

Hesiod, extent of his geographical
knowledge, 7.

Hesperides, 546.

Hestia, an Aegyptian deity, 460.

Hieroglypliics, Aegyptian, 500.

Hillah. See Babylon.

Himera, 94.

Hippoleon promontory, 152.

Hippopotamus, 510.

Histiaeotis in Thessaly, 85.

Histiaeotis in Euboea, 109.

Homer, his notions of the universe,
(b. c. 900,) 5 ; extent of his geogra-
phical knowledge, 6.

Horus, the elder, 463.

Horus, the younger, 463, 468.

Hyacinthia, 53.

Hyampeia, 78.

Hyampolis, 79.

Hybla, 94.

Hydrea, isle of, 111.

Hyela in Oenotria, 177.

Hygermians, 235.

Hylaea, 152.

Hyllus, river, 229.

Hymettus, Mount, 66.

Hypachaeans, 240.

Hypacyris, river, 146 ; probably the
Kalantchak, 148.

Hypanis, river, 142; identified with
the Bog, 147.

Hyperboreans, tradition of, 158.

Hyperborean virgins, honoured at De-
les, 97.

Hypemotians, 158.

Hyperoche, 98.

Hyrcanians, 292.

Hyrgis, river, 147, 149.

Hyria, 178.

Hysiae, 65, 70.

lalyssus, 96, 220.
:amidae, 46.
lapygia, 178.
Iberi, 176.
Ibis, 505.
Ichnae, 119.

2 Q 2

Ichneumon, 504.

Ichthyophagi, Babylonian, thi-ee tribes
of, 266.

Ichthyophagi, Aethiopian, 523.

Ida, Mount, 217.

Idrias, 237.

Ilissus, river, 67.

Ilium, inhabited by the Aeolians and
Gergithes, 228.

lllyria, scarcely noticed by Herodotus,
136.

Imbros, island of, 106.

India, general description of the India
of Herodotus, 306 ; morning the
hottest part of the day, ib. ; superior
size of the birds and quadrupeds, ib. ;
camels, ib. ; dogs, ib. ; gold, 307 ;
cotton-trees, ib. ; two nations of In-
dians, ib.

India, Northern, forming the twentieth
satrapy of Herodotus, and identified
with the Punjab, 299 ; extent of the
satrapy, ib. ; Herodotus's account of
the people, 300 ; enormous ants, ib. ;
ant-hills of sand and gold-dust, ib. ;
mode of carrying off the gold, ib. ;
identification of the people with the
Rajpoots of the Punjab, ib. ; Indian
camels, .301 ; costume of the people,
ib.

India, Southern, identified with Sinde,
307 ; the most easterly of all the
Asiatic nations, ib. ; divided into tribes
who spoke different languages, ib. ;
four tribes mentioned by Herodotus,
ib. ; Herodotus's superior and cor-
rect knowledge of India derived from
the report of Scylax, ib. ; great merit
of Scylax, 308 ; Indian fishermen on
the marshes of the Indus, ib. ; iden-
tified with the pulla-fishers of Sinde,
ib. ; singular coincidence betAveen
the report of Scylax and that of Lieut.
Wood, 309 ; nomade Indians or Pa-
daei, 310 ; killed and ate their sick
relations, ib. ; identified with the
barbarous tribes of the deserts of
Sinde, ib. ; vegetarian Indians, who
lived chiefly on rice, ib. ;. identified
with the Hindoos, 311; Calatians,
who ate their parents, ib. ; probably
the same as the Padaei, ib. ; shame-
less manners and black complexion
of the Indians, 312; probably refer-
red to the Jauts of Rajpootana, ib.

Indian Ocean, monsoon of, 340.

Indus, river, surveyed by Scylax, 198 ;
pulla-fishers of Sinde, 308.

Interpreters, Aegyptian, caste of, 486.

Inycus, 93.

lo, represented like Isis, 468.

lolcus, 87.

Ionian Sea, 25 ; islands in, 90.

lonians, to be considered as Pelasgians,

59()

INDEX. •

33 ; enter Attica, 60 ; migrate to
Asia Minor, ib. ; their twelve cities
in Asia Minor, 217 ; united in the
Panionian confederacy, '218 ; mix-
ture of the lonians with other races,
ib. ; worship of the Heliconian Po-
seidon in the Panionium, 219 ; mis-
cellaneous notices, ib. ; sculptures of
Sesostris found in Ionia, 233 ; iden-
tification of the monument between
Sardis and Smyrna by modern tra-
vellers, 234; its Aegyptian origin
doubted, ib.

Ionian theory concerning the Aegyptian
Delta, 354 ; settlement near Bubas-
tis, 373.

Ipni, 87.

Irak-Arabi, 251.

Iran, plateau of. See Taurus.

Irasa, 540.

Is, town of, 263.

Isis, temple of, at Busiris, 374 : at
Mempliis, 390 ; confounded by He-
rodotus with Athor, 459 ; the greatest
Aegyptian goddess, 461, 468 ; repre-
sented like the Greek lo, ib. ; her
temple and festival at Busiris, ib. ;
sacrifices to her, 469 ; variously re-
presented on the monuments, and
often confounded with Athor and
other deities, 476 ; cows sacred to her,
506. See also Osiris.

Ismaris, Lake, 129.

Issedones, 188.

Ister, or Danube, bridged by Darius,
127 ; its five mouths and equal
stream, 144; five tributaries flowing
into it, ib. ; difficulties in the theory
of Niebuhr and Ideler, ib. ; identifi-
cation of the five tributaries, 145 ;
Herodotus's account of the Ister,
1 74 ; causes of its equal stream, ib. ;
explanation of Herodotus's descrip-
tion, 175.

Jstria, 132.

Italy, singular omission of Rome, 176 ;
Northern Italy occupied by the Om-
brici andTyrscni, ib. ; Southern Italy
occupied by Greek colonies, 177.

Itanus, 96.

Ithome, town of, 48.

.Taxartes, river. See Araxes.

.lenysus, 251.

Joseph's Canal, description of, 387,

423.
Jyrcac, on the Ural mountains, 186.

Karoon, river, 268.

Keiroun, Lake. See Moeris.

Kerkhah, river, 268,

Khem, the generative principle, Aegyp-
tian representation of, 448; idcntilied
with Pan, and especially worshipped

at Mendes, 449 ; no goats sacrificed,
ib. ; Herodotus's statements doubt-
ed, ib.

Khiva, 291.

Khorassan, 291.

Khuzistan, 267.

Kneph, the divine spirit, Aegyptian re-
presentation of, 444. See Zeus.

Kong mountains, 532, 558.

Kurdistan, mountains of, 244, 252.

Kurds, representing the ancient Ma-
tieni, 284.

Labranda, 221.

Labyrinth, Herodotus's description,
424; erected by the twelve kings,
ib. ; its cost, ib. ; its tAvelve courts,
ib ; upper chambers visited by He-
rodotus, ib. ; lower chambers, tombs
of the twelve kmgs and sacred cro-
codiles, ib. ; recent discoveries by
the Prussian Expedition, 425 ; con-
firmation of Herodotus's statements,
ib. ; doubt as to whether it really
included 3000 chambers, 426; the
pyramid probably the place of sepul-
ture, and the Labyrmth the royal
palace, ib. ; pyramid at present
known as the Pyramid of Howara,
ib. ; discovery of the name of Am-
menemes III., ib. ; dimensions and
construction of the pyramid, 427.

Lacmon, Mount, 88.

Laconica, general description of, 48 ;
history, 49 ; Herodotus's account,
ib. ; description of the Laconians,
50 ; rights and privileges of their
kings, ib. ; manners and customs of
the people, 52 ; topography, 53.

Lade, island of, 105.

Lamponium, 227.

Lampsacus, 228.

Laodice, 98.

Laos, 178.

Larissa, 87, 216.

Lasonians, 235.

Laurium, silver mines of, 66.

Lebadeia, 69.

Lebaea, 121.

Lebedos, 233.

Lectos, Cape, 227.

Leleges, 220.

Lemnos, island of, 106.

Leontini, 94.

Lepidotus, 510.

Lepreum, town of, 46.

Lepsius, his discovery relative to pyra-
midal construction, 420.

Leros, island of, 101.

Lesbos, island of, 105.

Leto, temple and oracle of, at Buto
376 ; identified with Buto, 450.

Leucas, island of, 91.

Leuce Acte, 132.

INDEX.

597

Leucon, 540.

Libya, comparison between the Libyan
continent and Libya Proper, 347.

Libyan continent, divided into three
tracts, viz. Aegypt, Aethiopia, and
Libya Proper, 348 ; circumnaviga-
tion of. See Africa.

Libya Proper, its extent as known to
Herodotus, 532 ; face of the coun-
try, ib. ; supposed by Herodotus to
consist of three belts, viz. Jst, Li-
habited country along the coast ;
2nd, Wild Beast country of the At-
las ; and 8rd, Sandy Waste, or de-
sert, 533; First Belt, or Inhabit-
ed COUNTRY, 534 ; occupied, accord-
ing to Herodotus, by three races,
viz. Greeks, Phoenicians, and Libyan
nomades, ib. ; Second Belt, or
Wild Beast region, or Beled-el-Je-
red, 554 ; according to Herodotus
included the Libyan husbandmen,
555 ; geography of Western Africa
further illustrated by two stories told
by Herodotus, ib. ; Carthaginian
story of the dumb barter carried on
with the natives of the gold coast,
557 ; Persian story of the voyage of
Sataspes, ib. ; Third Belt of Sandy
Waste, or the Sahara, 558 ; basin
of the Niger and the Kong Moun-
tains to the south of the Sahara, ib. ;
Herodotus's account, 559 ; Sandy
ridge stretching from the Aegyptian
Thebes to the Pillars of Heracles,
and containing a chain of inhabited
salt hills, at intervals of ten days'
journey between each, ib. ; actual
extentof Herodotus's personal know-
ledge in Libya, and sources of his
information, ib. ; visited Cyrene, and
the neighbouring Libyan nomades,
562 ; collected information from the
nomades, ib. ; could not have reach-
ed Carthage, ib. ; obtained inform-
ation however from the Carthaginian
travellers, ib. ; general ignorance of
Western Africa, 563 ; his description
of the chain of salt hills in the Sa-
hara derived from doubtful inform-
ation, collected at Thebes from a va-
riety of sources, ib. ; attempt to
identify the people and places on the
modern map, ib. ; narrative of He-
rodotus probably refers to the cara-
■van route towards the interior, 563 ;
desert country southward of the chain
of salt hills, ib. ; story told by He-
rodotus of an expedition of five Na-
samones to a large river flowing from
west to east, and containing croco-
diles, and to a city inhabited by short
black men, ib. ; general credibility
of the story, 571 ; identification of

the river with the Niger, and of the
city with old Timbuctoo, ib.

Libyan Husbandmen, included in 'the
Wild Beast region, or Beled-el-
Jered, 551 ; three nations of, ib.

Libyan Nomades, 541 ; extended from
Aegypt westward to Lake Tritonis,
or the Lesser Syrtis, ib. ; character
of the country of the nomades, 542j
its zoology, according to Herodotus,
ib. ; attempted identifications by
modern naturalists, ib. ; division of
the nomades into twelve nations,
543 ; their general manners and cus-
toms, ib. ; abstained from the flesh
of cows and swine, ib. ; cauterized
the heads of children four years old,
either on the crown or the temples,
ib. ; extraordinary good health, ib. ;
worship of the Sun and Moon, and
of Athene, Triton, and Poseidon,
543 ; Libyan mode of interment, 544 ;
the twelve nations, ib.

Libyan rock used for the internal
masses of the pyramids, 396.

Lida, Mount, 221.

Ligyes of Western Europe, 176; of
Asia Minor, 280.

Limeneion, 223.

Lindus, 96, 220.

Lipaxus, 118.

Lipoxais, 159.

Lipsydrium, 65.

Lisae, 118.

Lissus, river, 128.

Locrians, eastern, or Opuntian, 80, 81;
Western, or Ozolae, 80 ; Epize-
phyrian, 178.

Locris, general description of, 80.

Lotophagi, living on cakes made from
the farinaceous part of the fruit of the
Rhamnus Lotus, 550.

Lotus, the Aegyptian, 493.

Lotus, the Cyrenaean, 540.

Lycians sprung from Crete, 224 ; an-
ciently named Termilae, ib. ; their
customs, 225 ; heroic resistance to
the Persians, ib. ; oracle at Patara,
ib. ; Phaselis, ib. ; Lycian costume,
ib.; Milyans, 226.

Lycus, river, 185, 237,

Lydian empire, ancient extent of,
201,228; Sardis the capital, 229;
rivers Hyllus and Hermus, ib. ;
gold-dust brought from Mount
Tmolus by the river Pactolus, 230 ;
tumulus of Alyattes, ib. ; roads from
Caria and Lydia to Phrygia, ib. ;
beautiful plane tree on the Lydian
road, 231 ; depraved manners of the
Lydians,ib.; invented the art of coin-
ing money, retail dealing, and games
of dice, knuckle-bones, and ball, ib.

Lydias, river, 114, 120.

598

INDEX.

Macae, on the banks of the Cinyps,

548.
Macedonia, difference between Mace-
donia Proper and the Macedonian
empire, 1 13 ; general description of
the Macedonian empire, 114 ; wa-
tered by four rivers — Haliacmon,
Lydias, Axius, Echeidorus, ib. ; di-
vided into five districts — Pieria, Ma-
cedonia Proper, Bottiaeis, Mygdo-
nia, Crestonica, ib. ; peninsula of
Chalcidice, ib. ; eastern frontier
formed by Mount Dysorum, 116;
Herodotus's geogi'aphy illustrative of
Xerxes's progress, ib.

Machlyes, on the right bank of the
river Triton, 550 ; Argonautic legend
connected with this locality, 551.

Macistus, 46.

Macrobian Aethiopians, 518 ; the tall-
est and handsomest of mankind, 526 ;
Ichthyophagi envoys sent by Cam-
byses, ib. ; reply of the king, ib. ;
his remarks upon the different pre-
sents sent by Cambyses, ib. ; lon-
gevity of the Macrobians, ib. ; foun-
tain of exquisite water, like oil, ib. ;
prison fetters of gold, 527 ; sepul-
chres of crystal, ib. ; table of the
sun, ib. ; Macrobians identified by
Heeren with the Galla and Somauli
tribes, but by Cooley with the Auto-
moli, 528 ; proofs in favour of the
latter theory, ib. ; table of the sun,
an old Aegyptian festival, ib. ; re-
semblance between the modern in-
habitants of Sennaar and the ancient
Aegyptians, 529.

Macrones, 279.

Mactorium, 9.3.

Madytus, 127.

Maeander, river, 223, 237.

Maeotis, (Maeetis,) Palus, 24.

Magdolus, or Megiddo, 249, 378.

Magi, 271 ; a peculiar race, 273, 289.

Magnesia in Thessaly, 85.

Magnesia in Asia Minor, 233.

Magnesia, Gulf of, 88.

Magnetes of Thessaly, 86.

Magnetes, Asiatic, 219.

Malea, Cape, 54.

Malene, 227.

Malians, 86.

Malis, 81, 85.

Mandrocles, his picture in the Ileraeum
at Samos, 102.

Maneros, Aegyptian dirge resembling
the Greek Linus, 495.

Mantinca, to^vn of, 38.

Marajjliii, 270.

Marathon, plain of, 65.

Mardi, 270.

Marea, 378.

Mares, 279.

Mariandic Gulf, 241 .
Mariandynians, 238.
Maris, river, 179.
Maroneia, 128.
Marsyas, river, 237.
Maspii, 270.

Massagetae, 157, 191 ; manners and
customs of, 192.

Massalia, 176.

Matiene, 284; Eastern and Western
Matiene mentioned by Herodotus,
ib. ; Eastern Matiene identified with
the mountains of Zagros or Kurdis-
tan, ib. ; Matieni represented by the
modern Kurds, ib. ; Western Mati-
ene in Asia Minor, 285 ; costume, ib.

Maxyes, wearuag a tuft on the right
side of their heads, and daubing
themselves red, 555.

Mecyberna, 118.

Media, 245; general description, 286;
Northern Media, or Atropatene, an-
swering to Azerbijan, ib. ; Southern
Media, or Media Magna, answering
to Irak Ajemi, ib. ; two capitals,
each named Ecbatana, ib. ; Media of
Herodotus, ib. ; identified by Ren-
nell with Irak Ajemi, and the Ecba-
tana with Hamadan, 287 ; identified
by Col. Rawlinson with Azerbijan,
and the Ecbatana with Takhti-Solei-
man, ib. ; probably included a large
portion of both provinces, ib. ; Ni-
saean plam and horses, 288 ; Medes
divided into six tribes, 289 ; anciently
called Arians, ib., 291 ; costume,
289 ; language, ib.

Median empire, ancient extent of, 201.

Medicine, art of, amongst the Aegyp-
tians, 498.

Mediterranean Sea, 19; islands in, 91.

Megara, city of, 57.

Megara, m Sicily, 93.

Megaris, general description, 57 ; He-
rodotus's account, ib. ; erroneously
supposed to be the most westerly
point in Greece, ib. ; topography, ib.

Megiddo, 249.

Melanchlaeni, occupying OrlofE", 181.

Melanippus, shrine of, 43.

Melas, river, 81, 128.

Meliboea, 87.

Melos, island of, 99.

Memnonium at Susa, 268.

Menmonium at Thebes, 434.

Memphis, philosophers of, their thee f
concerning the Nile, 360 ; built 1 r
Menes on a site recovered from tl.j
Nile, 38G; its site identified with
that of Mitranieh, 388 ; celebrated
temple of Hephaestus, or Pthah, ib. ;
tcmenus of Proteus, 389 ; Phoenician
settlement, 390; temple of Isis, ib. ;
temple of Demcter, ib.

INDEX.

599

Menda, 118.

Mendesian mouth of the Nile, 363.

Mendesius, 383.

Menes, built Memphis, 386 ; excavated
a lake, 387 ; built the temple of He-
phaestus, or Pthah, 388.

Menkahre. See Mycerinus.

Mbroe, city aud kingdom of, situated
within the triangle of Shendy, formed
by the Tacazze and Blue Nile, 519 ;
Avorship of Zeus and Dionysus, 524.

Mesambria, 127, 128.

Mesopotamia, 244. See Assyria.

Messapians, 178.

Messenia, general description, 46;
history, 47 ; Herodotus's account,
ib. ; topography, 48.

Metapontium, 177.

Methymna, 105.

Midas, throne of, at Delphi, 76.

Midas, gardens of, 122.

Miletus, 217, 223.

Milyans, 226.

Minoa, 93.

Minyae, 45 ; cities of, 46.

Mitra, the Persian Aplirodite, 271.

Mitylene, 105.

Moeris, Lake, Herodotus's description,
427 ; attempt to find its site on the
modern map, 428 : generally identi-
fied with Lake Keiroun, 429 ; pre-
sent aspect of Keiroun, ib. ; reasons
brought forward by M. Linant for
disbelieving in the identification of
Moeris with Keiroun, ib. ; Linant's
discovery of a dyke enclosing the
second terrace of Fayoum, 430 ; iden-
tification of the enclosed site with
that of Lake Moeris, 431 ; further
explanation of Linant's identification,
432 ; his identification of the two
pyramids described by Herodotus,
ib. ; genei-al remarks upon Linant's
discovery, 433.

Moeris, built northern propylaea of the
temple of Hephaestus, 388.

Moloeis, river, 73.

Molossians, 88.

Momemphis, 378.

Moon, Mountains of the, 532.

Mophi, 361, 435.

Moschi, 279.

Mosynoeci, 279.

Mozambique Channel, current of, 340.

Munychia, harbour of, 63.

Mycale, 233.

Mycenae, 40.

Mycerinus, pyramid of, 409 ; Herodo-
tus's description, ib. ; present dimen-
sions irreconcilable with Herodotus's
estimate, ib. ; more elaborately fin-
ished than the pyramids of Cheops
and Chephren, 410; entrance dis-
covered by Caviglia and Col. Vyse,

ib. ; Upper Sepulchral Chamber, ib. ;
Lower Sepulchral Chamber, ib. ;
sarcophagus in the Lower Chamber,
411 ; extraordinary discovery of the
mummy-case and bones of Myceri-
nus, 412; their undoubted identity,
ib. ; Mr. Birch's interpretation of the
hieroglyphics, ib. ; bones and mum-
my-case in the British Museum, 413 ;
mode of construction adopted in the
pyramid, ib.

Myci, costume of, 298.

Myconus, island of, 98.

Mycephorites, 383.

Mygdonia in Macedonia, 114.

Mylasa, 221.

Mylitta, the Babylonian Aphrodite, dis-
graceful worship of, 265.

Myrcinus, 131.

Myrina, 217.

Myrmex, 107.

Mysians, also named Olympieni, 226 ;
extent of the Mysia of Herodotus,
ib. ; topography, 227.

Myus, 217, 223.

Naparis, river, 144; identified with the
Jalomnitza, 145.

Nasaraones, a powerful nation on the
Syrtis, 546 ; fed on locusts, and had
their women in common, 547 ; swear-
ing, ib. ; divining, ib. ; mode of bu-
rial, ib. ; lived in portable huts,
made of basket-work, ib. ; their ex-
pedition into the interior of Africa,
569 ; reached a large river supposed
to be the Niger, 5/U; general cre-
dibility of the story, 571.

Natho, 383.

Naucratis, anciently the only Aegyp-
tian port for Greek ships, 377 ; the
Hellenium sanctuary, ib. ; sanctu-
aries built by the Aeginetans, Sa-
mians, and Milesians, ib.

Nauplia, town of, 41.

Naxos, island of, 100.

Naxos in Sicily, 94.

Neapolis, 118.

Neco, sends a Phoenician expedition to
circumnavigate Africa, 335 ; his en-
terprising character, 345 ; canal of,
379 ; survey of the course of, 380 ;
division of the route into four sec-
tions, ib. ; line from Suez to the
Bitter Lakes, 381 ; basin of the Bit-
ter Lakes, ib. ; elbow round through
the Wady of Tomlat, ib. ; channel
from the Wady of Tomlat to Bu-
bastis, 382.

Neith, the Aegyptian, identified with
Athene, 452 ; festival of burning
lamps at Sais, ib.

Neon, 79.

Neon-tcichos, 216.

600

INDEX.

Nephthys, 463.

Nestus, river, 129.

Neuri, occupying Poland and Lithua-
nia, 180.

Niger, river, basin of, 532, 558 ; reach-
ed by the Nasamones, 571.

Nile, river, but very little could be
learnt by Herodotus, 357 ; three dif-
ferent causes assigned by the Greeks
for its periodical overflow, ib. ;
theory of Herodotus, 358 ; origin of
the three previous theories, ib. ; that
of the Etesian Avinds, taught by
Thales, ib. ; that of the river Ocean,
by Hecataeus, ib. ; that of the melt-
ed snows, taught by Anaxagoras,
359 ; real cause of the inundation
first discovered by Democritus and
Callisthenes, ib. ; period of the inun-
dation, ib. ; singular theory of the
philosophers of Memphis as de-
scribed by Diodorus, 360; sources
of the Nile, 361 ; hoaxing story told
by the bursar of the Athene temple
at Sais, ib. ; effects produced by the
inundation, 362 ; Aegypt like a sea,
and her cities like islands, ib. ; navi-
gation carried on across the plain of
the Delta, ib. ; cities protected by
mounds, ib. ; seven mouths of the
Nile, viz. Pelusiac, Canopic, Seben-
nytic, Saitic, Mendesian, Bolbotine,
and Bucolic, 363 ; their identification
on the modern map, ib. ; ancient and
modern channels of, 387 ; Canal of
Joseph, ib. ; White and Blue Niles,
516 ; Herodotus's description of the
Nile southwards of Elephantine, 517 ;
difficult navigation up the first cata-
ract, ib. ; four days' voyage to the
island of Tachompso, 518 ; vast lake,
ib. ; forty days' journey along the
banks, ib. ; twelve days' voyage far-
ther to Meroe, ib. ; coimtry of the
Automoli, ib. ; Macrobians on the
South Sea, ib. ; upper course of the
Nile supposed to be from west to
east, like the Ister, ib. ; river flow-
ing in that direction discovered by
the Nasamones, 519; comparison of
Herodotus's account with modern
geography, ib. ; Blue Nile the true
Nile of the ancients, 524 .

Nineveh, 252.

Nino Ways of the Edonians, 130.

Nipsaei, 127.

Nisaca, town of, 57.

Nisacan plain and horses, 288.

Nisyrians, 224.

Nitocris, sepulchre of, 2G2 ; raised
dams round the liuphrates, 263.

Noes, river, 132.

Nonacris, town of, 39.

Nofium, 216.

Nubia, description of, 516.
Nudium, town of, 46.
Nysa, sacred city of, 522.

Oarus, river, 185.

Oasis, city of, 559.

Ocean, river, supposed by Hecataeus
to cause the overflow of the Nile, 358.

Odomanti, 129.

Odrysae Thracians, 126.

Oea, 110.

Oenean mountains, 28.

Oenoe, 65.

Oenyssae isles, 105.

Oenone, 110.

Oeroe, river of, 70.

Oeta, Mount, 28.

Oetosyrus, 162.

Olbiopolitae, 153.

Olenus, town of, 45.

Olophyxus, 118.

Olympia, plain of, 46.

Olympieni, 226.

Olympus, Mount, 27, 85.

Olynthus, 118, 119.

Ombrici, 176.

Onochonus, river, 85.

Onuphites, 383.

Ophryneium, 228.

Opis, 264.

Opuntian Locrians, 80, 81.

Opus, 98.

Orchomenus, 39, 69.

Ordessus, river, 144 ; identified with
the Argisch, 145.

Oresteum, town of, 53.

Oricus, 88.

Orneae, town of, 41.

Oropus, 65.

Orosangae, 275.

Orotal, an Arabian deity identified by
Herodotus with Dionysus, 320.

Orthocorybantii, 285.

Oryes, 542.

Osiris, his tomb at Sais, 375 ; circular
lake, ib. ; dualistic character of Osi-
ris as mortal King of Aegypt and
Divine Ruler of Hades, 461 ; Hero-
dotus's hesitation and reserve in al-
luding to Osiris, ib. ; general division
of the subject, 462 ; mythic history of
the earthly adventures of Osiris, ib. ;
traces in the myth of a reference to
astronomy, 465 ; physical interpret-
ation of the myth as given by Plu-
tarch, 466 ; Herodotus's account of
Osiris, Isis, and Horus, 467; Osiris,
or Dionysus, and Isis, or Demeter,
the two national deities of Aegypt,
ib. ; Osiris, his tomb at Sais, 468 ;
annual representation of his alle-
gorical adventures on the circular
lake, ib. ; Osiris and Isis considered
by the Acgyptians to be the rulers of

INDEX.

601

Hades, 469 ; worship of Osiris and
Isis universal, 470 ; its peculiarities,
ib. ; swine, though considered an
impure animal, sacrificed at the full
moon to both deities, ib. ; at the
festival of Osiris a pig slain at every
door, and Dionysiac orgies cele-
brated, 471 ; Aegyptian conceptions
of Osiris, 472 ; represented on the
monuments as Judge of the Dead
and Ruler of Amenti, or Hades, 474 ;
Osiris to be regarded as the " divine
goodness," 475 ; maimer of his mani-
festation upon earth involved in mys-
tery, ib. ; speculative and allegori-
cal character of the theory, 476 ;
symbolical figure of Osiris, ib.

Ossa, Mount, 27, 85.

Othrys, Mount, 27, 85.

Oxus, river, probably the Aces, 192 ;
ancient course of, 294.

Ozolae, Locrian, 80.

Pactolus, river, 230.

Pactyica, difficulty respecting, 281.

Padaei, 310.

Paeones, 129; on the Strymon, 130;
above Crestonica, and on Mount
Orbelus and Lake Prasias, ib. ; on
Lake Prasias, living in huts support-
ed over the lake by planks and piles,
135 ; polygamy, ib. ; horses and cat-
tle fed on fish, ib. ; in Phrygia, 237.

Paeonia in Attica, 66.

Paeoplae, 129.

Paeos, 39.

Paesus, 228.

Paeti, 129.

Pagasae, 88.

Pagos, 39.

Palaestine, Syrians of, or Hebrews,
scarcely known to Herodotus, 248 ;
importance of Palaestine as a key to
Aegypt, ib. ; A seal on, temple of
Aphrodite or Astarte, ib. ; Magdo-
lus, or Megiddo, 249 ; Cadytis, ib. ;
identified by Prideaux with Jerusa-
lem, ib. ; by Mr. Ewing with Ke-
desh in Galilee, ib. ; by Col. Raw-
linson with Gaza, 250 ; correctness
of the latter view, ib. ; sea-ports of
Palaestine, ib. ; arid tract between
Jenysus and Lake Serbonis, 251 ;
practice of circumcision, ib. ; pillars
of Sesostris, ib.

Pale, 91.

Pallene, 65, 118.

Pamisus, river, 85.

Pamphylians, 226.

Pan, grotto of, 62.

Pan, identified by Herodotus with the
Aegyptian Khem, and especially
worshipped at Mendes, 449.

Pangaeus, Mount, 129.

Panionium, Ionian confederacy wor-
shipping at, 218, 219.

Panopeus, 80.

Panormus, 223.

Panthialaei, 270.

Panticapes, river, 146 ; probably the
Samara, 148.

Pantimathi, 289.

Papaeus, 162.

Paphlagonians, 238.

Paphos, 96.

Papremis, city of, 376 ; temple of Ares,
ib. ; festival in honour of Ares, 457.

Papremites, 383.

Paralatae, 160.

Parapotamium, 79.

Paretaceni, 289.

Paricanii, difficulties respecting, 285;
their equipment, 298.

Parium, 228.

Parnassus, Mount, 28 ; Herodotus's
description of, 78.

Parnes, Mount, 28.

Paroreatae, 37.

Pares, island of, 99.

Parthenion, Mount, 39,

Parthenius, river, 279.

Parthia, identified with the mountahis
north of Khorassan, 291.

Pasargadae, 270.

Pasht, the Aegyptian, or Bubastis,
identified with Artemis, 451 ; festi-
val of, ib.

Patara, oracle at, 225.

Patrae, to^v•n of, 45.

Patumos, city of, 316.

Pausicae, 289.

Pedasus, 221.

Pediea, 79.

Peirus, river, 45.

Pelasgia, ancient name of Hellas, 31 .

Pelasgians, ancient inhabitants of
Greece, 31 ; their character, 32 ;
Pelasgian Aegialeis, 44 ; Pelasgians
of Arcadia, 38 ; of Hymettus, <>6.

Pelasgic wall, 63.

Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, 85.

Pelion, Mount, 27.

Pella, 119.

Pellene, 44.

Peloponnesus, its division into nine
districts, 34 ; Herodotus's accoimt
of the Pelopoimesian races, 35 ; set-
tlements of the races prior to the
Dorian invasion, ib. ; settlements in
the time of Herodotus, 36.

Pelusiac mouth of the Nile, 363..

Pelusium, 378.

Peneus, river, 85.

Percote, 228.

Pergamus in Thrace, 109 ; in Asia
Minor, 227.

Perrhaebi, 86.

Perinthus, 126, 132.

602

INDEX.

Perpherees, 98.

Perseus, his temple at Chemmis, 435,
458 ; his enormous sandal, 458 ;
gymnastic games celebrated at Chem-
mis in his honour, ib. ; his legendary
history according to the Chemmi-
tans, ib.
Perseus, Tower of, 378.
Persian empire, divided mto twenty
satrapies by Darius Hystaspes, 202.
Persian army, route through Thrace,
Macedonia, etc. See Xerxes and
Darius.
Persians, divided into ten tribes, 270 ;
their religion, ib. ; no statues, tem-
ples, or altars, ib. ; name of Zeus
applied to the vault of heaven, ib. ;
sacrifices on high places, ib. ; an-
cient worship of the sun, moon,
earth, fire, water, and winds, 271 ;
later worship of Aphrodite or M itra,
ib. ; mode of sacrihce, ib. ; prayer of
the sacrificer, ib. ; ode sung by the
Magi, ib. ; social customs, ib. ; cele-
bration of birthdays, ib. ; modera-
tion at meals, but profusion of after-
dishes, ib. ; addicted to wine, ib. ;
debate when drunk and again when
sober, ib. ; modes of salutation ac-
cording to rank, 272 ; respect for
neighbouring nations according to
their proximity to Persia, ib. ; at-
tachment to foreign customs, ib. ;
polygamy, concubinage, and peder-
asty, ib. ; respect for fathers of large
families, ib. ; education of sons, ib. ;
trial of criminals, ib. ; parricide con-
sidered impossible, ib. ; lying and
getting into debt especially abhorred,
273 ; lepers and white pigeons ex-
pelled from cities, ib. ; veneration for
rivers, ib. ; ceremonies practised on
dead bodies, ib. ; weakness of the
Persian skull, ib. ; Magi a peculiar
race, unlike the Aegyptian priests,
ib. ; Persian ignorance of navigation,
ib. ; contempt for markets and trad-
ers, 274; equipment, ib. ; special
honour paid to valour, ib. ; horrible
custom of burymg alive in honour of
Ahriman, ib. ; Persian system of
post, 275 ; matters pertaining to the
king, ib. ; celebration of his birth-
day, ib. ; those who obliged him
called Orosangae, or bcnci'actors, ib. ;
drank only the water of the river
Choaspes, ib. ; regarded as the mas-
ter of Asia, ib. ; general veneration
for him, ib. ; conduct of the harem,
276 ; Persian language, ib.
Persis, 215 ; answering to Farsistan,
267 ; general description of the coim-
try, ib ; sandy plains along the coast,
ib. ; rising of the land in terrnces, ib. ;

mountains in the north the fatherland
of the Persians, ib.
Petra, in Corinthia, 41.
Phagres, 109.
Phalerum, harbour of, 63.
Pharae, 45.
Pharbaethites, 383.
Phaselis, 225.
Phasis, river, 280.
Pheneum, 39.
Phigalea, town of, 39.
Philistine territory, assigned by Hero-
dotus to the Arabs, 316.
Philition, pyramids called after him,

418.
Phla, island of, 551.
Phliasia, 44.
Phlius, town of, 44.
Phocaea, its maritime enterprise and

heroic resistance to Cyrus, 232.
Phocis, general description, 74.
Phoenix, picture of, seen by Herodo-
tus, 511 ; story told of it by the He-
liopolitans, ib.
Phoenix, river, 81.
Phriconis, 216.
Phwxae, town of, 46.
Phrygians, more ancient than the Ae-
gyptians, 236 ; called Bryges when
dwelling in Macedonia, ib.; topo-
gTaphy, 237.
Phthiotis in Thessaly, 85.
Phylacus, precinct of, 79.
Phyllis, district of, 129.
Pieria in Macedonia, 114, 121.
Pieres, 129.
Pierian forts, 129.
Pigargi, 542.
Pilorus, 118.

Pindar, his geographical knowledge, 8.
Pindus range, 27, 85.
Piraeus, harbour of, 63.
Piromis, 482.
Pisa, town of, 46.
Pistyrus, 129.
Pitane, 53, 216.
Placia, 228.

Plataea, city of, 69 ; general descrip-
tion of the Plataean territory, 70 ;
view of the scene of the battle, ib. ;
plan of the battle, 71 ; sepulchres of
the slain, 74.
Platea, the Libyan island of, 537.
Plato, denied the possibility of circum-
navigating Africa, 336.
Pleistorus, the national deity of the

Apsinthian Thracians, 128.
Plinthinetic Bay, 544.
Plunos, 544.

Plutarch, his account of the mythic
adventures of Osiris, 463 ; physical
interpretation, 466.
Pogon, town of, 41.
Polichne, 105.

INDEX.

603

Polybius, denied the possibility of cir-
cumnavigating Africa, 336.

Poly crates, his furniture in the He-
raeum at Samos, 102.

Pontus. See Euxine.

Porata, river, 144 ; identified with the
Pruth, 145.

Poseidon, national deity of the lonians,
219.

Poseidon, worshipped by the Libyans,
543.

Potidaea, 118.

Prasias, 116; manners and customs of
people on, 135.

Priene, 217, 223.

Priests, or Piromis, Aegyptian, 482;
colleges at Memphis, Thebes, Helio-
, polls, and Sais, ib. ; estates for their
maintenance, ib. ; daily allowance of
beef, geese, and wine, 483 ; fish and
beans denied, ib. ; shaved their bo-
dies every third day, ib. ; wore gar-
ments of linen, and shoes of byblus,
ib. ; washed four times in 24 hours,
ib.

Proconnesus, island of, 228.

Propontis, 24.

Prosopitis, 383.

Protesilaus, sepulchre of, 127.

Proteus, his temenus at Memphis, 389,
459.

Psammitichus, erected southern pro-
pylaea of temple of Hephaestus and
court for Apis, 389.

Psylli, extinct nation of, 548.

Psyttalea, isle of, 110.

Pteria, 240.

Pthah, the creative power, Aegyptian
representation of, 447 ; identified
with Hephaestus, and especially wor-
shipped at Memphis, 448.

Ptolemy, denied the possibility of cir-
cumnavigating Africa, 336.

Pylus, town of, 48.

Pyramids, described by Herodotus, iden-
tified with those of Gizeh, 390 ; ge-
neral description of their site and
relative position, ib. ; recent ex-
plorations of Col. Howard Vyse and
Mr. Perring, 391 ; the Three Great
Pyramids, 393. See Cheops, Che-
PHREN, Mycerinus, Asychis, etc.
Character of Herodotus's descrip-
tion of the pyramids, and reasons
for his various omissions, 415 ; state
of the pyramids at the time of his
visit, 41 6 ; his ignorance of the in-
teriors of the pyramids of Chephren
and Mycerinus, 417; origin of the
pyramids unknown, ib. ; called by
the Aegyptians after Philition, and
therefore supposed to have been
built by the Hyksos, 418 ; recently
discovered to have been built prior

to the Hyksos, ib. ; tmdoubtedly
erected as sepulchres, 420 ; inter-
esting discovery made by Dr. Lep-
sius relative to pyramidal construc-
tion, ib. ; eflect produced by the
pyramids upon the modern traveller,
ib. ; other buildings, or mounds, si-
milar to the pyramids, 421.

Pyrgus, town of, 46.

Pythii, 51.

Pyrene, 174.

Pyretos, 144.

Red Sea, or Arabian Gulf, Herodotus's
account, 315; supposed to be nar-
rower than it really is, ib. ; causes of
his error, ib. ; more correct as to its
length, ib.

Rhampsinitus, erected western propy-
laea and two statues of Summer and
Winter, for the temple of Hephaes-
tus, 389.

Rhea, her five children, 4G3.

Rhegium, 177.

Rhenea, island of, 98.

Rhodes, island of, 96.

Rhodope, Mount, 123, 132.

Rhodopis, account of, 409, note.

Rhoetium, 228.

Rome, singular omission of, 176.

Rhypes, town of, 45.

Sacae, the Persian name for Scythians,
157, 293; their costume, ib. ; Amyr-
gian Sacae to be considered as a
Scythian tribe, conquered by Persia,
ib. ; situated between the Oxus and.
Jaxartes, ib.

Sagartii, 270; mode of fighting with
lassos, 298.

Sahara, desert of, 533, 558.

Sais, city of, 374; palace of Apries,
ib. ; temple of Athene, ib. ; splendid
propylaea built by Amasis, ib. ; co-
lossi, obelisks, and andro-sphinxes,
ib. ; huge rock-chamber, or mono-
lith, ib. ; tombs of the Saite kings,
Apries, Amasis, etc. 375; tomb of
Osiris, ib. ; circular lake, ib. ; mo-
dern site of Sais identified with that
of Ssa, ib.

Saites, 383.

Saitic mouth of the Nile, 363.

Sala, 128.

Salamis, isle of, 109.

Salamis in Cyprus, 96.

Salmydessus, 127.

Salt hills, nations of, 559 ; Herodotus's
description probably referring to the
caravan route leading towards the
interior, 563.

Salt mine described by Herodotus,
561 ; identified with the mines of
Tcgazah, 569.

604

INDEX.

Samos, island of, 101 ; the aqueduct,
ib. ; the mole, ib. ; the temple of
Hera and its curiosities, viz. the
great brazen mixing-vessel, ib. ; two
"wooden statues of Amasis, 102 ; pic-
ture of the Bosphorus bridge, ib. ;
furniture of Polj'crates, ib. ; linen
corselet of Amasis, ib. ; brazen ves-
sel on a tripod, 103; description of
the city of Samos, ib. ; curious festi-
val observed by the Samians, ib. ;
flourishing condition of Samos under
Polycrates, 104 ; Samians in Libya,
ib. ; artistic skill of the Samians,
ib. ; their dialect, etc., 105.

Samothrace, island of, 107.

Sana, 118.

Sapaei, 129.

Sarangees, identified with the people of
Zarang, or Sehestan, 297 ; costume,
298.

Sardinia, or Sardo, island of, 92.

Sardis, capital of the Lydian empire,
229 ; royal highway to Susa, 330.

Sardo, or Sardinia, island of, 92.

Sarpedon, Cape, 132.

Sarta, 118.

Saspeires, in the valley of the Aras, 285.

Sataspes, voyage of, 20, 335, 557 ; his
failure no evidence against the Phoe-
nician circumnavigation of Africa,
344.

Sate, identified with Hera, 450.

Satrae, 129 ; the only independent
Thracians, 136; their oracle of Dio-
nysus, ib.

Satrapies, the twenty, revenue of, 202,
301 ; Herodotus's error whilst re-
ducing the Babylonian talent to the
Euboic standard, 302 ; attempts to
account for it, ib. ; error ui the sum
total ; perhaps included taxes paid in
kind, 'tolls, gifts, etc., .303; the mo-
ney and gold-dust melted down mto
ingots, 304.

Sattagydae, 296 ; identified with the
Zhats, 297.

Sauromatae, occupying the country of
the Don Cossacks and part of Astra-
can, 181.

Scamander, river, 227.

Scapte Hyle, gold mine of, 132.

Sciathus, island of, 107.

Scidrus, 178.

Scione, 118.

Scios, river, 132.

Scironian Way, 57.

Scolopoeis, 233.

Scoloti, a general name for the Scy-
thians, 160.

Scolus, 69.

Scylace, 228.

Scylax of Caryanda, his great merit,
.307, 308 ; singular coincidence be-

tween his report and that of Lieut.
Wood, 309.

ScjTmiadae, 127.

Scyros, island of, 98.

ScYTHiA, difficulties in Herodotus's de-
scription, 138; its identification with
southern Russia, Moldavia, and Wal-
lachia, ib. ; face of the country, ib. ;
Herodotus's description, ib. ; form
and measurement of Scythia, ib. ;
its boundaries, 141 ; extent of our
author's personal knowledge, ib. ;
Olbia, the centre of his observations,
ib. ; explanation of his statements
respecting his route along the coast,
142.; explanation of his statements
respecting the route into the interior,
143; the four-sided shape of Scy-
thia explained, ib. ; Scythian rivers,
144 ; boundaries of Scythia on the
modern map, 150; Scythian nations,
151; history of Scythia, 154; an-
ciently occupied by Cimmerians, ib. ;
Scythian itivasion, 155 ; sepulchre of
the Cimmerian kings, ib. ; Scythian
pursuit of the Cimmerians, ib. ; Cim-
merians in Asia Minor, ib. ; Scythi-
ans masters of Upper Asia, 156;
plunder the temple of Aphrodite at
Askalon, ib.; return to Scythia, 157;
proofs of the ancient occupation of
Scythia by the Cimmerians, ib. ;
climate of Scythia, ib. ; eight months
of the year winter, during which the
sea freezes, ib. ; four months of cold
summer, constant rains and violent
thunder-storms, 158; effects of cold
on the horses and cattle, ib. ; Scy-
thian story of the air filled with
feathers, ib. ; natural productions of
Scythia ; grass, hemp, wheat, onions,
garlic, lentils, millet, ib. ; cranes, ib.;
swine, ib. ; national mythus of Tar-
gitaus, and his three sons, Lipoxais,
Arpoxais, and Coloxais, ib. ; the
Aticliatae, Catiari, and Traspies,
160 ; general name of Scoloti, ib. ;
Greek mythus of the three sons of
Heracles, and the serpent maiden
Echidna, 161 ; ignorance of the na-
tions on the Euxine. ib. ; wise device
of the Scythians against invasion, ib. ;
their houses carried with them, ib. ;
Scythian deities; Hestia, Zeus, Ge,
Apollo, A])hroditc, Heraclea, and
Arcs, 162 ; Poseidon, ib. ; mode of
sacrifice, ib. ; enormous piles of fag-
gots sacred to Ares, 163 ; human sa-
crifices, ib. ; enemies' heads pre-
sented to the king, 164 ; mode of
preparing the skulls and other tro-
phies, ib. ; soothsayers and manner
of divining, 165 ; ceremonies at the
illness of a king, ib. ; manner of

INDEX.

605

making contracts, 166 ; sepulchres
of the Scythian khigs, ib. ; funeral
ceremonies, ib. ; favourite concu-
bine, servants, and goods buried with
the king, ib. ; fifty attendants kill-
ed and placed on horseback round the
tumulus, ib. ; burial of private citi-
zens, 167 ; manner of purification,
ib. ; hatred of foreign customs, 168 ;
costume, ib. ; blinding of slaves, ib. ;
mode of milking cattle, ib. ; habit of
taking unmixed wine, and drinking
very hard, ib. ; contempt of trade, 169 ;
difficulty in ascertaining the popula-
tion of Scythia, ib. ; cauldron made
from arrow-heads, one being furnish-
ed by every Scythian, ib. ; meagre
remains of the Scythian language, ib.

Scythian exiles occupying Tobolsk,
186.

Scythian nomades, 153.

Scythians, Royal, 153.

Sebennytes, 383.

Sebennytic mouth of the Nile, 363.

Segeium, Cape, 227.

Selinus, 93.

Selybria, 132,

Semiramis, gates of, 262.

Senegal, river, 342, 343.

Sennaar, 517.

Sepia, 41.

Sepias Acte, 87.

Serbonis, Lake, 251, 378.

Seriphus, island of, 99.

Sermyle, 118.

Serrhium, Cape, 128.

Sesostris, voyage of, 20 ; his pillars in
Thrace, 132 ; pillars in Scythia, 159 ;
sculptures found in Ionia, 233 ; iden-
tified by modern travellers, 234 ; pil-
lars in Palaestine, 251 ; dug numer-
ous canals in Aegypt, 382 ; erected
colossi before the temple of Hephaes-
tus, 388.

Sestos, 127.

Sethon, stone statue of, with a mouse,
389.

Shamo, great desert of, 299.

Shendy, 517.

Sicily, island of, 92.

SicYONiA, general description of, 42 ;
Herodotus's account ; her enmity
against Argos, 43 ; expulsion of the
Argive hero Adrastus, ib. ; changes in
the names of the Sicyonian tribes, ib.

Sidon, 247.

Sigeium, 200, 227.

Sigynnes, a Medic colony, 179.

Sillicyprion, 30, 494.

Silphium, 545.

Sindus, 119.

Singus, 118.

Sinope, 155.

Siphnos, island of, 99.

Siris in Thrace, 130.
Siris m Italy, 178.
Siro-paeones, 130.
Sithonia, 118.

Siwah, 564.
Smila, 119.

Smyrna, 233.

Sogdia, identified with Sogd, or Bok-
hara, 291.

Soldiers, Aegyptian caste of, 483.

Soli, 96.

Soloeis, Cape, 557.

Solymi, 224.

Sparta, city of, 53.

Spercheius, river, 81.

Sphendale, 66.

Sphinx, the great, not mentioned by
Herodotus, 416.

Sporades, or scattered islands, 100.

Stageirus, 131.

Steersmen, Aegyptian caste of, 487.

Stentoris, Lake, 128.

Stenyclerus, town of, 48.

Strabo, denied the possibility of cir-
cumnavigating Africa, 336.

Stratopeda, 373.

Struchates, 289.

Stryme, 128.

Strymon, river, 130; bridge, ib.

Stymphalian lake, 39.

Styra, 108.

Styx, river, 39.

Sun, Herodotus's singular theory con-
cerning it, 357 ; Aegyptian tradition
concerning its revolution, 358.

Sunium, Cape, 66.

Susa, on the Choaspes, 268 ; the Mem-
nonium, ib. ; stone figure of Darius
on horseback, ib. ; identification of
Susa with Sus on the river Kerkhah,
ib. ; royal highway to Sardis, 330.

Swineherds, Aegyptian caste of, 486.

Sybaris, 178.

Syene, red granite from, used for lining
and casing stones of pyramids, 397.

Syleus, plain of, 131.

Syme, 224.

Syracuse, city of, 92.

Syrgis, river, 185.

Syria, 244.

Syria Proper, or Phoenicia and Pa-
laestine, 245 ; distinction between
the Syrians of Palaestine and the
White Syrians of Cappadocia, and
the Assyrians of Babylonia and Me-
sopotamia, 246 ; face of the country,
ib. ; Libanus and Anti-Libanus, ib. ;
valley of the Jordan, ib. ; desert of
Syria, ib.

Syrians of Palaestine, or Hebrews.
See Palaestine.

Syrians, White, or Cappadocians, 239.

Syrtis, 541.

606

INDEX.

Tahiti, 1G2.

Tacazze, river, 516.

Tachompso, island of, 518, 519.

Taenaram, Cape, 53.

Takhti-Soleiman, 287.

Tamynae, 108.

Tanagra, 69.

Tanais, river, 147 ; identified witli the

Don, 149.
Tanites, .383.
Taras, 177.

Targitaus, Scytlaian my thus concern-
ing, 159.
Taricheia of Pelusium, 378 ; temple of

Heracles, ib.
Tartessus, 174.
Taucheira, 546.
Tanri, 154 ; their barbarous customs,

169.
Taurica, or Crimea. 140.
Taurus, Mount, 196, 213, 243.
Taygetus, Mount, 53.
Tchad, Lake, 571.
Teams, river, 126.
Tegazah, salt mines of, 569.
Tegea, town of, 38.
Tegerry, 568.
Teleboa, 84.
Telliadae, 46.
Telos, island of, 101.
Temenidae, my thus of, 121.
Temnos, 216.
Tempe, pass of, 85, 86.
Tenedos, island of, 106.
Tenos, island of, 98.
Teos, 233.
Terboo, 567.
Termera, 221.
Termilae, 224.
Tethronium, 79.
Teucrians, 228.
Teuthrania, 228.
Thales, canal of, 239 ; supposed the

overflow of the Nile to be caused by

the Etesian winds, 358.
Thamanaei, 298.
Thamimasadas, 162.
Thasos, island of, 107.
Thebais. See AEoyrx (Upper).
Thebes in Boeotia, 68.
Thebes, the Mysian town, 227.
Thebes, the Aegyptian, Herodotus's

notices respecting, 434.
Themis, an Aegyptian deity, 460.
Themiscyra, 238.
Thcra, island of, 100.
Therambus, 118.
Therapne, town of, 53.
Thcrma, 119; gulf of, ib.
Thennodon, river, 69, 279.
Thermopylae, Herodotus's description

of, HI ; inscriptions at, 83.
Thcspia, 69.
Thesprotians, 88.

Tliessaliotis in Thessaly, 85.

Thessaly, general description, 84 ;
Thessaly Proper, viz. Histiaeotis,
Pelasgiotis, Phthiotis, and Thessali-
otis, 85 ; two other districts. Mag-
nesia and Malis, ib. ; Herodotus's
account ; Thessaly anciently a lake,
ib. ; outlet at Tempe formed by an
eartliquake, ib. ; tribes of Thessaly,
86 ; topography, 87.

Thestes, foimtain of, in Irasa, 538, 540.

Thmuites, 383.

Thoes, 542.

Thoricus, 65.

Thornax, Mount, 53.

Thoth, identified with Hermes, 456 ;
recorded the actions of mankind, 474.

Thrace, its geography illustrative of
the routes of Darius and Xerxes,
122; general description, ib. ; He-
rodotus's idea of the magnitude of
Thrace, 124 ; its frontier towards
Scythia, 125; route taken by Darius,
ib. ; route of Xerxes, 127.

Thracians, manners and customs of,
132 ; peculiar tenets of the Getae,
ib. ; belief in the immortality of the
soul, ib. ; their deity Zalmoxis, 133 ;
Greek account of Zalmoxis, ib. ; ef-
fect of his teachings on the Thracians,
ib. ; his subterranean dwelling and re-
appearance, ib.; Herodotus's opinion,
134 ; peculiar custom of the Trausi ;
mournful births and happy funerals,
ib. ; Thracians above Crestonica,
their polygamy, ib. ; the favourite
wife killed at her husband's death,
ib. ; customs of the Thracians gene-
rally, ib. ; sale of children, ib. ; pro-
fligacy of the unmarried women, ib. ;
tattooing, ib. ; fondness for wai", ib. ;
worship of Ares, Dionysus, and Ar-
temis, 135 ; worship of Hermes, ib. ;
funerals, ib. ; sepulchral monuments,
ib. ; garments of Scythian hemp, ib.

Thracians from the Strymon, called
Bithynians, 238.

Thriasian Plain, 65.

Thurium, 3.

Thyia, 80.

Thyssagetae, occupying Perm, 185.

Thyssus, 118.

Tiarantus, river, 144 ; identified with
the Aluta, 145.

Tibareni, 279.

Tibesti Mountains, 566.

Tibisis, river, 132.

Tigris, river, 282.

Timbuctoo, 571.

Tiryns, town of, 41.

Tithorca, 78.

Tmolus, Mount, 230.

Torone, 118.

Trachinian Rocks, 18.

INDEX.

607

Trachis, 81.

Traders, Aegyptian caste of, 486.

Trapezus, town of, 39.

Traspies, 160.

Trausi, mournful at births but happy

at funerals, 1 34.
Travus, river, 129.
Trebisonde, 279.
Triballic plain, 136.
Triopium, Dorian confederacy wor-
shipping at, 220.
Tritaea, 45.
Tritea, 79.
Triton, worshipped by the Libyans,

543.
Tritonis, Lake, identified with the salt

lake of El Sibkah, 541.
Troas, 227.
Trochilus, 509.
Troezene, town of, 41.
Trogloditae, Aethiopian, 523 ; hunted
by the Garamantes, 560; explained
by the modern razzias, 566.
Trophonius, cave and oracle of, 69.
Typhon, his conspiracy against Osiris,

463 ; overthrown, 465.
Tyras, river, 145 ; identified with the

Dniester, 147.
Tyre, its ancient temple of Heracles,

247.
Tyrian camp settlement in Aegypt,

247, 390.
Tyritae, 154.
Tyrodiza, 132.
Tyrseni, 176.

Urania, worshipped by the Arabians
under the name of Alilat and Alitta,
320.

Utii, 298.

Volga, river. See Araxes.

White Fortress, 390.

White Syrians, or Cappadocians, 239.

Winds, considered by Herodotus to be
fundamental powers of nature, 12 ;
regarded as peculiar properties of
the soil, 13.

Xanthus, 225.

Xerxes, his route through Phocis, 79 ;
progress through Macedonia, 116;
route of the Persian fleet, ib. ; route
of the army, 1 20 ; his canal at Athos,
117 ; catalogue of the nations in his
army and navy, 208, 322 ; his route
through Asia Minor, 237.

Zabatus Major, river, 282.

Zabatus Minor, river, ib.

Zacynthus, island of, 91 .

Zagros, or mountains of Kurdistan,
244.

Zala, 566.

Zalmoxis, a deity of the Getae, 133 ;
Greek account, ib. ; effect of his
teachings on the Thracians, ib. ; his
subterranean dwelling, and re-ap-
pearance, ib. ; Herodotus's opinion,
134.

Zancle, town of, 93.

Zaveces, whose women drove the war
chariots, 555.

Zegeries, 542.

Zeus, identified by Herodotus with the
Kneph and Amun of the Aegyp-
tians, 445 ; especially worshipped in
Thebes, 446 ; no sheep sacrificed,

■ ib. ; mythic story of Zeus and He-
racles, ib. ; horned serpents sacred,
447 ; temple and oracle of Zeus, ib. ;
sacred women, ib.

Zeus, the Lycaean, hill of, 540.

Zona, 128.

Zorcas, 542.

Zoster, 66.

Zuila, 565.

Zurrah, Lake, 292.

JOHN CHILDS AND SON, BUNGAY.

Date Due

OECfH

'OCT 2 g

tdSi

tmum

tfe

L. B. Cat, No. 1 137

CLAPP

3 5002 00160 8707

Wheeler, James Talboys

The geography of Herodotus ... illustrat

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