Air pollutant effects on fetal and early postnatal development
Lei Wang
Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis, California
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Kent E. Pinkerton
Center for Health and the Environment, and from the Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Old Davis Road, Davis, CA 95616Search for more papers by this authorLei Wang
Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis, California
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Kent E. Pinkerton
Center for Health and the Environment, and from the Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Old Davis Road, Davis, CA 95616Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Numerical research on the health effects of air pollution has been published in the last decade. Epidemiological studies have shown that children's exposure to air pollutants during fetal development and early postnatal life is associated with many types of health problems including abnormal development (low birth weight [LBW], very low birth weight [VLBW], preterm birth [PTB], intrauterine growth restriction [IUGR], congenital defects, and intrauterine and infant mortality), decreased lung growth, increased rates of respiratory tract infections, childhood asthma, behavioral problems, and neurocognitive decrements. This review focuses on the health effects of major outdoor air pollutants including particulates, carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur and nitrogen oxides (SO2, NOx), ozone, and one common indoor air pollutant, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). Animal data is presented that demonstrate perinatal windows of susceptibility to sidestream smoke, a surrogate for ETS, resulting in altered airway sensitivity and cell type frequency. A study of neonatal monkeys exposed to sidestream smoke during the perinatal period and/or early postnatal period that resulted in an altered balance of Th1-/Th2-cytokine secretion, skewing the immune response toward the allergy-associated Th2 cytokine phenotype, is also discussed. Birth Defects Research (Part C) 81:144–154, 2007. © 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
REFERENCES
- Ashworth A. 1998. Effects of intrauterine growth retardation on mortality and morbidity in infants and young children. Eur J Clin Nutr 52: S34–S42.
- Beratis NG,Varvarigou A,Katsibris J, et al. 2000. Vascular retinal abnormalities in neonates of mothers who smoked during pregnancy. J Pediatr 136: 760–766.
- Blake KV,Gurrin LC,Evans SR, et al. 2000. Maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy, low birthweight and subsequent blood pressure in early childhood. Early Hum Dev 57: 137–147.
- Bobak M,Leon DA. 1999a. Pregnancy outcomes and outdoor air pollution: an ecological study in districts of the Czech Republic 1986–8. Occup Environ Med 56: 539–543.
- Bobak M,Leon DA. 1999b. The effect of air pollution on infant mortality appears specific for respiratory causes in the postneonatal period. Epidemiology 10: 666–670.
- Bobak M. 2000. Outdoor air pollution, low birth weight, and prematurity. Environ. Health Perspect 108: 173–176.
- Borja-Aburto V,Castillejos M,Gold D, et al. 1998. Mortality and ambient fine particles in Southwest Mexico City, 1993–1995. Environ Health Perspect 106: 849–855.
- Braun-Fahrländer C,Künzli N,Domenighetti G, et al. 1994. Acute effects of ambient ozone on respiratory function of Swiss schoolchildren after a 10-minutes heavy exercise. Pediatr Pulmonol 17: 169–177.
- Braun-Fahrländer C,Vuille J,Sennhauser F, et al. 1997. Respiratory health and long-term exposure to air pollutants in Swiss schoolchildren. SCARPOL Team. Swiss study on childhood allergy and respiratory symptoms with respect to air pollution, climate and pollen. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 155: 1042–1049.
- Brook JS,Brook DW,Whiteman M. 2000. The influence of maternal smoking during pregnancy on the toddler's negativity. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 154: 381–385.
- Cordier S,Chevrier C,Robert-Gnansia E, et al. 2004. Risk of congenital anomalies in the vicinity of solid waste incinerators. Occup Environ Med 61: 8–15.
- Cunningham J,Dockery DW,Speizer FE. 1994. Maternal smoking during pregnancy as a predictor of lung function in children. Am J Epidemiol 139: 1139–1152.
- Dejmek J,Selevan SG,Bene I, et al. 1999. Fetal growth and maternal exposure to particulate matter during pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect 107: 475–480.
- DiFranza JR,Lew RA. 1995. Effect of maternal smoking on pregnancy complications and sudden infant death syndrome. J Fam Practice 40: 385–394.
- DiFranza JR,Aligne CA,Weitzman M. 2004. Prenatal and postnatal environmental tobacco exposure and children's health. Pediatrics 113: 1007–1015.
- Dummer TJ,Dickinson HO,Parker L. 2003. Adverse pregnancy outcomes around incinerators and crematoriums in Cumbria, north west England, 1956–1993. J Epidemiol Community Health 57: 456–461.
- Fanaroff AA,Martin RJ. 1997. Neonatal-perinatal medicine diseases of the fetus and infant, 6th edition. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
- Fried PA,Watkinson B. 1988. 12- and 24-month neurobehavioral follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marijuana, cigarettes and alcohol. Neurotoxicol Teratol 10: 305–313.
- Fried PA,Watkinson B. 1990. 36- and 48-month neurobehavioral follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marijuana, cigarettes, and alcohol. Dev Behav Pediatr 11: 49–58.
- Fried PA,O'Connell CM,Watkinson B. 1992. 60- and 72-month follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marijuana, cigarettes, and alcohol: cognitive and language assessment. Dev Behav Pediatr 13: 383–391.
- Gilboa SM,Mendola P,Olshan AF, et al. 2005. Relation between ambient air quality and selected birth defects, seven county study, Texas, 1997–2000. Am J Epidemiol 162: 238–252.
- Gilliland FD,Berhane K,McConnell R, et al. 2000. Maternal smoking during pregnancy, environmental tobacco smoke exposure and childhood lung function. Thorax 55: 271–276.
- Gilliland FD,Li YF,Peters JM. 2001. Effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy and environmental tobacco smoke on asthma and wheezing in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 163: 429–436.
- Gilliland FD,Berhane K,Li YF, et al. 2003. Effects of early onset asthma and in utero exposure to maternal smoking on childhood lung function. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 167: 917–924.
- Goble MM. 1993. Hypertension in infancy. Pediatr Clin North Am 40: 105–123.
- Gold DR,Burge HA,Carey V, et al. 1999. Predictors of repeated wheeze in the first year of life: the relative roles of cockroach, birth weight, acute lower respiratory illness, and maternal smoking. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160: 227–236.
- Ha EH,Hong YC,Lee BE, et al. 2001. Is air pollution a risk factor for low birth weight in Seoul? Epidemiology 12: 643–648.
- Ha EH,Lee JT,Kim H, et al. 2003. Infant susceptibility of mortality to air pollution in Seoul, South Korea. Pediatrics 111: 284–290.
- Hack M,Breslau N,Weissman B, et al. 1991. Effect of very low birth weight and subnormal head size on cognitive abilities at school age. N Engl J Med 325: 231–237.
- Hanrahan JP,Tager IB,Segal MR, et al. 1992. The effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy on early infant lung function. Am Rev Respir Dis 145: 1129–1135.
- Haustein KO. 1999. Cigarette smoking, nicotine and pregnancy. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 37: 417–427.
- Hertz-Picciotto I,Dostal M,Dejmek J, et al. 2002. Air pollution and distributions of lymphocyte immunophenotypes in cord and maternal blood at delivery. Epidemiology 13: 172–183.
- Hertz-Picciotto I,Herr CE,Yap PS, et al. 2005. Air pollution and lymphocyte phenotype proportions in cord blood. Environ Health Perspect 113: 1391–1398.
- Higgins S. 2002. Smoking in pregnancy [Review]. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 14: 145–151.
- Hofhuis W,de Jongste JC,Merkus PJ. 2003. Adverse health effects of prenatal and postnatal tobacco smoke exposure on children. Arch Dis Child 88: 1086–1090.
- Holberg CJ,Wright AL,Martinez FD, et al. 1993. Child day care, smoking by caregivers and lower respiratory tract illness in the first 3 years of life. Pediatrics 91: 885–892.
- Holladay SD,Smialowicz RJ. 2000. Development of the murine and human immune system: differential effects of immunotoxicants depend on time of exposure. Environ Health Perspect 108( Suppl 3): 463–473.
- Honein MA,Rasmussen SA,Reefhuis J, et al. 2007. Maternal smoking and environmental tobacco smoke exposure and the risk of orofacial clefts. Epidemiology 18: 226–233.
- Joad JP,Ji C,Kott KS, et al. 1995. In utero and postnatal effects of sidestream cigarette smoke exposure on lung function, hyperresponsiveness, and neuroendocrine cells in rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 132: 63–71.
- Joad JP,Bric JM,Peake JL, et al. 1999. Perinatal exposure to aged and diluted sidestream cigarette smoke produces airway hyperresponsiveness in older rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 155: 253–260.
- Klonoff-Cohen H,Lam PK,Lewis A. 2005. Outdoor carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sudden infant death syndrome. Arch Dis Child 90: 750–753.
- Lammer EJ,Shaw GM,Iovannisci DM, et al. 2005. Maternal smoking, genetic variation of glutathione s- transferases, and risk for orofacial clefts. Epidemiology 16: 698–701.
- Landgren O. 1996. Environmental pollution and delivery outcome in Southern Sweden: a study with central registries. Acta Paediatr 85: 1361–1364.
- Lannero E,Wickman M,Pershagen G, et al. 2006. Maternal smoking during pregnancy increases the risk of recurrent wheezing during the first years of life (BAMSE). Respir Res 7: 3.
- Lavezzi AM,Ottaviani G,Matturri L. 2005. Adverse effects of prenatal tobacco smoke exposure on biological parameters of the developing brainstem. Neurobiol Dis 20: 601–607.
- Li YF,Gilliland FD,Berhane K, et al. 2000. Effects of in utero and environmental tobacco smoke exposure on lung function in boys and girls with and without asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 162: 2097–2104.
- Lindbohm ML,Sallmen M,Taskinen H. 2002. Effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke on reproductive health. Scand J Work Environ Health 28( Suppl 2): 84–96.
- Lindley AA,Becker S,Gray RH, et al. 2000a. Effect of continuing or stopping smoking during pregnancy on infant birth weight, crown-heel length, head circumference, ponderal index, and brain:body weight ratio. Am J Epidemiol 152: 219–225.
- Lindley AA,Gray RH,Herman AA, et al. 2000b. Maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy and infant ponderal index at birth in the Swedish Medical Birth Register, 1991–1992. Am J Public Health 90: 420–423.
- Little J,Cardy A,Arslan MT, et al. 2004. United Kingdom-based case-control study. Smoking and orofacial clefts: a United Kingdom-based case-control study. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 41: 381–386.
- Liu S,Knewski D,Shi Y, et al. 2003. Association between gaseous ambient air pollutants and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Vancouver, British Columbia. Environ Health Perspect 111: 1773–1778.
- Loomis D,Castillejos M,Gold DR, et al. 1999. Air pollution and infant mortality in Mexico City. Epidemiology 10: 118–123.
- Macaubas C,de Klerk NH,Holt BJ, et al. 2003. Association between antenatal cytokine production and the development of atopy and asthma at age 6 years. Lancet 362: 1192–1197.
- Maisonet M,Bush TJ,Correa A, et al. 2001. Relation between ambient air pollution and low birth weight in the northeastern United States. Environ Health Perspect 109: 351–356.
- Maisonet M,Correa A,Misra D, et al. 2004. A review of the literature on the effects of ambient air pollution on fetal growth [Review]. Environ Res 95: 106–115.
- Marth E,Sixl W,Bencko V, et al. 1995. People on the garbage dumps of Cairo: a toxicological in vivo model? Cent Eur J Public Health 3: 154–157.
- Martinez FD,Cline M,Burrows B. 1992. Increased incidence of asthma in children of smoking mothers. Pediatrics 89: 21–26.
- Matturri L,Ottaviani G,Lavezzi AM. 2006. Maternal smoking and sudden infant death syndrome: epidemiological study related to pathology. Virchows Arch 449: 697–706.
- Milberger S,Biederman J,Faraone S, et al. 1996. Is maternal smoking during pregnancy a risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children? Am J Psychiatry 153: 1138–1142.
- Noakes PS,Holt PG,Prescott SL. 2003. Maternal smoking in pregnancy alters neonatal cytokine responses. Allergy 58: 1053–1058.
- Oryszczyn MP,Godin J,Annesi I, et al. 1991. In utero exposure to parental smoking, cotinine measurements and cord blood IgE. J Allergy Clin Immunol 87: 1169–1174.
- Pinkerton KE,Joad JP. 2006. Influence of air pollution on respiratory health during perinatal development [Review]. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 33: 269–272.
- Plopper CG,Smiley-Jewell SM,Miller LA, et al. 2007. Asthma/allergic airways disease: does postnatal exposure to environmental toxicants promote airway pathobiology? 1. Toxicol Pathol 35: 97–110.
- Pollock HA. 2001. Sudden infant death syndrome, maternal smoking during pregnancy, and the cost effectiveness of smoking cessation intervention. Am J Public Health 91: 432–436.
- Pope A. 1991. Respiratory hospital admissions associated with PM10 pollution in Utah, Salt Lake, and Cache Valleys. Arch Environ Health 46: 90–97.
- Ritz B,Yu F,Chapa G, et al. 2000. Effect of air pollution on preterm birth among children born in Southern California between 1989 and 1993. Epidemiology 11: 502–511.
- Ritz B,Yu F,Fruin S, et al. 2002. Ambient air pollution and risk of birth defects in Southern California. Am J Epidemiol 155: 17–25.
- Ritz B,Wilhelm M,Zhao Y. 2006. Air pollution and infant death in southern California, 1989–2000. Pediatrics 118: 493–502.
- Rogers JF,Thompson SJ,Addy CL, et al. 2000. Association of very low birth weight with exposures to environmental sulfur dioxide and total suspended particulates. Am J Epidemiol 151: 602–613.
- Sagiv SK,Mendola P,Loomis D, et al. 2005. A time-series analysis of air pollution and preterm birth in Pennsylvania, 1997–2001. Environ Health Perspect 113: 602–606.
- Salam MT,Millstein J,Li YF, et al. 2005. Birth outcomes and prenatal exposure to ozone, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter: results from the children's health study. Environ Health Perspect 113: 1638–1644.
- Schwartz J,Dockery D. 1992. Increased mortality in Philadelphia associated with daily air pollution concentrations. Am Rev Respir Dis 145: 600–604.
- Sherrill DL,Martinez FD,Lebowitz MD, et al. 1992. Longitudinal effects of passive smoking on pulmonary function in New Zealand children. Am Rev Respir Dis 145: 1136–1141.
- Singh SP,Razani-Boroujerdi S,Pena-Philippides JC, et al. 2006. Early postnatal exposure to cigarette smoke impairs the antigen-specific T-cell responses in the spleen. Toxicol Lett 167: 231–237.
- Sopori ML,Goud NS,Kaplan AM. 1994. Immunotoxicology and Immunopharmacology. New York: Raven Press. pp. 413–433.
- Sopori ML,Kozak W. 1998. Mechanisms and effects of immunomodulation by cigarette smoke. J Neuroimmunol 81: 138–146.
- Szekeres-Bartho J. 2002. Immunological relationship between the mother and the fetus. Int Rev Immunol. 21: 471–495. Review.
- Tager IB,Hanrahan JP,Tosteson TD, et al. 1993. Lung function, pre- and post-natal smoke exposure and wheezing in the first year of life. Am Rev Respir Dis 147: 811–817.
- Tashkin DP,Clark VA,Simmons M, et al. 1984. The UCLA population studies of chronic obstructive respiratory disease. VII. Relationship between parental smoking and children's lung function. Am Rev Respir Dis 129: 891–897.
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2006. The health consequences of involuntary exposure to tobacco smoke: a report of the surgeon general. U.S. Department of Health and Human Service. Chapter 10, p 571.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. Respiratory health effects of passive smoking: lung cancer and other disorders. EPA/600/6-90/ 006F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
- Wang X,Ding H,Ryan L, et al. 1997. Association between air pollution and low birth weight: a community-based study. Environ Health Perspect 105: 514–520.
- Wang D,Yu X. 2004. Morphological study on the neural tube defects caused by passive smoking. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu 33: 147–150.
- Wang L,Joad JP,Abel K, et al. 2007. Effects of environmental tobacco smoke on the developing immune system of infant monkeys. J Allergy Clin Immunol 120: 445–451.
- Wasserman GA,Liu X,Pine DS, et al. 2001. Contribution of maternal smoking during pregnancy and lead exposure to early child behavior problems. Neurotoxicol Teratol 23: 13–21.
- Wilhelm M,Ritz B. 2003. Residential proximity to traffic and adverse birth outcomes in Los Angeles County, California, 1994–1996. Environ Health Perspect 111: 207–216.
- Windham GC,Eaton A,Hopkins B. 1999. Evidence for an association between environmental tobacco smoke exposure and birthweight: a meta-analysis and new data. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 13: 35–57.
- Wisborg K,Kesmodel U,Henriksen TB, et al. 2000. A prospective study of smoking during pregnancy and SIDS. Arch Dis Child 83: 203–206.
- Wisborg K,Kesmodel U,Henriksen TB, et al. 2001. Exposure to tobacco smoke in utero and the risk of stillbirth and death in the first year of life. Am J Epidemiol 154: 322–327.
- Woodruff TJ,Grillo J,Schoendorf KC. 1997. The relationship between selected causes of postneonatal infant mortality and particulate air pollution in the US. Environ Health Perspect 105: 608–612.
- Xu X,Ding H,Wang X. 1995. Acute effects of total suspended particles and sulfur dioxides on preterm delivery: a community-based cohort study. Arch Environ Health 50: 407–415.
- Yost G,Buckpitt A,Roth R, et al. 1989. Mechanisms of lung injury by systemically administered chemicals. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 101: 179–195.
- Zwick H,Popp W,Wagner C, et al. 1991. Effects of ozone on the respiratory health, allergic sensitization, and cellular immune system in children. Am Rev Respir Dis 144: 1075–1079.